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A track in the Tanana: Forensic analysis of a Late Holocene footprint from central Alaska
Abstract
An ancient feature resembling a shod human footprint was recently discovered adjacent to a buried prehistoric housepit dating to ~1840 cal yr BP at the Swan Point site in central Alaska. Recovery of footprints in this context is rare, prompting us to question if the impression was indeed the result of human activity. We tested if the feature's morphometrics fell within the mean biometrics of a shod human footprint using photogrammetric modeling techniques and classic landmark analyses. The feature was extensively photographed throughout the excavation, and the photos were used to produce three-dimensional photogrammetric digital models from which to obtain landmark biometrics. The results suggest that the feature falls within the expected mean parameters of a prehistoric human footprint. We characterized the footprint as belonging to a healthy, non-obese 9-12-year-old child. The presence of a child and well-constructed house in associated context suggests a healthy prehistoric family. The footprint represents the first of its kind from the subarctic, and the first described from Alaska.
... Over the last few decades, and recently, palaeoichnological studies have been regularly conducted in open-air settings and have benefited from the development of new recording and analysis techniques (Mietto et al. 2003;Berge et al. 2006;Webb et al. 2006;Aramayo 2009;Bennett et al. 2009;Raichlen et al. 2010;Felstead et al. 2014;Ashton et al. 2014;Burns 2014;Bennett et al. 2016;Masao et al. 2016;Panerello et al. 2017;Wiseman and De Groote 2018;Altamura et al. 2018;McLaren et al. 2018;Smith et al. 2019;Moreno et al. 2019). In cave settings, they reached their peak between the 1970s and the early 2000s but were less developed Garcia 1985, 1986;Garcia 1986). ...
... Over the last few decades, and recently, palaeoichnological studies have been regularly conducted in open-air settings and have benefited from the development of new recording and analysis techniques (Mietto et al. 2003;Berge et al. 2006;Webb et al. 2006;Aramayo 2009;Bennett et al. 2009;Raichlen et al. 2010;Felstead et al. 2014;Ashton et al. 2014;Burns 2014;Bennett et al. 2016;Masao et al. 2016;Panerello et al. 2017;Wiseman and De Groote 2018;Altamura et al. 2018;McLaren et al. 2018;Smith et al. 2019;Moreno et al. 2019). In cave settings, they reached their peak between the 1970s and the early 2000s but were less developed Garcia 1985, 1986;Garcia 1986). ...
... For example, a recent publication describes a Late Pleistocene trackway in New Mexico which has associated human and giant ground sloth footprints dating between 15,500-and 10,000-year-old (Bustos et al. 2018). Willey et al. (2009) provide a summary of Holocene human footprints reported from North America, with a more recent discovery reported from Swan (Smith et al. 2019). Overall, however, human tracks appear to be an extremely rare site type across the continent. ...
To better understand the depositional context of Late Pleistocene human tracks found at archaeology site EjTa-4 on Calvert Island, on the Pacific Coast of Canada, we present here the results of an experiment designed to recreate the conditions by which these tracks were formed, preserved and then revealed through excavation. Based on radiocarbon ages on small twigs and the analysis of sediments and microfossils, the interpretation of the site formation processes relate that the tracks were impressed into a clayey soil substrate just above the high tide line between 13,317 and 12,633 calBP. The features were subsequently encapsulated by black sand, which washed over the tracks from the nearby intertidal zone during a storm event. To test this interpretation, we enlisted the aid of high school student volunteers to recreate the conditions by which the tracks were formed. A clayey substrate was prepared in a laboratory setting at the University of Victoria and a few plant macrofossils were placed on top it. This was followed by having the students create tracks in the clay, which were then covered with a layer of sand. Upon excavation of these experimental tracks, we found that they had a very similar character to those found in the field, including the pressing of macrofossils into the clay by the weight of the track maker. These results support the interpretation and chronological assessment of the depositional events that occurred during late Pleistocene times at archaeology site EjTa-4.
... Over the last few decades, and recently, palaeoichnological studies have been regularly conducted in open-air settings and have benefited from the development of new recording and analysis techniques (Mietto et al. 2003;Berge et al. 2006;Webb et al. 2006;Aramayo 2009;Bennett et al. 2009;Raichlen et al. 2010;Felstead et al. 2014;Ashton et al. 2014;Burns 2014;Bennett et al. 2016;Masao et al. 2016;Panerello et al. 2017;Wiseman and De Groote 2018;Altamura et al. 2018;McLaren et al. 2018;Smith et al. 2019;Moreno et al. 2019). In cave settings, they reached their peak between the 1970s and the early 2000s but were less developed Garcia 1985, 1986;Garcia 1986). ...
The morphology of a track depends on many factors that must be considered when interpreting it. An experimental approach is often required to understand the influence of each of these factors, both at the time of the track formation and after its formation. These aspects, which are fairly well documented for tracks found in open-air settings, are much more limited for those found in karst settings. Although caves are stable environments enabling the preservation of archaeological remains, many taphonomical processes can alter the grounds and the walls. Based on the observations made on footprints found in Cussac Cave (Dordogne region of southwestern France), this study focuses on one of these natural phenomena and tests the impact of flooding episodes and the resulting clay deposits on the track’s morphology and topography. Our experiments show that although the general morphology of footprints and some details such as digits are preserved, their topography is altered by successive flooding episodes and clay deposits. The loss of definition of the footprints due to flooding episodes can also lead to misinterpretation. This work sheds new light on the Cussac footprints, while the further development of such experiments will allow us to improve our results and apply them to other settings and sites.
