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Health and Access to Health Services Associated with the Return and Stay in Mexico of Migrants from the U.S.

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This paper analyzes the case of Mexican migrants returning for health reasons to Mexico’s interior-this excludes short cross-border visits. The goals are to measure this phenomenon, to analyze the profile of these migrants, and to identify factors that could increase the likelihood that these migrants will become permanent returnees. We hope that our findings will contribute to the formulation of scenarios about the possible increase of return migration for health reasons, and about the profiles of the returnees.
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Migración y Salud
Migration and Health
Reections and challenges about the health of migrants
Reexiones y retos sobre la salud de la población migrante
Migración y Salud: Reflexiones y retos sobre la salud de la población migrante Migration and Health: Reflections and challenges about the health of migrants
Migración y Salud
Re exiones y retos sobre la salud de la población migrante
Re ections and challenges about the health of migrants
Migration and Health
© Secretaría de Gobernación/Consejo Nacional
de Población (CONAPO)
Dr. Vértiz 852, Colonia Narvarte
C.P. 03020, México, D.F.
http://www.gob.mx/conapo
Iniciativa de Salud de las Américas, Escuela de Salud
Pública, Universidad de California, Berkeley
50 University Hall-MC 7360
Berkeley, CA 94720-7360.
http://hia.berkeley.edu/
Migración y Salud
Re exiones y retos sobre la salud
de la población migrante
Primera edición: septiembre 2017
ISBN: 978-607-427-301-4
https://www.gob.mx/conapo/archivo/
documentos?idiom=es
Se permite la reproducción total o parcial sin  nes
comerciales, siempre que se cite la fuente.
Impreso en México
© Secretariat of the Interior/National Population Council
(CONAPO)
Dr. Vértiz 852, Colonia Narvarte
C.P. 03020, México, D.F.
http://www.gob.mx/conapo
Health Initiative of the Americas, School of Public Health,
University of California, Berkeley
50 University Hall-MC 7360
Berkeley, CA 94720-7360.
http://hia.berkeley.edu/
Migration & Health
Re ections and challenges about
the health of migrants
First Edition: September, 2017
ISBN: 978-607-427-301-4
https://www.gob.mx/conapo/archivo/
documentos?idiom=es
The reproduction of this document for non-commercial
purposes or classroom use is allowed, provided that the
source is cited.
Printed in Mexico
Agradecimientos
Este reporte es producto de la colaboración binacional
entre la Secretaría de Gobernación de México, a través
del Consejo Nacional de Población, la Iniciativa de Salud
de las Américas, Escuela de Salud Pública, Universidad de
California, Berkeley y Universidad de California, Davis.
El reporte ha sido posible gracias al trabajo de las
siguientes personas:
Consejo Nacional de Población ()
Patricia Chemor Ruíz, Secretaria General
Matías Jaramillo Benítez, Director General
de Planeación en Población y Desarrollo
Alejandra Reyes Miranda, Subdirectora de Estudios
Socioeconómicos y Migración Internacional
Alma Rosa Nava Pérez, Jefe de Departamento
de Estudios Socioeconómicos
Universidad de California, Berkeley, Escuela de Salud Pública
Xóchitl Castañeda, Directora de la Iniciativa de Salud de
las Américas ()
Liliana Osorio, Subdirectora, 
Stephany Pizano, Asociada de Programas, 
Caroline Dickinson, Gerente Administrativo, 
Valdemar Díaz, Gerente de Programas Binacionales, 
Carlos Paramo, Asistente de Programas, 
Quisiéramos dar un agradecimiento especial
por su valiosa contribución, a los siguientes revisores:
Bojórquez Ietza, El Colegio de la Frontera Norte
Cruz Rodolfo, El Colegio de la Frontera Norte
Leyva René, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública
Muradas María de la Cruz, Consejo Nacional
de Población
Riden Heather E., Universidad de California, Davis
Szasz Ivonne, El Colegio de México
Wallace Steven P., Universidad de California, Los Ángeles
Diseño, formación y cuidado de la edición
Maricela Márquez Villeda y Myrna Muñoz Del Valle,

Diseño de portada
Myrna Muñoz Del Valle, 
Ilustraciones de portada
Las imágenes mostradas en esta publicación son con
nes educativos, de difusión y no lucrativos, pertenecen
a los creadores del Concurso Nacional de Dibujo y
Pintura Infantil y Juvenil
Corrección de estilo
Cristina Gil Villegas Montiel, 
Traducción al inglés y al español
Matthew James Lorenzen Martiny
Acknowledgements
This report is a result of a binational collaboration
between the Secretariat of the Interior of Mexico, through
the National Population Council, Health Initiative of the
Americas School of Public Health, University of California,
Berkeley and University of California, Davis.
