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SEKCIA ANGLICKÉHO JAZYKA A ANGLOFÓNNYCH KULTÚR
35
POSITIVE CLASSROOM ATMOSPHERE AS A TOOL FOR DEVELOPING FLUENCY
IN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
BARBORA PAVELOVÁ
Stupeň, forma, ročník štúdia: Mgr., denná, 2.
Študijný program: učiteľstvo anglického jazyka a literatúry a slovenského jazyka a literatúry
Konzultant: doc. PaedDr. Ivana Cimermanová, PhD.
Kľúčové slová: fluency, atmosphere in the classroom, teacher's beliefs
Pozitívna atmosféra v triede ako nástroj k rozvíjaniu fluencie v jazykovej triede
Abstrakt
Hlavným cieľom príspevku je poskytnúť výsledky zo štúdie realizovanej na Gymnáziu Konštantí-
nova, 2 s cieľom skúmať, či môže byť pozitívna atmosféra v triede nástrojom k plynulosti jazykového
prejavu študentov. Pozitívna atmosféra v triede je do podstatnej miery spojená s interakciou medzi
učiteľom a študentom. Štúdia pozostáva z teoretického základu, predstavenia a interpretácie výsled-
kov získaných vo výskume. Obidve časti výskumu dokazujú, že medzi plynulosťou, správnosťou
jazykového prejavu a pozitívnou atmosférou v triede je zreteľné prepojenie.
1 Introduction
It is believed that communication belongs among the one of the most significant tools for convey-
ing ideas and messages among humans. While a variety of definitions of the term communication
have been suggested, this paper will use the definition suggested by Watzlawick, Beavin and Jackson
(1969, in Vybíral, 2000) who saw it as a medium for the expression of human relations. Therefore,
communication in the classroom is not just about the delivery of information, yet it reflects human
attitude, too. “Learners have a predisposition to be intrinsically motivated. However, it is the educa-
tional environment that determines whether learners will be intrinsically motivated or whether re-
wards and punishments will be necessary to control students’ behaviour.” (Korb, 2012, p. 5 – 6).
Whereas it is important what the teacher wants to say, it is crucial to realize how the teacher says it
and to whom the message is addressed. Gavora (2005) specifies basic communication rules that may
be applied in the lesson. Firstly, an effective communication between the teacher and student demands
taking into consideration a great number of factors, such as age, character, student’s status, their atti-
tude towards the subject, non-verbal expressions, so that the message will be understood. Secondly, it
is about the recipient’s listening comprehension, although it also includes interaction between them.
“Creating a positive and engaging classroom atmosphere is one of the most powerful tools teachers
can use to encourage children's learning and prevent problem behaviours from occurring.” (Conroy et
al., 2009, p. 18).
2 Positive atmosphere, interaction and teacher’s beliefs
Many experienced teachers would probably agree that positive classroom atmosphere is an invigo-
rating element that motivates not only students, but also teachers. Furthermore, it is inevitably inter-
connected with interaction. Brown (1994, p. 159) defines interaction as “the heart of communication”.
Gavora (1999) emphasizes constant interaction of the teacher at the lesson. How powerful might be an
expression of teacher’s support or understanding comment. Besides this, interaction links with certain
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areas that might enhance interaction between teacher and students. Straková (2013, p. 35) lists these
areas:
eye contact,
gestures / facial expression,
position / movement,
attention spread,
voice,
rapport.
Apart from that, risk taking is another issue that might enhance fluency as well as accuracy. Brown
(1994, p. 24) suspects that “successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of themselves as
vulnerable beings yet capable of accomplishing the tasks, must be willing to become ‘gamblers’ in the
game of language, to attempt to produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute
certainty.” Brown (1994) considers language ego as a significant part of a speaker. Realizing langua-
ge ego, students might become perfectly capable of acquiring foreign language more naturally. “As
human learn to use a second language, they also develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting
– a second identity. The new ‘language ego’, intertwined with the second language, can easily create
within the learner a sense of fragility, a defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions.” (ibid., p. 22).
3 Fluency and Accuracy
Using Fluency and Accuracy in language learning is a significant matter at the Secondary Schools.
Hedge (2000, p. 54) presumes that “the term ‘fluency’ relates to language production and it is normal-
ly reserved for speech. It is the ability to link units of speech together with the facility and without
strain or inappropriate slowness, or undue hesitation.” Fluency reflects generally a ‘flow’ of the in-
formation of a certain language transmitted through the speech without any hindrances. This is sup-
ported by Brumfit (1984, p. 56), who believed that fluency meant “to be regarded as natural language
use.” The main goal in learning a foreign language analyses usually an attempt how to use the langua-
ge naturally, fluently. Hedge (2000, p. 54) draws attention to the list of the three types of fluency,
proposed by Faerch, Haastrup and Phillipson:
semantic fluency: linking together propositions and speech acts,
lexical-syntactic fluency: linking together syntactic constituents and words,
articulatory fluency: linking together speech segments.