A synthesis of Apachean Origins research relative to the search image outlined in Chapter 3 (Seeking Congruency—Search Images, Archaeological Records, and Apachean Origin) of the edited volume.
Hand and foot dimensions used for stature estimation help to formulate a biological profile in the process
of personal identification. Morphological variability of hands and feet shows the importance of generating
population-specific equations to estimate stature. The stature, hand length, hand breadth, foot length
and foot breadth of 250 young Slovak males and females, aged 18–24 years, were measured according to
standard anthropometric procedures. The data were statistically analyzed using independent t-test for
sex and bilateral differences. Pearson correlation coefficient was used for assessing relationship between
stature and hand/foot parameters, and subsequently linear regression analysis was used to estimate stature.
The results revealed significant sex differences in hand and foot dimensions as well as in stature
(p < 0.05). There was a positive and statistically significant correlation between stature and all measurements
in both sexes (p < 0.01). The highest correlation coefficient was found for foot length in males
(r = 0.71) as well as in females (r = 0.63). Regression equations were computed separately for each sex.
The accuracy of stature prediction ranged from ±4.6 to ±6.1 cm. The results of this study indicate that
hand and foot dimension can be used to estimate stature for Slovak for the purpose of forensic field.
The regression equations can be of use for stature estimation particularly in cases of dismembered bodies.
Predator-prey interactions revealed by vertebrate trace fossils are extremely rare. We present footprint evidence from White Sands National Monument in New Mexico for the association of sloth and human trackways. Geologically, the sloth and human trackways were made contemporaneously, and the sloth trackways show evidence of evasion and defensive behavior when associated with human tracks. Behavioral inferences from these trackways indicate prey selection and suggest that humans were harassing, stalking, and/or hunting the now-extinct giant ground sloth in the terminal Pleistocene.
Little is known about the ice age human occupation of the Pacific Coast of Canada. Here we present the results of a targeted investigation of a late Pleistocene shoreline on Calvert Island, British Columbia. Drawing upon existing geomorphic information that sea level in the area was 2–3 m lower than present between 14,000 and 11,000 years ago, we began a systematic search for archaeological remains dating to this time period beneath intertidal beach sediments. During subsurface testing, we uncovered human footprints impressed into a 13,000-year-old paleosol beneath beach sands at archaeological site EjTa-4. To date, our investigations at this site have revealed a total of 29 footprints of at least three different sizes. The results presented here add to the growing body of information pertaining to the early deglaciation and associated human presence on the west coast of Canada at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum.
The accurate and precise collection of three-dimensional (3D) context and provenience data is of critical importance for archaeologists. Traditional square-hole methods are being augmented by new digital techniques to increase the accuracy and precision with which 3D data are collected. Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry is an emerging digital technique that is becoming more widespread for collecting 3D data of archaeological sites and features. We are using handheld digital cameras and ground-based SfM to record accurate and precise 3D context and provenience data at the scale of the excavation unit and profile during rockshelter excavations in the Lower Pecos Canyonlands of Texas. By combining SfM with traditional excavation methods, we collect 3D data on excavation units, layers, features, and profiles without excavating in grid-bound square units. SfM provides a straightforward and flexible method to excavate based on the stratigraphy and logistical pragmatics, which further aids in assigning precise context and provenience to recovered artifacts and samples. This article describes how ground-based SfM serves as a basic recording tool during excavation and shows that, by applying ground-based SfM methods to excavation, archaeologists can collect more, and more accurate, data than with traditional square-hole methods.
Foot length has been shown to be a reliable dimension for estimation of stature. However, phalanges of the foot are very small bones and their length may not be proportional to person's stature. Thus, we hypothesized that foot length measured excluding the phalanges, the truncated foot length, may be more reliable in stature estimation than full foot length. This study, therefore, aimed at comparing the accuracy of the regression equations derived from the truncated foot length and the full foot length. The study recruited a sample of 32 young adults (16 males and 16 females) aged from 20 to 35 years. Lateral radiographs of the right feet were obtained for each subject in a bilateral standing position while maintaining equal weight on both feet. Standing height of the participants was measured with a stadiometer. Truncated foot length and full foot length were measured on the lateral radiographs of the foot. Independent t-test was used to check for mean differences in the dimensions between genders. Linear regression analysis was used to determine the equations for stature estimation. Intra and inter-observer reliability were calculated from four precision estimates: absolute technical error of measurement (aTEM), relative technical error of measurement (rTEM), coefficient of reliability (Rr) and coefficient of variation (Cv). All the dimensions measured were significantly larger in males than females. Linear regression equations were derived for estimation of stature using both the truncated foot length and full foot length. The regression equations derived from truncated foot length have larger correlation coefficient, coefficient of determination, adjusted coefficient of determination as well as smaller standard error of estimation than those derived from full foot length. All the precision estimates showed that the measurement errors are within acceptable limits. This study suggests that even if the full foot length is available, excluding the phalanges may give more accurate stature estimation.