This volume was made possible thanks to the work of the
following people:
National Population Council ()
Patricia Chemor Ruíz, General Secretary
Matías Jaramillo Benítez, General Director of Population
and Development Planning
Alejandra Reyes Miranda, Associate Director of
Socio-Economic Studies and International Migration
Alma Rosa Nava Pérez, Head of Department
of Socio-Economic Studies
University of California, Berkeley, School of Public Health
Xóchitl Castañeda, Director of Health Initiative of the
Americas ()
Liliana Osorio, Deputy Director, 
Stephany Pizano, Program Associate, 
Caroline Dickinson, Administrative Manager, 
Valdemar Díaz, Binational Programs Manager, 
Carlos Paramo, Program Assistant, 
We would like to give a special thank you to the following
reviewers for their valuable contributions:
Bojórquez Ietza, El Colegio de la Frontera Norte
Cruz Rodolfo, El Colegio de la Frontera Norte
Leyva René, National Institute of Public Health
Muradas María de la Cruz, National Population Council
Riden Heather E., University of California, Davis
Szasz Ivonne, El Colegio de México
Wallace Steven P., University of California, Los Angeles
Design, layout and editing
Maricela Márquez Villeda and Myrna Muñoz Del Valle,

Cover design
Myrna Muñoz Del Valle, 
Cover illustrations
The images shown in this publication are for
educational purposes and non-pro t broadcasting,
which belong to the creators of the Concurso Nacional
de Dibujo y Pintura Infantil y Juvenil
Copyediting
Cristina Gil Villegas Montiel, 
English and Spanish Translation
Matthew James Lorenzen Martiny
ÍNDICE
contents
Introducción / Introduction
Capítulo I / Chapter I
Expansión en la cobertura médica para las personas sin documentos
e impactos potenciales en la juventud migrante no acompañada
y en familias en California
Health Coverage Expansion for the Undocumented and Potential Impacts
for Unaccompanied Migrant Youth and Families in California
Óscar F. Gil-García y Kalissa Sawyer
Capítulo II / Chapter II
Uso de servicios de salud por parte de adultos mexicanos
en EE. UU., antes y después de los 65 años: implicaciones
para la atención transfronteriza en salud en México
Use of Health Care by Mexican Adults in the U.S. Before and After Age 65:
Implications for Cross-Border Health Care in Mexico
Arturo Vargas Bustamante
Capítulo III / Chapter III
La salud y el acceso a los servicios de salud asociados al retorno y
permanencia en México de los migrantes provenientes de EE. UU.
Health and Access to Health Services Associated with the Return
and Stay in Mexico of Migrants from the U.S.
Luis Enrique Calva Sánchez y Ana María López Jaramillo
Capítulo IV / Chapter IV
Desigualdades socioeconómicas en el riesgo de contraer enfermedades
crónicas entre mexicanos residentes en EE. UU., sus contrapartes
estadounidenses, y aquellos que viven en México
Socioeconomic Inequalities in the Risk of Chronic Disease Between Mexicans
Residing in the U.S., their U.S. Counterparts, and Those in Mexico
Hiram Beltrán-Sánchez y Fernando Riosmena
Capítulo V / Chapter V
Prevalencia de diabetes mellitus y de obesidad en trabajadores/as
agrícolas latinos/as en California
Prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus and Obesity Among California’s
Latina/o Agricultural Farmworkers
Javier Castro, Sally C. Moyce y Marc B. Schenker
7
11
23
39
49
65
Capítulo VI / Chapter VI
Un estudio piloto de factibilidad para reclutar
y retener a los migrantes mexicanos recién deportados
en investigaciones longitudinales sociales y de salud
A Pilot Feasibility Study to Recruit and Retain Newly Deported Mexican
Migrants into Longitudinal Health and Social Research
Victoria D. Ojeda, José Luis Burgos, Sarah P. Hiller, Miguel Pinedo y Gudelia Rangel
Capítulo VII / Chapter VII
Experiencia migratoria en EE. UU. y estado de salud mental
de hombres y mujeres adultos que viven en Guanajuato, México
U.S. Migration Experience and Mental Health Status Among Adult Men
and Women Living in Guanajuato, Mexico
Bridget K. Gorman, Claire E. Altman y Sergio Chávez
Capítulo VIII / Chapter VIII
El proceso de salud/enfermedad/atención de la depresión en mujeres
migrantes poblanas que residen en la ciudad de Nueva York
The Process of Health/Disease/Attention Regarding Depression in Migrant
Women from Puebla Living in New York City
Nadia Irina Santillanes Allande
Capítulo IX / Chapter IX
Salud mental en hombres michoacanos en una comunidad agrícola
de California, EE. UU.
The Mental Health of Men from Michoacán in a Rural Community
in California, U.S.