4 Accuracy
There are different explanations of accuracy which might help to perceive better the proper mea-
ning of the word. At the same time, different definitions may enrich one another. Oxford Dictionary
provides two meanings of the word accuracy. The first meaning is defined as “the quality or state of
being correct or precise”, which indicates in general exact quality without any errors. The second
meaning from the technical field denotes accuracy as “the degree to which the result of a measure-
ment, calculation, or specification conforms to the correct value or a standard” (‘accuracy’). However,
accuracy in language is often mentioned in connection with fluency. According to Guillot (1999, p.
22) “accuracy is acquiring greater salience as a determinant of fluency in modern usages of the term
as applied to foreign languages.” Both, fluency and accuracy, are interconnected and in the language
work as a ‘pair’ one with another. There is a generally complementary relation between them. Both of
them are crucial for the learner. In many cases fluency and accuracy are related to the need of the
learner at the Secondary Level for passing Maturita exam. Nevertheless, the effort to become fluent as
well as accurate only because of the School Leaving Certificate would discover only a superficial
reason. In all respects, if there is a learner who is seriously interested in language, their endeavour for
fluency and accuracy in a foreign language does not end only in Maturita exam. Many students want
to be fluent and accurate at the same time because of the higher goals – such as their future, perhaps
leaving abroad, job necessity or their personal desires.
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5 Background of the research, aims and methods
The principal aim of the research was to explore whether positive classroom atmosphere could be
regarded as a tool for developing Fluency in Language classroom and if so, in what manner. We had a
chance to observe, note and compare the results of understanding and application of Fluency and Ac-
curacy at the selected Secondary School in Prešov. There were several possibilities how to do a rese-
arch. After taking into account pros and cons of the different methods for the research, an observation
of the lessons and interview with teachers were considered to be the best choice. Consequently, the
foundation for the research began as an observation of two different English Language lessons with
two different English Language teachers and two different groups of students – first graders and third
graders. In addition, we held an interview with four English Language teachers working in the same
institution, Secondary Grammar School Konštantínova, 2, at the beginning of February 2016.
6 Research questions
Each of the teachers was asked to answer eleven questions concerning awareness of fluency and
accuracy, differences between fluency and accuracy, the aims of the teachers and students, use of the
activities identified with fluency and accuracy, specification of the activities which help students to
prepare for Maturita exam better, skills which might support more fluency or accuracy and question
regarding error correction in respect to fluency and accuracy. All transcripts of the interviews will be
attached in the part Appendices. Each of the respondents answered with the insight of their personal
experience, however, all of them were surprised by some questions. Teachers tended to respond simi-
larly.
7 Description of observations
The first part of the research comprises observations of the lessons. Observations were held during
the English Language lessons. The first observation was realized during the conversation lesson in the
third grade. The topic was Geography of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
and the United States of America. The second observation was made during the grammar lesson in the
first grade. There was a different topic, Revision of Mass Media, Present Perfect and Past Simple. We
were sitting at the back of the classroom, trying to capture the atmosphere and all progress of the les-
son. The observation sheets below (see Observation no. 1 and Observation no. 2) present short des-
cription of fluency of teacher’s and students’ speech, atmosphere in the classroom and teacher’s be-
liefs (including comments on risk taking and language ego). Moreover, detailed illustration of the
lessons is attached in Appendices (see Teaching observation reports 1 and 2).
Observation no. 1
School: Gymnázium Konštantínova, 2, 080 65, Prešov
Date: 10th February 2016 Time: 13:30 – 14:15
Level: B1 Grade: III.
TOPIC: Geography of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United
States of America
1) Fluency
Teacher
Teacher was fluent during the whole course of the lesson. She had to translate into Slovak
language just occasionally. However, her fluency was sometimes interrupted by other short
ideas that were told in Slovak.
Students
Students were trying to do their best. Their speech and their answers were not as fluent as
desired. We would expect higher fluency as they are third graders. They gave an impression
of being under the pressure. The fear of making a mistake caused the fact that they were shy
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38
or answered in short sentences or by few words. Therefore, their reactions were slow with us-
ing lots of hesitation sounds. On the other hand, it is important to mention that we spent with
them just one lesson.
2) Atmosphere in the classroom
Students were quiet during the lesson. Even though it was a conversation lesson, the fact
that the teacher did not assess students orally was striking for this observation. If students said
the correct answer, the teacher would continue with the next question. It is definitely not
a good way to enhance fluency. A possible explanation for this might be that Initiation – Re-
sponse – Follow-up scheme is crucial in the lesson. If there is a lack of feedback from the
teacher, students might become discouraged to provide any answer at all. Another factor that
contributed to the unnatural atmosphere was teacher’s lack of the eye contact with her stu-
dents. It is pointless to expect students to give a variety of answers, if the teacher does not
look into their eyes. In addition, while giving an answer, students would not look into the
teacher’s eyes which reflected that it goes vice versa, too. Not addressing students by their
names also reduced their motivation and willingness to talk in the lesson. The teacher would
say: “You, what do you think about geography?” Pronoun you seems more impersonal in this
situation. On the other hand, if the teacher addresses students by name and asks: “Mary, what
do you think about geography?”, Mary knows that the teacher addresses her personally. It re-
veals the fact that the teacher knows her name, knows her own students and makes an effort
to call them by their names.