Microblades are one of the stone tools that spread toward the northeast with wide range human migration after the Last Glacial Maximum in Beringia, and are key to understanding the first migrants to the New World. The Yubetsu method was one of the most widely spread techniques in western Beringia. In Eastern Beringia, Swan Point is the only archaeological site bearing microcores from the East Beringian tradition phase I (here after EBt-I) layer which were produced by the Yubetsu method. There are three archaeological complexes in interior Alaska following EBt-I: the Nenana, Chindadn, and Denali. The former two complexes bear distinctive Chindadn points and the latter has Campus type microcores. Cultural continuity of the local complexes has been argued for decades in discussing the peopling of the Americas. However, because the distinctive Yubetsu microcore is only found at the Swan Point site, discussing cultural connection among these complexes based on microcores is difficult. The Chindadn point was also considered to have roots in the Old World, but no candidate yet has been confirmed. In contrast, large numbers of microblades have been found in EBt-I, Chindadn and Denali complexes, and also in the Northern Archaic tradition, although their production methods are different. In this study we use microblades from EBt-I and Northern Archaic tradition components at Swan Point to elucidate co-occurrence of microcore technological and microblade morphological changes. Results from this study show continuous production of microblades for slotted osseous point weaponry was stable through time. Given that cultural change occurred, the results provide a framework to discuss the continuity of hunting weapon technology and its relationship with hunting prey, indirectly, and with zooarchaeological studies.
Bipedalism is a defining feature of the human lineage. Despite evidence that walking on two feet dates back 6-7 Ma, reconstructing hominin gait evolution is complicated by a sparse fossil record and challenges in inferring biomechanical patterns from isolated and fragmentary bones. Similarly, patterns of social behavior that distinguish modern humans from other living primates likely played significant roles in our evolution, but it is exceedingly difficult to understand the social behaviors of fossil hominins directly from fossil data. Footprints preserve direct records of gait biomechanics and behavior but they have been rare in the early human fossil record. Here we present analyses of an unprecedented discovery of 1.5-million-year-old footprint assemblages, produced by 20+ Homo erectus individuals. These footprints provide the oldest direct evidence for modern human-like weight transfer and confirm the presence of an energy-saving longitudinally arched foot in H. erectus. Further, print size analyses suggest that these H. erectus individuals lived and moved in cooperative multi-male groups, offering direct evidence consistent with human-like social behaviors in H. erectus.
The Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave has yielded 1550 identifiable fossil elements – representing the largest single collection of fossil hominin material found on the African continent to date. The fossil chamber in which Homo naledi was found was accessible only through a near-vertical chute that presented immense practical and methodological limitations on the excavation and recording methods that could be used within the Cave. In response to practical challenges, a multimodal set of recording and survey methods was thus developed and employed: (1) recording of fossils and the excavation process was achieved through the use of white-light photogrammetry and laser scanning; (2) mapping of the Dinaledi Chamber was accomplished by means of high-resolution laser scanning, with scans running from the excavation site to the ground surface and the cave entrance; (3) at ground surface, the integration of conventional surveying techniques as well as photogrammetry with the use of an unmanned aerial vehicle was applied. Point cloud data were used to provide a centralised and common data structure for conversion and to corroborate the influx of different data collection methods and input formats. Data collected with these methods were applied to the excavations, mapping and surveying of the Dinaledi Chamber and the Rising Star Cave. This multimodal approach provides a comprehensive spatial framework from individual bones to landscape level
Questions surrounding the chronology, place, and character of the initial human colonization of the Americas are a long-standing focus of debate. Interdisciplinary debate continues over the timing of entry, the rapidity and direction of dispersion, the variety of human responses to diverse habitats, the criteria for evaluating the validity of early sites, and the differences and similarities between colonization in North and South America. Despite recent advances in our understanding of these issues, archaeology still faces challenges in defining interdisciplinary research problems, assessing the reliability of the data, and applying new interpretative models. As the debates and challenges continue, new studies take place and previous research reexamined. Here we discuss recent exploratory excavation at and interdisciplinary data from the Monte Verde area in Chile to further our understanding of the first peopling of the Americas. New evidence of stone artifacts, faunal remains, and burned areas suggests discrete horizons of ephemeral human activity in a sandur plain setting radiocarbon and luminescence dated between at least ~18,500 and 14,500 cal BP. Based on multiple lines of evidence, including sedimentary proxies and artifact analysis, we present the probable anthropogenic origins and wider implications of this evidence. In a non-glacial cold climate environment of the south-central Andes, which is challenging for human occupation and for the preservation of hunter-gatherer sites, these horizons provide insight into an earlier context of late Pleistocene human behavior in northern Patagonia.
The Archaeologist's Field Handbook: North American Edition is a hands-on manual that provides step-by-step guidance for archaeological field work. Specially designed for students (both undergraduate and graduate) and avocational archaeologists, this informative guide combines clear and accessible information on doing fieldwork with practical advice on cultural heritage management projects. The Archaeologist's Field Handbook presents firmly grounded (pun intended!), essential, practical archaeological techniques and clearly elucidates the ethical issues facing archaeology today. A wealth of diagrams, photos, maps and checklists show in vivid detail how to design, fund, research, map, record, interpret, photograph, and present archaeological surveys and excavations. The Archaeologist's Field Handbook is an indispensable tool for new and aspiring archaeologists as they venture into the field.
The early Tanana River valley sites are divided into two broad periods. The earliest lithic assemblages, 14,000 to 13,000 calibrated years B.P., at Healy Lake (Chindadn complex) and Swan Point (East Beringian tradition) are distinguished by the presence of microblade and burin technology reminiscent of Dyuktai culture; whereas, the earliest assemblages at Broken Mammoth (Zone 4) and the Mead site lack evidence for this technology. All of these early assemblages are incorporated into an interval called the Beringian Period, at which time a land connection existed between Alaska and Siberia. A similar pattern is exhibited for assemblages dating between about 13,000 and 9500 calibrated years B.P. (the Transitional Period), i.e., Healy Lake, Swan Point, and Gerstle River have microblade and burin technology assigned to the Denali complex, while Broken Mammoth (Zone 3) and Mead do not. Recovered fauna (e.g., elk, bison, small mammals, and birds) show a broad-based economic strategy during both periods. Sample size, seasonality, and site specific activities are explored as possible explanations for the differences among these lithic assemblages.