Ericka Ivonne Cervantes-Pacheco e Yvette Flores
Capítulo X / Chapter X
Relaciones entre aculturación, estrés de aculturación, y resultados en salud
mental en poblaciones de origen mexicano cerca y lejos de la frontera
Relationships between Acculturation, Acculturation Stress,
and Mental Health Outcomes in Mexican-Origin Populations
in U.S. Border and non-Border Communities
Samuel Ricardo Saenz y Sarah E. Zemore
Conclusiones / Conclusions
Sobre los autores / About the Authors
77
97
109
121
131
147
151
39
Capítulo iii
La salud y el acceso
a los servicios de salud
asociados al retorno
y permanencia en
México de los migrantes
provenientes de EE. UU.
Luis Enrique Calva Sánchez1 y Ana María López Jaramillo2
Introducción
El retorno desde Estados Unidos de migrantes
mexicanos es un tema que cobró relevancia en la
última década. Se asocia principalmente con la falta
de empleo y con las deportaciones desde el interior
de ese país (Calva y Coubes, 2016). Sin embargo,
aunque con menos frecuencia, se ha identi cado
el caso de migrantes que regresan por motivos de
salud. Wallace et al. (2009) y Su et al. (2014)
han mostrado que entre la población mexicana en
Estados Unidos, el no contar con acceso a servi-
cios de salud incrementa la probabilidad de buscar
atención médica en México. Los mismos autores
indican que esto sucede sobre todo entre quienes
residen cerca de la frontera norte de México, por lo
que realizan visitas cortas a esa región y deman-
dan servicios. Sin embargo, también está el caso
de los migrantes que viajan al interior de México
por motivos de salud y permanecen por tempora-
das más largas o incluso por tiempo inde nido, los
cuales han sido menos estudiados.
Con el inicio del periodo presidencial de
Donald Trump en Estados Unidos, se ha buscado
hacer más restrictivo el sistema de salud en ese
país, ya sea proponiendo derogar la Ley de Asis-
tencia Asequible (comúnmente nombrada Oba-
macare), o bien reduciendo el presupuesto a otros
1 CONACYT-El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, México.
2 El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, México.
Chapter iii
Health and Access
to Health Services
Associated with
the Return and Stay
in Mexico of Migrants
from the U.S.
Luis Enrique Calva Sánchez1 y Ana María López Jaramillo2
Introduction
The return to Mexico of Mexican migrants from the
United States is an issue that has become especially
relevant in the last decade. This return is mainly as-
sociated with a lack of employment and with de-
portations from within the U.S. (Calva and Coubes,
2016). However, the less frequent phenomenon of
migrants returning because of health reasons has
also been identi ed. Wallace et al. (2009) and Su
et al. (2014) have shown that, among the Mexican
population living in the U.S., not having access to
health services can increase the likelihood of seek-
ing medical attention in Mexico. These same au-
thors show that this is especially the case regarding
people living close to the Mexican border, which fa-
cilitates short visits across the border and increases
a demand for services in Mexico. However, some
migrants also travel for health reasons to Mexico’s
interior, and stay for extended periods or even in-
de nitely. Very little research has been done re-
garding these individuals.
Since Donald Trump’s inauguration, efforts
have been made to restrict the healthcare system,
for instance through proposals to repeal the Af-
fordable Care Act (also known as Obamacare), or
by reducing the budget for other programs that
bene t low-income individuals. Although these
1 CONACYT-El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, México.
2 El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, México.
programas que atienden a la población con meno-
res recursos. Aunque estas medidas todavía están
en debate, es importante conocer el contexto ac-
tual que viven los migrantes mexicanos en ese país
y los posibles mecanismos que emplean para tener
acceso al servicio de salud, entre los que podría es-
tar el retorno a México. Se debe considerar que cer-
ca del 55 por ciento de los mexicanos de entre 16
y 64 años de edad que reside en Estados Unidos no
tiene acceso a servicios de salud (, 2015).
El siguiente trabajo presenta un acerca-
miento al caso de migrantes mexicanos que regre-
san por motivos de salud al interior de México –no
se trata de visitas de corta duración a la frontera-.
El objetivo es contribuir a dimensionar el fenóme-
no, analizar el per l de estos migrantes, así como
identi car factores que pudieran incrementar la
probabilidad de que estos retornos se convier-
tan en permanentes. Se espera que los hallazgos
presentados contribuyan a delinear escenarios
sobre el posible aumento en el monto de eventos
asociados al retorno por salud y sobre el per l
de los retornados.
Metodología
Para estimar el monto de eventos asociados a indi-
viduos que retornan a México por motivos de salud
y su dinámica, se consideraron los datos del último
quinquenio (2012 a 2016). El per l de los migran-
tes se analizó a partir de estadísticas descriptivas
y para identi car los factores asociados a un posi-
ble retorno permanente se empleó un modelo de
regresión logística. La fuente de datos es la en-
cuesta sobre  ujos migratorios en la frontera norte
de México ( Norte), especí camente del  ujo
procedente de Estados Unidos vía terrestre por
la frontera y vía aérea a los aeropuertos de la
Ciudad de México, Guadalajara, Morelia y León. Se
considera solo a los migrantes que en la encues-
ta declararon residir en Estados Unidos. Para el
análisis descriptivo el número de casos es de 559,
y para el modelo de regresión logística, de 338.