3) Teacher’s beliefs
The teacher believes that her students are fluent. After the lesson the teacher concluded
that the students react in this way almost every lesson and they were not shy. Therefore, we
have to take into account that each group of students is different and has their own pace in
learning.
Risk taking
The teacher was asking, not encouraging for risk taking. If students did not know the word
needed, they applied the word-formation they have already mastered. In spite of this fact, stu-
dents were afraid of making a mistake.
Language ego
We spent just one lesson with this group, yet after the observation it might be assumed that
language ego of these students is not as high as we would have expected, it is somewhere in
the middle. They were a bit afraid to express themselves, however, their speech was fluent
and accurate at the same time. We observed just minor mistakes and still have to take into
consideration that they are in the third grade of Secondary School where making mistakes is
generally accepted by teachers.
Observation no. 2
School: Gymnázium Konštantínova, 2, 080 65, Prešov
Date: 12th February 2016 Time: 8:55 – 9:40
Level: B1 Grade: I.
TOPIC: Mass Media (revision), Present Perfect and Past Simple (revision)
1) Fluency
Teacher
Both teacher and students were fluent during the whole course of the lesson. The teacher
did not repeat herself, always paraphrased the instructions. Correction of mistakes was pro-
SEKCIA ANGLICKÉHO JAZYKA A ANGLOFÓNNYCH KULTÚR
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vided appropriately. The teacher was using ‘helpers’ while oral testing, for instance, she put
the questions that may expand students’ answers: “How often do you buy newspapers or
magazines? What kind of newspapers or magazine do you buy?” Her attitude reflected an ef-
fort to penetrate into the depth of the topic with using appropriate vocabulary. Additional
questions were a stimulus for speaking. The teacher held contact with all group, not just with
few individuals.
Students
The speech of the students was fluent (use of English only). If they did not know needed
vocabulary, they were describing situations that made them think how to use a foreign lan-
guage.
2) Atmosphere in the classroom
The atmosphere in the classroom was extraordinary and very pleasant. The teacher had a
great sense of humour which made the lesson attractive. While doing exercises as a group, the
teacher always added a funny comment, for instance: “We train running for short sentences”
to the student who forgot worksheet when coming in front of the board twice and obviously
had to come back twice. The teacher was using nice greetings, always said a name or nick-
name of a student, for example: “But, Sabi…” She was also holding eye contact with all stu-
dents and appeared totally relaxed while teaching. If students did not understand, the teacher
immediately explained what was needed. Her American accent was another factor that made
the lesson interesting.
In addition, human attitude of the teacher was absolutely striking. The teacher was encour-
aging all her students, especially one who belonged to the weakest students in the past (Alex).
What’s more, in the discussion afterwards the teacher mentioned Alex’s unwillingness to
learn English few months ago. What was interesting in the interaction between the teacher
and Alex was the moment when the teacher spotted correct answer from Alex. The teacher
touched his arm with a smile and said: “You are absolutely right! Super, Alex. Super, my
dear!” Alex’s facial expression was full of joy and encouragement to study hard. During the
second exercise (put the correct form of the verb to make Present Perfect) the teacher ap-
pealed to Alex: “Alex, you are a clever boy. Explain the reason.” Besides, the teacher re-
quired an answer from Alex in the third exercise: “Alex, an expert in grammatical struc-
tures…” His answer was correct and the teacher’s reaction was: “Super!” According to this
observation, we can infer that teacher’s attitude will challenge Alex’s endeavour to study
English Language more.
There were also others positive comments made by teacher that we noticed, such as:
“Nice! Super! Right! Absolutely right! Okay! Yes, okay.” If the teacher spotted a mistake, she
would say: “Is it possible? Correct your sentence.” It is interesting to note that the teacher re-
acted on a mistake immediately.
3) Teacher’s beliefs
The teacher believes that her students are fluent and accurate at the same time. The teacher
was intrinsically motivated, used word-assessment mostly and was encouraging. The appreci-
ation of the correct answer aroused students’ motivation. She went through the subject matter
with an appropriate pace: three students were orally tested at the beginning of the lesson, stu-
dents did six exercises, the teacher explained unknown, revised at the end of the lesson and
finally gave instructions. Bringing her own materials for the lesson was another key factor
that refers to her effort. While doing exercises, the teacher did not want to hear the right an-
swer only, she always asked why students answer in such a way.
12. ŠTUDENTSKÁ VEDECKÁ A UMELECKÁ KONFERENCIA
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Risk taking
The teacher encouraged her students for risk taking. Especially during working with Pre-
sent Perfect, students were not shy of trying to come up with their own version of Past Parti-
ciple. Students had no fear of making a mistake.
Language ego
We spent just one lesson with this group, yet after the observation we may conclude that
Language ego of these students is relatively high. They were not afraid to express themselves
and their speech was fluent and accurate at the same time. We observed just minor mistakes
and still have to take into consideration that they are in the first grade of Secondary School.
8 Comparison and analysis of the observations
The data gathered in the observation suggest that different approaches in teaching show different
results. Exploration of teachers’ and students’ fluency was very first area for the research. The obser-
vation of the first lesson indicates that although the teacher was fluent, higher fluency would have
been expected from students as they are third graders. Moreover, one interesting finding was that stu-
dents were shy, appeared as not ready to give an answer, using hesitation sounds most of the time.