The Archaic stage was defined as a cultural response to post-Pleistocene landscapes dominated by trees. The Early Holocene produced an open landscape susceptible to colluviation, flooding, and gullying thus placing severe constraints on archaeological site preservation. The paleo-environment surrounding the development of the Northern Archaic can be reconstructed from pan-Alaska proxy records of flooding, loess fall, and soil formation at Onion Portage and Tingmiukpuk, and using a variety of studies of lake levels, glacial expansions, and slope activations, supplemented by loess and dune stratigraphy from the Tanana and Nenana valleys. The development of the Northern Archaic correlates with the retreat of the treeline, but may be inversely related to the development of peatland and forest landscapes at 7 kya in that the treeless Brooks Range attracted Archaic peoples north as the sphagnum peatland developed in the interior. © 2008 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System.
Some of the painted caves in southern France preserve human footprints from the Ice Age of 17,000 years ago. Research has so far dealt with them sparsely and through a morphometric approach only. In 2013 three indigenous hunters/trackers from the Kalahari had an opportunity to read several spoor accumulations in four caves on the basis of their indigenous knowledge. As a result of this morpho-classificatory approach to track reading they produced new hypotheses on prehistoric cave visitors. Most spectacular is the narrative which the trackers generated from the footprints not far from the clay bison at Tuc d’Audoubert. Further research is planned to inspect more tracks and look into the epistemological status of the indigenous tracking method.
http://journals.cambridge.org/repo_A96suOhuy.bgac
The finger print recognition, face recognition, hand geometry, iris recognition, voice scan, signature, retina scan and several other biometric patterns are being used for recognition of an individual. Human footprint is one of the relatively new physiological biometrics due to its stable and unique characteristics. The texture and foot shape information of footprint offers one of the powerful means in personal recognition. This work proposes a footprint based biometric identification of an individual by extracting texture and shape based features using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Independent Component Analysis (ICA) linear projection techniques. PCA is a commonly used technique for data classification and dimensionality reduction and ICA is one of the most widely used blind source separation technique for revealing hidden factors that underlie sets of random variables, measurements, or signals. In this study PCA and ICA have been compared for footprint recognition using distance classification techniques such as Euclidean distance, city block, cosine and correlation. Experimental results show that ICA performs better than PCA for footprint recognition.
The moccasin assemblage Julian Steward recovered from the Promontory caves in 1930-31 provides a novel example in which material culture can be used to understand the structure of an AD thirteenth century population. Several studies shed light on the relationship between shoe size, foot size, and stature. We develop an anthropometric model for understanding the composition of the Promontory Cave population by using moccasin size as a proxy for foot size. We then predict the stature of the individual who would have worn a moccasin. Stature is closely related to age for children, subadults and adult males. Although there are predictable sex and age factors biasing moccasin discard practices, moccasin dimensions suggest a relatively large proportion of children and subadults occupied the Promontory caves. This bison and antelope hunting population appears to have thrived during its stay on Promontory Point. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The skeletal record of tyrannosaurids is well-documented, whereas their footprint record is surprisingly sparse. There are only a few isolated footprints attributed to tyrannosaurids and, hitherto, no reported trackways. We report the world’s first trackways attributable to tyrannosaurids, and describe a new ichnotaxon attributable to tyrannosaurids. These trackways are from the Upper Cretaceous (Campanian - Maastrichtian) of northeastern British Columbia, Canada. One trackway consists of three tridactyl footprints, and two adjacent trackways consist of two footprints each. All three trackways show animals bearing southeast within an 8.5 meter-wide corridor. Similarities in depth and preservation of the tyrannosaurid tracks indicate that these three trackways were made by track-makers walking concurrently in the same direction. These trackways add significantly to previous osteology-based hypotheses of locomotion and behavior in Tyrannosauridae by providing ichnologic support for gregariousness in tyrannosaurids, and the first record of the walking gait of tyrannosaurids.
Archaeologists using airborne data can encounter a large variety of frame images in the course of their work. These range from vertical aerial photographs acquired with very expensive calibrated optics to oblique images from hand-held, uncalibrated cameras and even photographs shot with compact cameras from an array of unmanned airborne solutions. Additionally, imagery can be recorded in one or more spectral bands of the complete optical electromagnetic spectrum. However, these aerial images are rather useless from an archaeological standpoint as long as they are not interpreted in detail. Furthermore, the relevant archaeological information interpreted from these images has to be mapped and compared with information from other sources. To this end, the imagery must be accurately georeferenced, and the many geometrical distortions induced by the optics, the terrain and the camera tilt should be corrected. This chapter focuses on several types of archaeological airborne frame imagery, the distortion factors that are influencing these two-dimensional still images and the necessary steps to compute orthophotographs from them. Rather than detailing the conventional photogrammetric orthorectification workflows, this chapter mainly centres on the use of computer vision-based solutions such as structure from motion (SfM) and dense multi-view stereo (MVS). In addition to a theoretical underpinning of the working principles and algorithmic steps included in both SfM and MVS, real-world imagery originating from traditional and more advanced airborne imaging platforms will be used to illustrate the possibilities of such a computer vision-based approach: the variety of imagery that can be dealt with, how (accurately) these images can be transformed into map-like orthophotographs and how these results can aid in the documentation of archaeological resources at a variety of spatial scales. Moreover, the case studies detailed in this chapter will also prove that this approach might move beyond current restrictions of conventional photogrammetry due to its applicability to datasets that were previously thought to be unsuitable for convenient georeferencing.