En el análisis del per l de los migrantes se in-
cluyeron como grupos de referencia a aquellos que
proposals are still being debated, it is important
to study the current context in which Mexican
immigrants in the U.S. live, as well as the possible
mechanisms that they use to get access to health
services, including returning to Mexico. It is important
to consider that close to 55 percent of Mexicans
living in the U.S. aged 16 to 64 don’t have access to
health services (, 2015).
This paper analyzes the case of Mexican
migrants returning for health reasons to Mexico’s
interior-this excludes short cross-border visits. The
goals are to measure this phenomenon, to analyze
the pro le of these migrants, and to identify factors
that could increase the likelihood that these mi-
grants will become permanent returnees. We hope
that our  ndings will contribute to the formulation
of scenarios about the possible increase of return
migration for health reasons, and about the pro les
of the returnees.
Methodology
To calculate the number of return events to Mex-
ico for health reasons, as well as their trends, we
used data from the last  ve years (2012 a 2016).
We analyzed the pro le of the migrants using de-
scriptive statistics, and a logistic regression model
was used to identify the factors associated with a
possible permanent return. The source of informa-
tion is the survey on migration  ows on Mexico’s
northern border ( Norte), speci cally regarding
the  ow coming from the U.S. by land, and the  ow
arriving by air to Mexico City, Guadalajara, Morelia
and León. The number of cases for the descriptive
analysis is 559, and 338 cases were considered for
the logistic regression model.
In the analysis of the pro le of the migrants,
we included as reference groups the migrants who
returned for lack of work and those who returned
because they felt discriminated against or couldn’t
adapt. The variables that were chosen for the anal-
ysis are composed of  ve elements: 1) individual
sociodemographic factors (sex, age, employment,
position in the household), 2) health conditions
(with values ranging from 0 to 4, associated with
40
migración y salud • migration and health
regresan por falta de trabajo y a quienes se sintie-
ron discriminados o no se adaptaron. El grupo de
variables elegidas para el análisis está conformado
por cinco ejes: 1) factores sociodemográ cos del
individuo (sexo, edad, situación laboral, lugar en el
hogar), 2) estado de salud (indicador con valores
de 0 a 4, asociados a 4 posibles enfermedades), 3)
acceso al servicio de salud en México y Estados Uni-
dos, 4) redes familiares cercanas en Estados Unidos
(madre, padre, hijos o hermanos), y 5 ) condición
migratoria en el país vecino.
Resultados y análisis
Los datos del  ujo procedente de Estados Unidos
(vía aérea y terrestre), que capta la  Norte,
muestran que en los últimos cinco años el mon-
to de eventos asociados a mexicanos que viajan
al interior de México aumentó de 51 mil a 67 mil
(cabe subrayar que se excluyeron los eventos
relacionados con visitas familiares o turismo).
Estos montos se presentan en la grá ca 1, de la
que se deducen dos aspectos importantes. Prime-
ro, el motivo de retorno que más se incrementó en
esos cinco años fue el relacionado con la salud, 68
por ciento entre 2012 y 2016. Segundo, destaca
además que tratándose de una encuesta orienta-
da a la migración laboral, rubros como la falta de
empleo tengan un peso mucho menor al relacio-
nado con la salud: en 2016 este último represen-
tó 35 por ciento, mientras que la falta de empleo
constituyó tan solo seis por ciento. Lo anterior
muestra la importancia de la salud como motivo
para viajar a México aunque no se puede asegurar
que implique un retorno permanente.
A diferencia de los estudios que emplean
encuestas realizadas en Estados Unidos, en este
trabajo se utiliza la  Norte, que identi ca a los
migrantes que viajan a México y que posiblemente
permanezcan por una estancia larga o de nitiva en
el país. Para analizar su per l y los posibles factores
asociados a un retorno permanente, se estudió el
caso de tres grupos captados en la encuesta se-
gún la causa de su viaje a territorio nacional: falta
de trabajo, no se adaptó, y por motivos de salud.
4 possible diseases), 3) access to health services in
Mexico and in the U.S., 4) close family networks
in the U.S. (mother, father, children, or siblings),
and 5) migratory status in the United States.
Results and Analysis
Data from the  Norte on migration  ows to
Mexico from the U.S. (by air and by land) show that
in the last  ve years the number of return events of
Mexicans travelling to Mexico’s interior increased
from 51 thousand to 67 thousand (we should un-
derscore the fact that  ows associated with family
visits and tourism are excluded). These numbers
are presented in Figure 1, from which two important
aspects can be deduced. The  rst is that health
reasons are the motive for return that increased
the most in the last  ve years, namely, by 68 per-
cent from 2012 to 2016. We can also highlight the
fact that the lack of work is much less important
than health motives, even though the  Norte
is a survey that focuses more on labor migration.