Observation demonstrated that students were not given enough time for thinking and, consequently,
they felt under the pressure. Additionally, students were assessed scarcely orally and it might be as-
sumed that students were hesitant because of this reason. On the other hand, fluency and interaction
during the second lesson was completely different. Surprisingly, these students were first graders. All
of them were active, willing to respond and not afraid of making mistakes. The teacher was encoura-
ging and assessed every single answer. Straková (2013, p. 35) highlights the idea that “since we all
differ in how we approach things outside the classroom, teaching necessarily reflects this personal
nature.” These results further support the idea that the more teacher encourages students, the more
fluent their speech is. However, it is not a generalization as we provided an observation of two lessons
only.
Apart from fluency and accuracy we researched atmosphere in the classroom. As mentioned abo-
ve, Initiation – Response – Follow-Up scheme is pivotal at the lesson. To put it in other words, inter-
action is crucial. We are pretty sure that positive results of the second lesson were influenced by the
teacher’s attitude and the interaction. There is a clear interconnection between interaction and tea-
cher’s manner and style. Teacher in the first grade not only addressed students by their names, she
would also motivate them positively to do their best. Moreover, she would remind them that they are
familiar with the topic or vocabulary. Apart from that, students felt secure in what they were saying.
The perfect example was first grader, Alex, who has made a huge progress in learning English. Despi-
te bad marks during the first half of the year, the teacher had motivated him in such a way that Alex’s
fluency boosted. He would not be totally accurate, however, he had no fear of making a mistake. Fur-
thermore, positive atmosphere and teacher’s attitude (including intrinsic motivation, gestures, facial
expressions, holding eye contact, addressing students by their names, positive comments, evaluation
and appreciation of their work) supported students’ fluency. On the contrary, the most obvious finding
to emerge from the observation of third graders is that if the teacher does not take into consideration
factors mentioned above, students might be less fluent, more insecure or feel indifference towards
learning English. However, it has to be reminded that the findings of the observations can not be re-
garded as a general fact. Above all, we have to take into account other factors such as former expe-
rience, differences in students’ language level, mood, condition and their intrinsic motivation.
The last part of the observation was supposed to discover and demonstrate teacher’s beliefs, risk
taking and language ego of the students. Teachers’ beliefs are positive in both classes. Both teachers
want their students to be fluent and accurate. Similarly, fluency and accuracy might be supported by
the intrinsic motivation of the teacher. Moreover, both teachers brought their own materials for the
lesson which could be regarded as a personal attempt to make a lesson more fascinating. The issue of
risk taking, however, demonstrates that positively motivated students might be encouraged more for
risk taking in comparison with those who were not. This is supported by Brown (1994, p. 19) who
highlights that “human beings are universally driven to act, or ‘behave’, by the anticipation of some
SEKCIA ANGLICKÉHO JAZYKA A ANGLOFÓNNYCH KULTÚR
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sort of reward – tangible or intangible, short term or long term – that will ensue as a result of the be-
haviour.” On the other hand, it might be assumed that motivated learner may be willing to try risk
taking for their own sake, for their inner reward. Brown (1994) notes that “the most powerful rewards
are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the behaviour stems from needs,
wants, or desires within oneself, the behaviour itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally admi-
nistered reward is necessary at all.” (ibid, 1994, p. 20). It is interesting to note that Language ego was
another element that has shown discrepancy. It might be supposed that students that were motivated
during the whole lesson, were more secure in using language, whereas those afraid of risk taking,
were more hesitant.
9 Data analysis and discussion of the results
The second part of the research brings data gained from the interviews. This chapter is divided into
six main sections, each of which presents the results relating to one of the research questions. In the
first question respondents were asked to indicate whether teachers/students are aware of the difference
between fluency and accuracy and, subsequently, if it is reflected in the lessons. Teachers claimed that
they are aware of the difference between fluency and accuracy. Naturally, as they noted, it is reflected
in the lessons. They prepare students for the Maturita exam so that students may be fluent, as well as
accurate in English language. For the second part of the question – Is it reflected in the lessons or how
is it reflected? – teachers did not expand their answers. Unfortunately, teachers did not present any
example of that issue. As one interviewee said: ‘They (students) must be able to speak, read and write
fluently. On the other hand, they should be good at accuracy. However, there should be balance bet-
ween the two.’ These answers allow us to infer that activities and exercises during the lesson are ba-
sed on both, fluency and accuracy.
The next question examined the common aim of the students and teachers – if they have a com-
mon aim or not (F/A). Teachers said that they have a common aim and added that they want their
students to be fluent and accurate in language not only because of the Maturita exam, but also for their
future. Surprisingly, one of the interviewee noted that it depends. According to her, students feel that
accuracy is regarded by teachers as more important sometimes. Consequently, they prefer activities
which are focused on fluency rather than accuracy.