Stature estimation is of particular interest to forensic scientists for its importance in human identification. Footprint is the one of the valuable physical evidence encountered in the crime scenes and can facilitate in narrowing down the suspects and establishing the identity of the criminals. Analysis of footprints helps in estimation of an individual’s stature because of the existence of strong correlation between footprint and height. Foot impressions are still found at crime scenes, since offenders often tend to remove their footwear either to avoid noise or to gain better grip in climbing walls, etc., while entering or exiting. In Asian countries like India there are people who still have the habit of walking barefoot. The present study aims to estimate the stature in a sample of 2040 bilateral footprints collected from 1020 consented healthy adult male Indian Tamils, an ethnic group in Tamilnadu state, India ranging in age from 19 to 42 years and to generate population-specific equations using simple linear regression statistical method. All footprint lengths exhibit statistically positive significant correlation with stature (p-value < 0.01) and the correlation coefficient (r) ranges from 0.546 to 0.578. The accuracy of the regression equations was verified by comparing the estimated stature with actual stature. Regression equations derived in this research can be used to estimate stature from the complete or even partial footprints among Indian Tamils.
An important component of forensic investigation is the identification of deceased (and increasingly living) individuals, which is often the role of the forensic anthropologist. One of the most valuable steps towards identification is via a biological profile, developed through the application of population specific standards. In disaster victim identification scenarios, fleshed feet are often recovered in footwear; footprints are another potential source of trace evidence found at crime scenes. In medico-legal investigations, feet and footprints can be useful for extrapolating living height, it is thus expedient to determine whether sex can be estimated from the same anthropometric data.The aim of the present study is to develop accurate sex estimation standards for a contemporary Western Australian population from measurements of the feet and footprints. The sample comprises 200 adults (90 males, 110 females). Three bilateral linear measurements were taken from each foot and seven bilateral measurements were acquired from static footprints obtained using a Podograph.A precision test was first conducted to assess data accuracy and reliability. Measurement data are then analysed using a range of parametric statistical tests. Results show that males were significantly (P<. 0.001) larger than females for all foot and footprint measurements; cross-validated sex classification accuracies ranged from 71% to 91%. Although in many instances the sex bias was large (>±5%), this study provides viable alternatives for estimating sex in Western Australian individuals with accuracy equivalent to established standards developed from foot bones.
Forensic Podiatry: Principles and Methods, Second Edition has been completely updated to reflect the latest developments and advancements in this changing field. New additions to the book, from the previous edition, include all new chapters on the expert witness, Frye Test, and Daubert Standard, as well as revised theories on gait analysis, bare footprint identification, and footwear examination. The new edition includes extensive case studies and an international compilation of current best practices. Since this text’s first publication, the field of forensic podiatry has rapidly developed from relative obscurity to a dynamic, internationally recognized discipline. Forensic podiatrists have been able to advance improvements in the field, both in widening the range of applications and deepening the practice through improved techniques to strengthen evidentiary conclusions. Written by two pioneers in the field, Forensic Podiatry includes over one hundred detailed illustrations to serve as an invaluable resource for students, practicing forensic podiatrists, legal professionals and those new to the profession.
We contribute to the understanding of megafauna extinction and human dispersal in subarctic eastern Beringia by focusing on changes in the trophic dynamics of the large mammal community as well as the ecological role of humans as a predator and competitor. We reconstruct habitat use by megafauna and humans throughout the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary based on zooarchaeological data and stable isotope ratios of collagen. Our results are consistent with habitat heterogeneity and availability being important factors in the changing abundance of large herbivores. We argue that an increase in herbivore diversity and biomass at the beginning of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial and a relative lack of competitors favored the initial human colonization of subarctic eastern Beringia. As herbivore resources dwindled later in the Late Glacial, people increasingly relied on bison and wapiti. By efficiently extracting some of the highest-ranked resources in the landscape, people are likely to have contributed to the trophic displacement or regional extirpation of other large predators. The ecological patterns that we observe in subarctic eastern Beringia are consistent with a mixture of both top-down and bottom-up controls over biotic turnover.
Previous work from the United States has shown close correlation between an individual's size and weight and predetermined measurements taken from his or her footprints. This study investigated the situation in a group of United Kingdom subjects, for which there is at present little data. Walking and standing footprints, fleshed foot measurements and stature were obtained from 105 adult volunteers from the staff and students of the United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals, London. The footprints were measured using predetermined landmarks and the results analysed to investigate the significance of the parameters in a forensic context. Inter-observer and intra-observer errors were within acceptable limits.
Regression equations were calculated for foot length from various parameters measured on a footprint. Topinard's finding that foot length represents between 14.9%–18.1% of stature in a given individual was confirmed. Footprint length showed a normal distribution in both sexes but male footprint length was greater than female footprint length for any given height.
This study provides a quantitative method that could be used both with partial footprints and in the absence of dermatoglyphics to assist in the identification of an individual in a forensic context.