In 2016, 35 percent of return  ows were linked to
health motives, whereas only 6 percent were linked
to a lack of work. These proportions show the im-
portance of health as a reason to travel to Mexico,
although we cannot be sure if these  ows involve a
permanent return.
Unlike studies that use surveys carried out
in the U.S., the  Norte identi es migrants who
travel to Mexico and who may possibly stay for
extended periods or inde nitely. To analyze their
pro les and the possible factors associated with a
permanent return, we studied three groups of in-
dividuals according to their motives for returning
to Mexico: those who returned because of lack of
work, those who couldn’t adapt, and those who
returned for health reasons. Those who returned
for health reasons had the highest age average (47)
as well as the highest percentage of men (71.4).
These migrants were the most well-integrated in
the U.S.: only 3.9 percent didn’t have close family
members in the U.S. and most were citizens or legal
permanent residents (94.3%). However, few were
employed in the last 12 months (17.1%). Regarding
41
capítulo iii • chapter iii
Entre quienes indican que regresan por motivos
de salud, el promedio de edad es el más alto (47
años), así como el porcentaje de hombres (71.4).
Estos migrantes presentan una mayor integración
en Estados Unidos: solo el 3.9 por ciento de ellos no
tiene familiares cercanos en ese país; la gran ma-
yoría es ciudadano o residente legal permanente
(94.3%). Sin embargo, son pocos los que tuvie-
ron empleo en los últimos 12 meses (17.1%).
Los integrantes de este grupo son los que con más
frecuencia reportan enfermedades (28.3%) y los
que cuentan con un mayor acceso a servicios de
salud en Estados Unidos (45.7%), ya sea a través
del empleo, medicare, medicaid y medical assis-
tance (se excluye seguro privado); en contraste,
señalan que en México con menor frecuencia tie-
nen acceso a servicios sanitarios (13.6%), lo que
health, this group had the highest frequency of re-
ported disease (28.3%), and the highest access to
health services in the U.S. (45.7%), either through
their work, through Medicare, Medicaid, or medical
assistance (private insurance is excluded). In con-
trast, few indicated having access to health services
in Mexico (13.6%), which makes us assume that
if they were to require medical services in Mexico
they would pay for them out of pocket.
Regarding those who indicated that they
were returning to Mexico because they felt dis-
criminated against in the U.S. or couldn’t adapt,
few mentioned having once had health problems
detected by health providers, including hyperten-
sion, diabetes, high cholesterol or other problems
(9.1%). Only 14.4 percent indicated having access
to health services in Mexico, and around half stated
0
10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
70 000
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Fue devuelto(a) / Was returned
Motivos de salud / Health reasons
No se adaptó o por discriminación /
Could not adapt or was
discriminated against
Falta de trabajo en Estados Unidos /
Lack of work in the United States
Vivir o trabajar en México
o establecer un negocio /
To live or work in Mexico,
or to open a business
Grá ca 1. Total de eventos de migrantes mexicanos residentes en EE. UU. que viajan a México,
según motivo de retorno, 2012-2016
Figure 1. Total Events of Mexican Migrants Residing in the U.S. Who Travel to Mexico,
According to the Motive of Return, 2012-2016
Nota: Se excluyen los motivos relacionados a visitas familiares o eventos sociales / Note: reasons related to family visits or social events are excluded.
Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de datos de la  Norte (2012-2016) / Source: Own elaboration based on data from the Northern  (2012-2016).
42
migración y salud • migration and health
that they weren’t planning to go back to the U.S.
(49.4%). Finally, the migrants who returned to
Mexico because of lack of work were relatively
young, with an age average of 35; were mainly men
(93%); had the least amount of health problems;
and a very small percentage of them had access to
health services in Mexico (5.7%). This group had
the highest proportion of individuals without family
members in the U.S. (45%).
Several models were tested to explain the
factors associated with a possible permanent return
to Mexico. These models only involved those mi-
grants who indicated returning for health reasons.
The results show that the sex of the migrant isn’t a
signi cant factor that increases or diminishes the
probability of remaining in Mexico; age shows a
positive association (increased age raises the
probability of remaining); being head of the house-
hold diminished the probability, which is due to the
fact that most of the family members lived in the U.S.;
and being employed in the last 12 months also re-
duced the probability of remaining in Mexico, as
well being a U.S. citizen or legal permanent resident.
hace suponer que si requieren servicios médicos en
este país serán cubiertos con sus propios recursos.
Respecto a los que declaran volver porque
se sienten discriminados o no se adaptaron en el
país vecino, son pocos los que mani estan que, en
algún momento, personal médico les detectó pro-
blemas de salud, ya sea hipertensión, diabetes, co-
lesterol u otro (9.1%). En su caso, solo 14.4 por
ciento indica tener acceso al servicio de salud en
México y cerca de la mitad expresa que no volverá
a Estados Unidos (49.4%).