Second part in this interview sought to determine which activities can be identified with each focus
(F/A), which activities teachers/students prefer and which activities help students prepare for Maturita
exam better. The majority of those who responded to this issue felt that fluency might be identified
with speaking activities, particularly role-plays, picture stories, games, debates, dialogues or collabo-
rative tasks. With reference to accuracy, teachers use testing activities, grammar drilling, error analy-
sis, gap-filling, but also speaking activities with special attention to accurate use of grammar and
collaborative tasks. On the one hand, students prefer speaking activities, mainly role-play because
they may pretend being someone else and it helps them to express themselves better. In the role of
another identity all the language barriers disappear and there is no fear of making mistakes.
Another question for the asked was whether there is a difference in developing fluency in different
skills. According to respondents, there is a difference in speaking and reading skills when developing
fluency. For instance, speaking activities enable students to speak during the lessons in order to elimi-
nate their language barriers. In addition, there is also a dissimilarity in developing fluency in reading.
Students read and ignore the unknown vocabulary, trying to comprehend text as a whole. Moreover,
teachers suppose that speaking and reading skills are associated with fluency and at the same time
writing and reading skills are interconnected in a greater extent with accuracy.
The last part of the interview shows a correlation between evaluation and error correction. It is ne-
cessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by evaluation: “Language display for evaluation tended
to lead to a concern for accuracy, monitoring, reference rules, possibly explicit knowledge, problem
solving and evidence of skill getting. In contrast, language use requires fluency, expression rules, a
reliance on implicit knowledge and automatic performance. It will on occasion also require monito-
ring and problem-solving strategies, but these will not be the most prominent features as they tend to
be in the conventional model, where the student produces, the teacher corrects and the student tries
12. ŠTUDENTSKÁ VEDECKÁ A UMELECKÁ KONFERENCIA
42
again.” (Brumfit, 1984, in Nunan, 1999, p. 56). Teachers draw attention to use of oral and written
evaluation. It does not matter how fluent students might be, teachers emphasize that they have to mo-
nitor them. Monitoring which was discussed is related to Maturita exam, where they want their stu-
dents to be fluent and accurate. Therefore, teachers create the best possibilities for students to practise
language. Particularly, in problem-solving situation for more people, students have to use their know-
ledge and work as a group. However, teachers encourage their students to use language, even though
students make minor mistakes. Teachers highlight necessity of the feedback they have to give stu-
dents. Moreover, feedback is effective for students at least for three reasons: students know that tea-
cher listens to them and is interested in their answers and opinions; students realize that teacher identi-
fies the possible error in their communication; students may learn grammatically correct answer.
The last set of questions aimed to examine the issue of error correction and the possible fluency
and accuracy support/blocking. Teachers are careful about correcting the students while speaking. If
students are corrected, there is a risk of fluency deficit. However, one of teachers stresses: ‘In writing
activities errors are corrected, usually in written form.’ It supports students’ accuracy, especially if
students come back to the written text. During listening based exercises teachers sometimes do not
correct plural form of a verb, only if they correct the exercise of a student with a lower competence of
English. In speaking and writing students prefer no error correction. The most surprising aspect was
that half of the respondents do not think that focusing on accuracy blocks the development of fluency.
However, as they said, it is individual. One of the teachers provided an example of a student who
refused all speaking activities in the first grade of her Secondary School and by not focusing on accu-
racy but gradually by applying different techniques and motivation strategies enhanced her speaking
skills quite a lot (until the 4th grade). On the other hand, the second part of interviewees emphasizes
that focusing on accuracy blocks the development of fluency. However, the observed difference bet-
ween blocking and supporting fluency and accuracy in this interview was expected as each teacher
has individual experience and various teaching methods.
10 Implications and recommendations for practice
The findings of this paper suggest a number of practical implications for future practice. Therefore,
we would like to recommend learning about students’ hobbies and their interests as it might be really
helpful. In addition, more interaction in the lesson would be absolutely beneficial. Apart from that,
rewarding students, respectful communication and verbal praise could help to increase rapport in the
classroom. Most importantly, holding eye contact and creating peaceful and friendly atmosphere co-
uld facilitate whole course of a lesson.
11 Conclusion
Observations, gathering information and comparison demonstrates that there is a clear interconnec-
tion between fluency, accuracy and positive classroom atmosphere. Positive atmosphere in the lesson
includes a great amount of elements that are sometimes forgotten. In spite of this fact, it may be con-
cluded that positive motivation might be an extraordinary tool for developing fluency in Language
classroom. Last but not least, it has to be reminded that observations and findings provided refer to
two lessons and show two different teachers, two different groups of students with different language
experience.
References:
BROWN, H. D. (1994): Teaching by Principles. Prentice Hall Regents.
BRUMFIT, C. (1984): Communicative methodology in language teaching: The roles of fluency and accuracy.
Cambridge: Cambridge University.
GAVORA, P. (2003): Učiteľ a žiaci v komunikácii. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského.
GUILLOT, M. – N. (1999): Fluency and its Teaching. Multilingual Matters: Clevedon.
HEDGE, T. (2000): Teaching and Learning in the Language classroom. Oxford University Press.
NUNAN, D. (2004): Task Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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STRAKOVÁ, Z. (2013): Introduction to Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Prešovská univerzita
v Prešove.
The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. (1989): OED Online. Oxford University Press. Available at:
<http://dictionary.oed.com/>, retrieved: February, 15th, 2016.