The 1990s will probably be remembered in the history archaeology as the age of GIS. At that time, the introduction of digital technology in archaeological research was in its infancy. Software and hardware had only a limited capacity to integrate the range and complexity of information involved in the archaeological process. Inthe following decade, however, the archaeological community became gradually aware of the need for a consistency of approach across the whole framework of archaeology, while rapid advances in software and hardware made it possible to envisage a significant renewal of the whole or large parts of the archaeological process. This was the age of the Digital Revolution.
Technological advancements in recording systems are rapidly surpassing traditional, analogue methods of archaeological documentation. With their employment, the accuracy of recording has increased, as has the ability to disseminate digitally this information to the wider archaeological audience. The utilisation of Agisoft Photoscan for the production of highly accurate 3 dimensional models, along with a variety of secondary outputs, such as digital elevation models, are such examples. However, with reporting of archaeological excavations still firmly rooted in 2-dimensional documentation, these new technological pursuits need to produce data that is accessible to both the digital and analogue worlds. Photogrammetry has the ability to combine these two seemingly disparate techniques, with highly accurate 3 dimensional models and the production of orthophotographs, which have the ability to replace traditional analogue methods of planning. These models generally incorporate survey data from total stations or Differential GPS in order to provide a higher level of accuracy.
However, numerous projects, both academic and commerical, are unable to utilise surveying equipment due to environmental or political difficulties or cost. Yet the addition of a simple right angled frame can provide both the scale and planar projection planes necessary to produce a detailed and correctly orientated (non-georeferenced) orthophotograph, which can be turned into a highly accurate digitised plan. The benefits of this method are pronounced. Not only does a photogrammetric orthophoto allow the creation of a plan that is more accurate (under 1 cm) than those recorded in the field using traditional analogue planning methods, but the time required to produce such a plan is significantly reduced. This in turn reduces the cost of recording in the field. This method provides a simplified yet highly accurate recording technique that bridges the old and new worlds of archaeological methodology.
Stabilized sand sheets and dunes hold a remarkable amount of information on paleoenvironmental conditions under which late Quaternary landscapes evolved in northern subarctic regions. We provide the results of a project focused on understanding the development of lowland environments and ecosystems, including dunes and sand sheets, which were critical habitat for early human occupations in subarctic regions. Our study area is the Rosa-Keystone Dunes Field in the Shaw Creek Flats of the middle Tanana River basin, interior Alaska, one of the oldest continuously occupied areas in North America (14,000 cal. BP to present). The disturbance regimes of reactivated dunes and associated forest fire cycles between 12,500 and 8800 cal. BP fostered a unique early to mid-successional mixed vegetation community including herbaceous tundra, shrubs, and deciduous trees. This environment provided key habitats for large grazers and browsers, significant resources for early hunter-gatherer populations in central Alaska. After 8000 cal. BP, the expansion of black spruce and peatlands heightened landscape stability but decreased the range of local habitat for large grazers. Hunter-gatherer economic change during these periods is consistent with human responses to local and regional landscape disturbance and restructuring.
Footprints recovered from crime scenes are valuable in establishing personal identity (e.g. sex, stature and body weight) in forensic investigations. While standards for doing this have been documented in several populations, no study to date has demonstrated stature and weight estimation standards from footprint dimensions among Ghanaian subjects. The purpose of this study is to verify the utility of footprints in stature and body weight estimation in 50 Ghanaian female students at Koforidua polytechnic, Ghana. Bilateral footprints were obtained from all the study subjects and seven measurements were collected from each footprint. The results indicated a positive correlation between all the footprint dimensions and stature/weight. The correlation coefficients for weight estimation (R = 0.190–0.313) were not as high as stature estimation (R = 0.353–0.676). Linear regression analysis indicated higher error estimates (SEE) for body weight estimation (10.94–11.23 kg) than for stature estimation (6.64–8.66 cm...
This study aims to develop Korean-specific equations for stature estimation and compare their performance to existing techniques. Due to a lack of appropriate reference samples in Korea, equations were generated using a hybrid method on 113 Korean unknown skeletons. In this approach, estimates using the anatomical method [1] were regarded as actual stature. Results revealed that new equations produced more accurate and precise estimates than previous techniques. In addition, due to consistent body proportions of Korean populations through time and space, new equations are applicable to Korean skeletons regardless of their temporal and geographic origins. For obtaining statures at death, particularly in a forensic context, an age correction factor, 0.0426cm/year, should be applied.
More than 4500 years ago, a group of prehistoric cavers negotiated complicated cave passages and discovered a side passage approximately two hours' journey from the cave's entrance. They explored the passage toward its end, came to the termination of the easily traveled portion, turned around and exited the same way they entered, leaving footprints and torch material in the cave mud. Their remarkable journey is the earliest evidence of human cave use in the eastern United States. A total of 274 relatively complete footprints remained in the passage's moist substrate when the passage was re-discovered approximately 30 years ago. The malleable deposits were pliable then, and remain so today. This pliability made the prints' preservation vulnerable to subsequent events, agents and processes. The purposes of this paper are to describe the prehistoric cavers' accomplishments, document the alteration of the prints, and describe efforts to study and preserve them.
This study clarifies the anthropometric variations of the Japanese face by presenting large-sample population data of photo anthropometric measurements. The measurements can be used as standard reference data for the personal identification of facial images in forensic practices.