Por último, está el grupo de aquellos que re-
gresan por falta de empleo, es una población relati-
vamente joven, 35 años en promedio, compuesta en
su mayoría por hombres (93%); son quienes reportan
menos problemas de salud y un menor porcentaje
de ellos tiene acceso a la salud en México (5.7%).
Este grupo es el que con mayor frecuencia declara
no tener familiares en Estados Unidos (45%).
Se ensayaron varios modelos para explicar
los factores asociados al posible retorno de nitivo
a México. Éstos se hicieron solo para los migrantes
que indicaron regresar por cuestiones de salud.
Cuadro 1. Características demográ cas de los migrantes mexicanos residentes
en EE. UU. que viajan a México por motivos de salud
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Mexican Migrants Returning to Mexico from the U.S. for Health Reasons
Falta de trabajo /
Lack of work
No se adaptó, se sintió
discriminado /
Couldn’t adapt or felt
discriminated against
Motivos de salud /
Health reasons
Edad media / Average age 35 35 47
Hombres (%) / Men (%) 93.0 64.2 71.4
Jefes de hogar (%) / Head of the household (%) 65.2 39.4 77.1
Sin familiares en EE. UU. (%) /
Without family members in the U.S. (%) 45.0 49.3 3.9
Actividad laboral, 12 últimos meses (%) /
Employed in the last 12 months (%) 76.2 52.3 17.1
Ciudadano o  (%) / Citizen or  (%) 28.1 26.4 94.3
Con problemas de salud (%) / With health problems (%) 5.7 9.1 28.3
Acceso a servicios médicos en México (%) /
Access to health services in Mexico (%) 12.4 14.4 13.6
Acceso a servicios médicos en EE. UU. (%) /
Access to health services in the U.S. (%) 20.7 6.5 45.7
Volverá a EE. UU. (%) / Will go back to the U.S. (%) 71.3 51.6 73.8
Tiempo promedio de la última estancia (años) /
Average time of their last stay (years) 5.5 4.4 2.3
Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de la  Norte (2016) / Source: Own calculations based on the  Norte (2016).
43
capítulo iii • chapter iii
Los resultados muestran que el sexo del migrante
no es signi cativo en cuanto a aumentar o dismi-
nuir la probabilidad de que decida permanecer en
México; la edad presenta una correlación positiva (a
mayor edad incrementa dicha probabilidad), ser jefe
del hogar disminuye la probabilidad debido a que la
mayor parte de la familia de los migrantes vive en
Estados Unidos; el hecho de haber trabajado en los
12 últimos meses también reduce la probabilidad
de permanecer en México, así como el ser ciudadano
o residente permanente en el país vecino del norte.
En parte, los resultados anteriores eran
esperados pues se relacionan con las explicaciones
teóricas del fenómeno, pero lo más relevante no es
eso, sino el efecto que tiene el acceso a la salud en
ese marco analítico. En el caso de Estados Unidos,
la variable no fue signi cativa en el modelo, sin em-
bargo, el acceso en México sí lo fue, así como padecer
enfermedades, incrementando ambas variables la
probabilidad de permanecer en este país.
Todo ello revela que la salud de los migrantes
mexicanos también es un factor relevante a consi-
derar en su motivación para regresar a territorio na-
cional, lo que se combina con otras variables como
la edad y la posibilidad de acceder a servicios de
salud en México. Por tanto, en este país es preciso
estar atentos a la dinámica de dicho fenómeno, ya
These results were partly to be expected,
since they are linked theoretical explanations, al-
though this isn’t what is most relevant. What is
most relevant is the effect that access to health
services has on this analytical framework. In the
case of access to health services in the U.S., this
variable wasn’t signi cant in the model, however
access to health services in Mexico was, as well as
having a disease, with both variables increasing the
probability of remaining in Mexico.
This demonstrates that the health of Mexi-
can migrants is also a relevant factor that must be
considered regarding their motivations to return
to Mexico, combined with other variables such as
age and the possibility of accessing health servic-
es in Mexico. This means that more focus should
be placed on the dynamics of return migration to
Mexico since it can increase because of two factors:
restricted access to health services in the U.S., and
an ageing Mexican population in the United States.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Visits to Mexico because of health reasons by Mex-
icans living in the U.S. are a phenomenon that can
present itself in different ways. On the one hand,
we can mention short-term cross-border visits that
Cuadro 2. Factores asociados al retorno entre migrantes mexicanos residentes
en EE. UU. que viajan a México por motivos de salud (2014-2016)
Table 2. Factors Associated with the Return of Mexican Migrants from
the U.S. to Mexico for Health Reasons (2014-2016)
Sig. Exp(B)
Edad / Age 0.002 1.074
Sexo (Hombre) / Sex (Men) 0.388 0.516
Jefe de hogar / Head of the household 0.001 0.071
Trabajó en los 12 últimos meses / Employed in the last 12 months 0.001 0.105
Presenta enfermedades / With a health problem 0.073 1.754
Acceso a salud en EE. UU. / Access to health services in the U.S. 0.224 1.728
Acceso a salud en México / Access to health services in Mexico 0.044 3.336
Ciudadano o  / Citizen or  0.000 0.031
Tiempo de última estancia / Time of their last stay 0.113 1.000
Nota: Variable dependiente: 0 regresa a Estados Unidos, 1 permanece en México. / Note: Dependent variable: 0 returns to the
United States, 1 remains in Mexico.
Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de la  Norte (2014-2016) / Source: Own calculations based on the  Norte (2014-2016).
44
migración y salud • migration and health
undoubtedly represent an important economic re-
source for local communities in Mexico, but that
re ect the insecurity regarding access to health
services that Mexicans living in the U.S. face. We
can deduce that most of these individuals are au-
thorized migrants, which makes us wonder about
the situation of undocumented migrants, who
don’t have the possibility to cross the border to re-
ceive medical attention in Mexico and then return
to the United States.
The other visits to Mexico because of
health reasons are those carried out by migrants
traveling to Mexico’s interior, which in some cases
will imply long-term or permanent returns. These
migrations to Mexico’s interior because of health
reasons represent a considerable number of events
recorded by the  Norte (23 thousand events in
2016). Close to 24 percent correspond to individ-
uals stating that they wouldn’t return to the U.S.,
a situation that is more likely among those who
have access to health services in Mexico, dem-
onstrating the importance of this condition for
Mexican migrants. However, few individuals have
access to health services in Mexico, representing
only 13 percent of the interviewed migrants.
Since a considerable proportion of Mexicans
don’t have access to health insurance in Mexico,
many migrants returning to Mexico in need of med-
ical attention will have to pay for health services out
of pocket. This situation doesn’t just concern mi-
grants who return because of health reasons, since
very few of those who said they were returning
because of lack of work or because they couldn’t
adapt had access to health services in Mexico
(12% and 14%, respectively). In these cases, a
temporary solution is to enroll in the Popular Health
Insurance program (Seguro Popular de Salud), off-
ered to return migrants for 90 days by Mexico’s
Health Ministry. However, after those 90 days they
must  nd other health coverage, a situation that
may aggravate their health problems if they are not
able to  nd stable work that guarantees access to
necessary health services.
Regarding public policy recommendations,
our suggestion is that the Mexican health system
que puede aumentar por dos factores: la restric-
ción a los servicios sanitarios en Estados Unidos y
el hecho de que envejezca la estructura etaria de
los mexicanos en esa nación.
Conclusiones y recomendaciones
Las visitas a México por motivos de salud que rea-
lizan los mexicanos residentes en Estados Unidos
constituyen un fenómeno que adopta diversas
modalidades. Por un lado, están las visitas de cor-
ta duración a la frontera norte, que sin duda re-
presentan para la economía local una importante
fuente de recursos, pero, por otro lado, re ejan
la precariedad en términos de acceso a servicios
de salud que enfrentan los mexicanos en el país
vecino del norte. Se puede deducir que se trata
principalmente de migrantes con documentos
para cruzar la frontera, lo que motiva a re exionar
sobre la situación de los sin documentos, los cua-
les no tienen la posibilidad de cruzar la frontera,
recibir atención médica y regresar.
Otra modalidad de las visitas por motivos de
salud a México son las que efectúan los migrantes
al interior del país y que en algunos casos derivan
en estancias largas o permanentes. Éstas represen-
tan un monto signi cativo entre los eventos que
capta la  Norte (23 mil en 2016). Dentro de
este número de eventos, cerca de un 24 por ciento
corresponde a migrantes que dijeron que no regre-
sarían a Estados Unidos, situación más probable
entre quienes tienen acceso al servicio de salud en
México, lo que señala la importancia de esta con-
dición entre los migrantes mexicanos, sin embar-
go, son los menos aquellos que participan de este
bene cio, solo 13 por ciento de los entrevistados.
Ya que la proporción de mexicanos que no
cuenta con seguro de salud en México es signi ca-
tiva, ante cualquier padecimiento el migrante que
regresa al país debe pagar con sus propios recursos
la atención en salud requerida. Esta situación no se
limita a los migrantes que vuelven por motivos de
salud, pues entre quienes señalaron regresar por
falta de empleo o por no adaptarse en Estados Uni-
dos, también son muy pocos los que gozan de este
45
capítulo iii • chapter iii
servicio en México (12 y 14%, respectivamente).
Para estos casos una solución temporal es a liarse
al Seguro Popular de Salud que ofrece la Secretaría
de Salud y que otorga a los migrantes una póliza
temporal por 90 días, pero al terminar este tiem-
po deben buscar otro tipo de cobertura de salud,
lo que puede profundizar las consecuencias de sus
problemas de salud si no cuentan con un empleo
estable que les garantice el acceso a los servicios
sanitarios requeridos.