VYBÍRAL, Z. (2005): Psychologie komunikace. Praha: Portál.
Appendices
1. Teaching observation reports
2. Transcripts of the interview
1 TEACHING OBSERVATION REPORTS
Teaching observation report no.1
Teaching observation report
Date: 10th February 2016 Time: 13:30-14:15
No. of students: 15 Duration of class: 45 minutes
Level: B1
Lesson aim(s): to improve knowledge, speaking skills and vocabulary related to topic Geography
of the UK and the USA
Context for language learning: learning with the map (the UK and the USA)
What can be learnt from this lesson: Students sitting in the circle can make an impression of one
unit; not looking into students’ eyes might cause lack of the interest, even an indifference towards the
subject.
Management & procedures: Teacher and students were sitting in the circle during the whole lesson.
Techniques & methods: Working with the map of the UK and the USA.
Personal qualities: The teacher and is a real authority for students and she has nice communication
skills.
Assessment & monitoring: The teacher did not assess correct answers orally, she would not react on
any correct answer. However, she was correcting mistakes. She used to repeat questions and put
few questions that may expand students’ answers.
Use of language: English Language was used during the whole course of a lesson and students were
replying appropriately.
Overall comment: Crucial is the use of language – the teacher insisted on using English only during
the whole lesson. I would change the way of addressing students, call them by their names and I
would try to be more relaxed. It is absolutely right to be an authority for students but it could be
harmful at times. Therefore, I would add a bit of humour to the lesson.
Things I’d like to try myself: I would definitely try teaching when sitting in the circle and using the
map.
Teaching observation report no.2
Teaching observation report
Date: 12th February 2016 Time: 8:55-9:40
No. of students: 15 Duration of class: 45 minutes
Level: B1
Lesson aim(s): to improve speaking skills and vocabulary related to topic Mass Media; to be able
characterize Mass Media and express a personal attitude to them; to be able to use Present Perfect and
Past Tense in practice
Context for language learning: learning with the book; own material for speaking and grammar
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What can be learnt from this lesson: Positive atmosphere in the classroom may help to increase
an interest for a foreign language; holding eye contact may encourage students’ contributions.
Management & procedures: There was a perfect planning of the lesson including oral testing at the
beginning of the lesson (3 students in front of the board), using own materials with grammar
exercises related to Present Perfect and Past Simple and summary at the end of the lesson.
Techniques & methods: The teacher introduced the aim, oral testing represented revision of Mass
Media and personalized learning was applied in the lesson. While doing exercises students wor-
ked individually as well as in pair work and group work. There was also a revision at the end of
the lesson. The teacher was walking through the classroom, checking the exercise books.
Personal qualities: The teacher is intrinsically motivated and has outstanding communication skills.
There was a pleasant atmosphere and relaxed environment in the classroom. She wants her stu-
dents to understand English Language in daily life, not just in the form of grammatical rules. The
teacher is creative, has a great sense of humour, supervisory skills and an ability for leadership.
There was no superficiality at the lesson. Most of all, her human attitude was reflected at the les-
son. The teacher was also holding an eye contact with the students. The teacher was encouraging
all her students, especially one who belonged to the weakest students in the past. The most re-
markable moment arose when the teacher touched an arm of the above mentioned student with a
smile and said: You are absolutely right!
Assessment & monitoring: The teacher appreciated correct answers orally, but she was also correc-
ting mistakes. She used to repeat questions, put the questions that may expand students’ answers
and was giving clear explanations and instructions.
Use of language: English Language was used during the whole course of a lesson and students were
replying appropriately.
Overall comment: Crucial is the use of language – the teacher insisted on using English only during
the whole lesson. She has got a nice accent, used lovely greetings and appeared not only as a
friend, but also as an authority in relation to the students.
Things I’d like to try myself: I would try working with own worksheets and I would also try diffe-
rent ways of work: individual work, pair work and group work since it keeps the students active.
Procedure
Time/interaction
Stage/rationale of
lesson
Students' activities
Teacher's activities
Materials &
aids
Introduction of a les-
son, register
(2 min.)
introductory phase
50% speaking
50% register writing
register
Geography of the UK
and the USA
(35 min.)
exposure phase
70% speaking, work
as a whole group
30% listening, cor-
recting mistakes
map
Giving instructions for
homework
(5 min.)
closure phase
20% writing the in-
structions to the exer-
cise books
80% giving the in-
structions, setting
deadlines
exercise bo-
oks
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Procedure
Time/interaction
Stage/rationale
of lesson
Students' activities
Teacher's activities
Materials &
aids
Introduction of a les-
son, oral testing
(15 min.)
motivation phase
10% listening, 50%
speaking – in front of
the board
40% asking questions
related to Mass Media
a board
Present Perfect and
Past Simple exercises
(20 min.)
exposure phase
60% speaking, work in
pairs, individual work,
work as a whole group
explanation and chec-
king the correct an-
swers while working in
pairs 40%
worksheets
Revision of Present
Perfect
(5 min.)
fixation phase
60 % speaking
40 % - asking rules,
checking the answers
exercises
Giving instructions for
homework
(5 min.)
closure phase
20% writing the instruc-
tions to the exercise
books
80% giving the in-
structions, setting
deadlines
exercise
books
2 TRANSCRIPTS OF THE INTERVIEWS
The first respondent
1. Are teachers / students aware of the difference between fluency and accuracy? Is it reflect-
ed in the lessons? How?