To this end, three-dimensional (3D) facial images of 1126 Japanese individuals (865 male and 261 female Japanese individuals, aged 19–60 years) were acquired as samples using an already validated 3D capture system, and normative anthropometric analysis was carried out. In this anthropometric analysis, first, anthropological landmarks (22 items, i.e., entocanthion (en), alare (al), cheilion (ch), zygion (zy), gonion (go), sellion (se), gnathion (gn), labrale superius (ls), stomion (sto), labrale inferius (li)) were positioned on each 3D facial image (the direction of which had been adjusted to the Frankfort horizontal plane as the standard position for appropriate anthropometry), and anthropometric absolute measurements (19 items, i.e., bientocanthion breadth (en-en), nose breadth (al-al), mouth breadth (ch-ch), bizygomatic breadth (zy-zy), bigonial breadth (go-go), morphologic face height (se-gn), upper-lip height (ls-sto), lower-lip height (sto-li)) were exported using computer software for the measurement of a 3D digital object. Second, anthropometric indices (21 items, i.e., (se-gn)/(zy-zy), (en-en)/(al-al), (ls-li)/(ch-ch), (ls-sto)/(sto-li)) were calculated from these exported measurements.
As a result, basic statistics, such as the mean values, standard deviations, and quartiles, and details of the distributions of these anthropometric results were shown. All of the results except “upper/lower lip ratio (ls-sto)/(sto-li)” were normally distributed. They were acquired as carefully as possible employing a 3D capture system and 3D digital imaging technologies. The sample of images was much larger than any Japanese sample used before for the purpose of personal identification. The measurements will be useful as standard reference data for forensic practices and as material data for future studies in this field.
"Forensic podiatry is defined as the application of sound and researched podiatric knowledge and experience in forensic investigations; to show the association of an individual with a scene of crime, or to answer any other legal question concerned with the foot or footwear that requires knowledge of the functioning foot". Forensic podiatrists can contribute to forensic identification by associating the pedal evidence with the criminal or crime scene. The most common pedal evidence collected from the crime scene is in the form of footprints, shoeprints and their tracks and trails. Forensic podiatrists can establish identity of the individuals from the footprints in many ways. The analysis of bare footprints involves the identification based on the individualistic features like flat footedness, ridges, humps, creases, an extra toe, missing toe, corns, cuts, cracks, pits, deformities, and various features of the toe and heel region. All these individualistic features can link the criminal with the crime. In addition to these, parameters of body size like stature and body weight as well as sex can also be estimated by using anthropometric methods. If a series of footprints are recovered from the crime scene, then parameters of the gait analysis such as stride/step length and general movement of the criminal can be traced. Apart from these, a newly established biometric parameter of the footprints i.e. footprint ridge density can also be evaluated for personal identification. Careful analysis of the footprint ridge density can give an idea about the sex of the criminal whose footprints are recovered at the scene which can further help to reduce the burden of the investigating officer as the investigations then may be directed toward either a male suspect or a female suspect accordingly. This paper highlights various aspects of Forensic Podiatry and discusses the different methods of personal identification related to pedal evidence.
Trailed and incised drawings on the mud-covered walls of an East Tennessee cave have been identified as the artwork of Mississippian Indians who visited this sanctuary about 800 years ago. These unique drawings, called "mud glyphs" because of their similarity to certain petroglyphs found in the southeastern United States, include abstract designs, symbols, zoomorphic forms and anthropomorphic figures. Symbols such as the forked eye and the "bird-man" anthropomorphic representation correlate with six radiocarbon dates on torch charcoal that range between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries A.D. The occurrence of thousands of superimposed elements on the walls indicates that Mud Glyph cave was a Mississippian period sanctuary and further suggests that certain southeastern caves during this period were used for ritual activities rather than for mining as they were during earlier Woodland and Archaic times.
Since 1997, more than 207 archaeological objects and 1700 faunal remains have been recovered from 43 melting ice patches in the southern Yukon. The artifacts range in age from a 9000-year-old (calendar) dart shaft to a 19th-century musket ball. This paper provides an update on Yukon ice patch research and summary data on select areas of research conducted since 2003. More than 200 radiocarbon dates have been run on ice patch archaeological and faunal materials, and these data allow us to observe and comment on apparent temporal trends. Analysis undertaken since 2003 has improved our understanding of the development and maintenance of hunting technologies, including dart shaft design, wood selection, and point styles. Of particular interest is the description of three different techniques for the construction of throwing darts and the observation of stability in the hunting technology employed in the study area over seven millennia. Radiocarbon chronologies indicate that this period of stability was followed by an abrupt technological replacement of the throwing dart by the bow and arrow after 1200 BP.
In the Central American Republic of El Salvador the Rio Lempa divides the eastern third of the country from the rest. In its lower course it flows through a large coastal plain, built up in geologically recent times by river deposits and sediments from the volcanic chain in the north (San Vicente and the volcanic group of the east). From west (Balsam range) to east (Colinas de Jucuarán) this plain has a length of about 100 km. and a width of 20 km. Some 20 years ago the nearly flat land, which slopes only very slightly from the volcanic chain to the Pacific coast, was still heavily wooded, but since then most of the forest has been cleared away for cotton crops, only leaving tiny patches of the original vegetation. In this process a number of archaeological sites were revealed, especially east of the Rio Lempa, in the department of Usulután.
Geometric Morphometrics for Biologists is an introductory textbook for a course on geometric morphometrics, written for graduate students and upper division undergraduates, covering both theory of shape analysis and methods of multivariate analysis. It is designed for students with minimal math background; taking them from the process of data collection through basic and more advanced statistical analyses. Many examples are given, beginning with simple although realistic case-studies, through examples of complex analyses requiring several different kinds of methods. The book also includes URLâs for free software and step-by-step instructions for using the software.