Como recomendaciones de política públi-
ca, se sugiere al sistema de salud mexicano tener
presente el estado de salud de los migrantes que
retornan, sus factores de riesgo y enfermedades
y, de esta manera, evitar que se agudicen pade-
cimientos que representen mayor carga económi-
ca al sistema de salud (28% de los migrantes que
regresan por motivos de salud reportó haber sido
diagnosticado con hipertensión, diabetes, coleste-
rol alto u otro padecimiento).
Por otra parte, es preciso continuar con los
servicios de promoción y prevención que se ofrecen
a través de los consulados mexicanos en Estados
Unidos, puesto que con ello los migrantes, sobre
todo quienes no tienen documentos, pueden acce-
der a servicios que les permiten cuidar de su salud.
Ante el panorama expuesto, el reto del siste-
ma de salud está relacionado con ofrecer servicios
de salud enfocados en el nuevo per l epidemiológi-
co, esto es, la presencia de enfermedades crónicas
y asociadas a la población de mayor edad, que
requieren de tratamientos que en ocasiones pue-
den ser costosos, como se evidencia en el trabajo
de Ullman et al. (2011). Éste sería el per l de la
población que regresa de forma voluntaria por
motivos de salud. Aunque no se incluyó en el pre-
sente trabajo, a dicho escenario habría que agregar
los retornos forzados, que pueden desencadenar
padecimientos como angustia, ansiedad y depre-
sión (Brotherton y Barrios, 2009), así como pro-
blemas vinculados con un aumento en el consumo
de drogas (Ojeda et al., 2011).
consider the health situation of return migrants,
their risk factors, and their diseases. In this way,
it would be possible to prevent aggravating health
problems, which can lead to further economic
strains on the health system (28% of migrants
who returned for health reasons mentioned having
been diagnosed with hypertension, diabetes, high
cholesterol or some other health problem). On the
other hand, it is important to continue the preven-
tion and health promotion services offered by the
Mexican consulates in the U.S., since they allow mi-
grants, especially undocumented migrants, to ac-
cess services that are essential to remain healthy.
The challenge of this scenario for the health
system is related to offering health services focused
on a new epidemiological pro le, namely, the pres-
ence of chronic diseases associated with an ageing
population, that require treatments that are often
very costly, as demonstrated in work done by Ullman
et al. (2011). This would be the pro le of the popu-
lation that voluntarily returns to Mexico for health
reasons. Although not included in this article, we
should add forced returnees to this scenario, who
can suffer from distress, anxiety and depression
(Brotherton and Barrios, 2009), as well as problems
related to a rise in drug abuse (Ojeda et al., 2011).
46
migración y salud • migration and health
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capítulo iii • chapter iii
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Article
Full-text available
Deportees are a hidden yet highly vulnerable and numerous population. Significantly, little data exists about the substance use and deportation experiences of Mexicans deported from the United States. This pilot qualitative study describes illicit drug use behaviors among 24 Mexico-born male injection drug users (IDUs), ≥ 18 years old, residing in Tijuana, Mexico who self-identified as deportees from the United States. In-person interviews were conducted in Tijuana, Mexico in 2008. Content analysis of interview transcripts identified major themes in participants' experiences. Few participants had personal or family exposures to illicit drugs prior to their first U.S. migration. Participants reported numerous deportations. Social (i.e., friends/family, post-migration stressors) and environmental factors (e.g., drug availability) were perceived to contribute to substance use initiation in the U.S. Drugs consumed in the United States included marijuana, heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine, and crack. More than half of men were IDUs prior to deportation. Addiction and justice system experiences reportedly contributed to deportation. After deportation, several men injected new drugs, primarily heroin or methamphetamine, or a combination of both drugs. Many men perceived an increase in their substance use after deportation and reported shame and loss of familial social and economic support. Early intervention is needed to stem illicit drug use in Mexican migrant youths. Binational cooperation around migrant health issues is warranted. Migrant-oriented programs may expand components that address mental health and drug use behaviors in an effort to reduce transmission of blood-borne infections. Special considerations are merited for substance users in correctional systems in the United States and Mexico, as well as substance users in United States immigration detention centers. The health status and health behaviors of deportees are likely to impact receiving Mexican communities. Programs that address health, social, and economic issues may aid deportees in resettling in Mexico.
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Desaceleración de la dinámica migratoria: descenso generalizado de los fl ujos de salida y de retorno de migrantes mexicanos", en La situación demográfi ca de México
  • Luis Y Calva
  • Marie-Laure Coubès
Calva, Luis y Coubès, Marie-Laure (2016), "Desaceleración de la dinámica migratoria: descenso generalizado de los fl ujos de salida y de retorno de migrantes mexicanos", en La situación demográfi ca de México 2016, Consejo Nacional de Población, México, pp. 209-220.