Yes, teachers are aware of the difference between fluency and accuracy. Naturally, it is re-
flected in the lessons. They prepare students for the Maturita exam so that students may be
fluent as well as accurate in English language.
2. Do teachers and students have the common aim (F/A)?
Yes, teachers and students have the common aim (says one the teachers at the Secondary
Grammar School, Konštantínova 2, Prešov). They want their students to be fluent and accu-
rate in language not only because of the Maturita exam, but also for their future.
3. Which activities can be identified with each focus (F/A)?
As for fluency, it might be identified with speaking activities, particularly role-play, picture
stories or collaborative tasks.
With reference to accuracy, teachers use similarly speaking activities with special attention to
accurate using of grammar, collaborative tasks and activities based on testing students (writ-
ten and oral).
4. Which activities do teachers / students prefer?
Students prefer speaking activities, mainly role-play because they may pretend being some-
one else and it helps them to express themselves better. Teachers of the above mentioned
Secondary School are fond of using collaborative tasks aimed at speaking.
5. Which activities help students prepare for Maturita exam better?
Teachers firmly believe that speaking, listening, reading and writing help students. Thus, all
of the four language skills are useful in preparation for Maturita exam. This teacher highlight-
ed language in use and word-formation.
6. Is there a difference in developing fluency in different skills?
According to respondents, there is a difference in speaking and reading skills in developing
fluency. For instance, in speaking students speak during the lessons in order to eliminate their
language barriers. There is also a difference in developing fluency in reading. Students read
and ignore the unknown vocabulary, trying to comprehend the text as a whole.
7. Are some skills more connected to F/A than others?
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This respondent emphasized that speaking and reading skills are connected with fluency and
at the same time writing and reading skills are intertwined with accuracy.
8. How does error correction support either fluency or accuracy? Which techniques do teach-
ers prefer?
Teachers are careful of correcting students during speaking. If students are corrected while
giving an answer, there is a risk of deprivation of their fluency. However, with writing skills
errors are corrected, usually in written form. It supports students’ accuracy, especially if stu-
dents come back to the written text.
9. Which techniques do students prefer?
In speaking and writing students prefer no error correction.
10. Are there any psychological aspects of F/A development? Are there any psychological
blocks? Is Maslow pyramid of needs connected to F/A development at all?
As for accuracy development, teachers suppose that there might be psychological blocks, es-
pecially in frequent correction of the students’ speaking. With the development of fluency,
teachers usually do not concentrate on accuracy.
11. Does accuracy focus block the development of fluency? Can it be noticed in the classroom?
Generally speaking, teachers do not think that focusing on accuracy blocks the development
of fluency. However, as they say, it is individual. Our respondent provided an example of a
student who refused speaking in the first grade of her Secondary School and by not focusing
on accuracy she enhanced her speaking skills quite a lot (until the 4th grade).
The second respondent
1. Are teachers / students aware of the difference between fluency and accuracy? Is it reflect-
ed in the lessons?
Yes, both teachers and students are aware of the difference between fluency and accuracy.
Teachers take into consideration that students need to be prepared not only for Maturita exam
but also for life and real communication in the world. For sure, it is reflected in the lessons.
According to one of the teachers, students make an effort to improve all of their language
skills. In some cases students spot their own mistake and correct themselves without a help of
a teacher. On the other hand, teachers are supervisors who have to guarantee fluency and ac-
curacy.
2. Do teachers and students have the common aim (F/A)?
Yes, they do. Teachers, similarly like students, have the aim to avail English language appro-
priately – including fluency and accuracy.
3. Which activities can be identified with each focus (F/A)?
As for fluency, there are always speaking activities, students have to talk about wide variety
of topics. Naturally, teachers have requirements, such as use of appropriate vocabulary and
tenses, accent, etc.
Accuracy is usually tested in various kinds of shorter tests, written exercises and teachers of-
ten pay attention to check the answers in the exercise books and on the board.
4. Which activities do teachers/students prefer?
Students (1.B) prefer speaking activities, role-plays, games for speaking. Teachers prefer col-
laborative tasks, since most of them wants to hear every single student to talk.
5. Which activities help students prepare for Maturita exam better?
Teachers suppose that all activities are important. Listening activities, readings with ques-
tions, writings and speaking activities as well.
6. Is there a difference in developing fluency in different skills?
Yes, there is a difference. For example, in speaking students rather speak, sometimes with er-
rors, however, they want to be fluent. They often use a description if they are not able to find
the appropriate word for expressing their thoughts.
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With reference to writing, students have to possess certain amount of expressions and this
process may take longer.
7. Are some skills more connected to F/A than others?
According to one of the teachers, she believes that speaking is at the top of this hierarchy –
because speaking belongs among the very first activities at the lesson.
8. How does error correction support either fluency or accuracy? Which techniques do teach-
ers prefer?