Background
The definition of flatfoot remains analytically vague. Toward the purpose of establishing the standard values of the foot length and arch height in childhood and adolescence, large-scale measurement and investigation of the foot arch were conducted using a three-dimensional foot- measuring device.
Methods
Measurements of foot structure were performed on 5,311 boys and 4,844 girls, for a total of 20,310 feet of 10,155 children aged from 6 to 18 years during the 2006 - 2008 year period. The foot length (FL) and the navicular height (NH) were measured, and the arch height ratio (AHR (%) = NH x 100/FL) was calculated.
Results
The FL in boys showed an extension from the age of 6 to 14 and nearly reached a plateau at 14 years old. In girls, the extension was observed from the age of 6 to 13, and the FL came to a plateau at 13 years old. The NH in boys increased from the age of 6 to 13. In girls, the NH increased from the age of 8 to 13. The AHR, presented a normal distribution, and no differences were observed in the distribution for all ages in boys and girls. In boys, the AHR was almost flat until 11 years old, but elevated in the 11 - 13 year age period. In girls, the AHR was almost flat until 10 years old, but elevated in the 10 - 12 year age period.
Conclusions
We are certain that the data demonstrating the normal growth of the foot contribute to the diagnosis and treatment of the failure of the foot to thrive.
We performed a series of neoichnological experiments with elephants to investigate the relationship between the various factors involved in controlling megafaunal footprint formation. Our ultimate goal was to provide a means to calculate original sedimentary properties of fossil-footprint–bearing siliciclastic rocks, especially those containing sauropod dinosaur tracks. Previous semiquantitative and model-based research identified multiple variables that influence footprint creation and preservation, but no rigorous, empirically based models have been constructed. We conducted track-making trials with experimental sediments and one adult female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and one adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in a zoo setting. Data collected included track dimensions, sediment particle size distribution, sediment bulk density (r b), volumetric water content of the sediment (h v), and trackmaker walking velocity (v) and weight. We performed multiple regression analysis with a backward elimination technique to obtain the following relationship: V n ~0:812h v 2 {26:4h v {157r b {20:5vz518 where V n is track volume normalized by track length, measured in cm 2 , h v is in percent, r b is measured in g/cm 3 , and v is measured in m/s. We demonstrate the utility of this equation by calculating the original moisture content of sauropod-track–bearing siltstone and sandstone beds in the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation. Original water content values are extremely useful for paleoenvironmental and paleohydrological interpretations of sediments and paleosols. Furthermore, paleoclimate studies can benefit greatly from original soil moisture values calculated from megafaunal footprints associated with paleosols. INTRODUCTION
Holocene variability in technology and subsistence economy in central Alaska is examined through a coarse-grained synthesis of dated components. Remarkable continuity during this period is evident in the ubiquity of microblade technology and the breadth of diet, including large and small mammals, birds, and fish. Significant changes in technology can, however, be tracked around 6000 and 1000 cal B.P.1 These seem to relate to changes in resource scheduling and land use strategies, shifts from residential to logistic mobility, and increased reliance on storage. Heuristic scenarios integrating these elements are offered to explain these transitions.
Animal tracks and hominid footprints have been discovered in the Laetolil Beds of Tanzania. The volcanic-ash deposits were formed between 3.5 and 3.8 million years ago by the eruption of the volcano sadiman. The Laetolil Beds are north of Lake Eyasi and southeast of Lake Victoria. Early hominid remains have been found near the area. The footprint tuff lies near the top of the fossil-bearing strata. Thousands of animal tracks have been discovered in the ash deposits. The savanna supported an abundant and diverse animal population. The ash buried animal bones, teeth, eggs and dung. Fossilized twigs, shrubs, thorns and leaves provide information on the plants of the savanna. The hominid tracks are proof that they walked fully upright. No stone tools have been found in the Laetolil Beds.-F.McElhoe Jr
Holocene footprints have been reported from several locations around the UK coast preserved within inter-tidal sediments. These sediments are normally fine-grained silts, sands and clays. Here we report potential human footprints preserved in the lower of two inter-tidal peat units exposed on the foreshore at Kenfig in South Wales. The lower peat layer pre-dates 3810±40 BP and its maximum age is constrained by two dates, one of 4930±50 BP and another of 5110±50 BP. The prints may have formed at any point within this time interval. Both peat units formed in a salt marsh, or fen environment, as indicated by the analysis of both diatoms and pollen and have been tentatively assigned to the middle Wentlooge Formation within the Holocene lithostratigraphy established for the Severn Estuary Holocene sequence. The footprints were digitised using an optical laser scanner and are compared to other Holocene human footprints exposed on the Sefton Coast in North West England. In comparison the Kenfig prints have poor anatomical form which may be the result of both the substrate and post-depositional modification. The paper demonstrates the value of using optical laser scanning in the data capture and analysis of transitory archaeological and geological trace evidence.
Traditionally, research on offender profiling has investigated the relationships between offender behaviour and offender characteristics. However, evidence about offender behaviour is not the only evidence available at a crime scene. This study extends previous collaborative research between forensic scientists and psychologists (e.g. Bond & Sheridan, Journal of Forensic Science, 52, 1122–1128, 2007) to investigate how forensic science can assist in the psychological process of offender profiling. Specifically, the potential utility of footwear impression evidence in the task of offender profiling is investigated. Using 155 domestic burglaries, the consistency and homology assumptions underlying offender profiling were tested. Evidence supportive of both assumptions is reported. A multiple regression analysis identified significant relationships between cost of footwear and employment status, age of offender, and the relative deprivation of his/her residence.