One of asked teachers thinks that we should wait while longer answers and when a student
finishes their speech, teachers may react on the students’ errors. However, if students make
mistakes during the lesson, she would correct them immediately.
9. Which techniques do students prefer?
Students do not like error correction, especially in speaking. There are only few of them who
realize that error correction could be beneficial for future use of language.
10. Are there any psychological aspects of F/A development? Are there any psychological
blocks? Is Maslow pyramid of needs connected to F/A development at all?
The teacher mentioned a student who had a fear of her. In spite of the fact that the teacher did
not know the reason and tried to be closer to him, student did not want to work at all.
There is another example, Alex, who belonged among the weak students. After the teacher’s
effort to get closer to him, encouraging him and rewarding him, Alex started to study hard.
11. Does accuracy focus block the development of fluency? Can it be noticed in the classroom?
Not really.
The third respondent
1. Are teachers / students aware of the difference between fluency and accuracy? Is it reflect-
ed in the lessons?
Students are aware of the difference and teachers try to choose activities in which students
can practise both fluency and accuracy.
2. Do teachers and students have the common aim (F/A)?
It depends. Students feel that accuracy is regarded by teachers as more important sometimes.
Students like more activities which are focused on fluency rather than accuracy.
3. Which activities can be identified with each focus (F/A)?
Fluency – speaking activities – dialogues, role plays, games etc.
Accuracy – grammar activities – exercises like gap filling, making sentences, etc.
4. Which activities do teachers/students prefer?
Based on the experience of this respondent, students prefer fluency activities.
Whether fluency or accuracy – it depends on teachers themselves.
This teacher prefers fluency activities but she knows that without accuracy, it would not make
a sense.
5. Which activities help students prepare for Maturita exam better?
Written part of Maturita – accuracy.
Oral part of Maturita – fluency.
6. Is there a difference in developing fluency in different skills?
Each skill is different and needs different techniques and methods when developing fluency.
7. Are some skills more connected to F/A than others?
Speaking, listening, reading – both fluency and accuracy.
Writing – rather accuracy.
8. How does error correction support either fluency or accuracy? Which techniques do teach-
ers prefer?
It is important to correct mistakes however, teachers need to be careful how to do that. In flu-
ency focused activities immediate correction is preferable.
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9. Which techniques do students prefer?
Teachers have to be careful in correcting mistakes as it can block some students. It is proba-
bly good to leave some space for self-correction.
10. Are there any psychological aspects of F/A development? Are there any psychological
blocks? Is Maslow pyramid of needs connected to F/A development at all?
It is crucial to support students in learning foreign language (students can make a progress).
Students have some psychological blocks when learning foreign language as they are afraid of
failure or of other students making fun of them. Students have to cover all Maslow’s needs in
order to be successful learners.
11. Does accuracy focus block the development of fluency? Can it be noticed in the classroom?
Based on the experience of this respondent, focusing on accuracy blocks fluency. Conse-
quently, students feel frustrated, therefore, it is teachers’ role to support and motivate stu-
dents. It also depends on a student’s personality – some students are not afraid of making mis-
takes or any failure, so they try again and again. On the other hand, there are also those who
are demotivated after the first mistake.
The fourth respondent
1. Are teachers / students aware of the difference between fluency and accuracy? Is it reflect-
ed in the lessons?
The teacher must be fluent and accurate in the lesson. Students know that the same is required
of them. They must be able to speak, read and write fluently. On the other hand, they should
be good at accuracy. However, there should be balance between the two.
2. Do teachers and students have the common aim (F/A)?
The common aim is usually fluency – in public speaking or role play, mainly. On the other
hand, accuracy is also important – mostly for examinations.
3. Which activities can be identified with each focus (F/A)?
Fluency – role play, debate.
Accuracy – grammar drilling, error analysis, gap filling.
4. Which activities do teachers/students prefer?
Students prefer role play and debate.
5. Which activities help students prepare for Maturita exam better?
Both aspects, fluency and accuracy, are important for Maturita exam. Thus, students like
grammar drilling but also role play because they know that they must be perfect in these as-
pects.
6. Is there a difference in developing fluency in different skills?
It depends on the age of students.
7. Are some skills more connected to F/A than others?
Fluency – reading, speaking, writing.
Accuracy – writing.
The teacher, however, thinks that there should be balance between them.
8. How does error correction support either fluency or accuracy? Which techniques do teach-
ers prefer?
Error correction supports more accuracy than fluency. This respondent prefers gap-filling or
error correction exercises. According to this teacher, accuracy is a technique for error correc-
tion because she focuses on grammar.
9. Which techniques do students prefer?
Students prefer fluency because they can speak freely and naturally.
10. Are there any psychological aspects of F/A development? Are there any psychological
blocks? Is Maslow pyramid of needs connected to F/A development at all?
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It is better to start with accuracy. It is easier for young students to learn grammar than for
adults. Once they have mastered accuracy, they can learn fluency. Students do not have much
vocabulary and knowledge of language and repetition is also necessary in the early stage.
11. Does accuracy focus block the development of fluency? Can it be noticed in the classroom?
Of course, it does, sometimes. When this teacher practises fluency, she does not notice
grammatical mistakes because it can lead to the block.