Content uploaded by Idoko Alexander
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Idoko Alexander on Mar 08, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
Available via license: CC BY 3.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index
in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI)
Interested in publishing with us?
Contact book.department@intechopen.com
Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected.
For more information visit www.intechopen.com
Open access books available
Countries delivered to Contributors from top 500 universities
International authors and editor s
Our authors are among the
most cited scientists
Downloads
We are IntechOpen,the world’s leading publisher ofOpen Access booksBuilt by scientists, for scientists
12.2%
116,000
120M
TOP 1%
154
4,000
Chapter 3
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
Idoko Alexander
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Exploitative Benecial Eects of Citrus Fruits
IdokoAlexander
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
Abstract
Citrus fruits trees have come to gain a worldwide recognition for their suiting refresh-
ing juice, nutritious value and numerous health benets and maintenances. Their
applied health therapeutic uses have been exploited in the treatment of several health
challenges as antitumor, anti-inammatory anticancer, antiviral, antimicrobial activi-
ties, against cardiovascular diseases and macular degeneration. Lime (Citrus auranti-
folia) juice has been shown to eectively serve as hypolipidemic, possesses the ability
to interact with orthodox medicines. Obviously, citrus fruits’ abilities on the exploited
benets are not far from their rich bioactive compounds and phytochemical such as
minerals, vitamins, avonoids and carotenoids. These phytochemicals may act as
antioxidants, boosting the action of protective enzymes in the liver, reverse lipid per-
oxidation of genetic material and improve immune system. A close look at this chapter
includes introduction, history and description, structures and biochemistry of phy-
tochemicals, metabolism of phytochemicals and bioactive compounds and benecial
eects of citrus fruits.
Keywords: citrus, phytochemical, antioxidants, orthodox medicine, health benets
1. Introduction
Citrus fruits have a worldwide spread, grown across the globe and are well-appreciated for
their refreshing juice and health benets [1]. They are fruits bearing trees, which are members
of the rutaceae family. Citrus fruits have ve main species according to [2], which include
Citrus sinensis (sweet orange fruits tree), which have about 70% in the majority of the citrus
family, Citrus aurantifolia (the lime fruits tree), Citrus reticulata (the tangerine fruits tree) Citrus
limonum (the lemon fruits tree) and Citrus vitis (the grape fruits tree).
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
1.1. History and description
1.1.1. History
The origin of citrus fruits is not very clear. The trees ourish well in tropical and subtropical
climates. They were thought to originate in Southeast Asia. Arab traders brought lime trees back
from their journey to Asia and introduced them into Egypt and Northern Africa around the
tenth century [3]. Researchers assert that Mexico, Florida, Brazil and California in America are
where we currently nd the largest orange orchards in the world and citrus fruits were trans-
ported by the Spaniards [4]. Citrus fruit like many other fruits and vegetables, were reported
to have been brought to the Americans by Christopher Columbus, when he made his second
voyage in the sixteenth century to the New World in 1493, and have been since then grown in
Florida [5]. Citrus was highly appreciated such that in 1849, there was a great demand of lemon
that people were willing to pay up to $1 per lemon, a price that would still be considered costly
today and was extremely expensive at that time [6]. George [6] reported that the introduction of
limes to the United States began in the sixteenth century when Spanish Explorers brought the
West Indies lime to the Florida Keys, beginning the advent of Key limes. However, in the follow-
ing century, Spanish missionaries aempted to plant lime trees in California, but the climate did
not support their growth. In great demand by the miners and explorers during the California
Gold Rush as a fruit that was known to prevent scurvy, limes began to be imported from Tahiti
and Mexico at this time in the mid-nineteenth century. Today, Brazil, Mexico and the United
States are among the leading commercial producers of limes [7].
1.1.2. Description
Citrus fruit trees are greenish and of dierent sizes and height, according to the species. Lime
fruit trees are small in height with multiple and spiny branches and smaller green leaves [8].
Citrus fruit trees produce fruits of various sizes forms and shapes such as oblong and round
shapes. The fruit is covered or protected against damage by a rough bright green or yellow
color epicarp. This epicarp is composed of glands which contain essential oils, responsible
for the peculiar citrus fragrance. The epicarp also houses a white, thick and spongy mesocarp
which together with the epicarp forms the pericarp or peel of the fruit. Inside the fruit is the
cavity which is divided into separate segments or juice sacs containing seeds or without seeds
for the seedless variety. The seed is covered by a thick radical lm or endocarp [9]. This inner
part is rich in soluble sugars, ascorbic acid, pectin, bers, dierent organic acids and potassium
salt that give the fruit its characteristic citrine avor [9]. According to the working list of all
plant species, citrus species hybridize easily and that new hybrids are continuously developed
by cross pollination to obtain desired qualities such as seedless, juicy and fresh taste fruits [10].
According to [11, 12], the working list of all plant species, the taxonomy of citrus plants follow the
order; Kingdom: Plantae; Subkingdom: Tracheobionta; Superdivision: Spermatophyta; Division:
Magnoliophyta; Class: Magnoliopsida; Subclass: Rosidae; Order: Sapindales; Family: Rutaceae;
Genus: Citrus. However, citrus species/types have numerous common names depending on the
country and language. Ali [10] highlighted the following common names for some species;
Citrus aurantiifolia: Arabic: laimon helo; Chinese: lai meng; English: Egyptian lime, Indian
lime, Key lime, lime, Mexican lime, sour lime, lime; French: citron vert, citronnier gallet, lime
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology32
acid, limeier, limeier des Antilles, limeier mexicain; German: Limee, Limeenbaum,
Limone, saure Limee; India: kagzi nimboo, kagzi nimbu; Italian: lima; Portuguese: limão-
galego, limão-tahiti; Spanish: limón agrio, limón ceutí, lima, lima mejicana, limero [10–13].
However, in Nigeria, Lime fruits are locally identied as follows: in Idoma, it is called Alemu
Ogwuchekwo; in Igbo, it is called Oloma-oyinbo; in Hausa, it is called Lemun tsami or Babban
lemu; in Yoruba, it is called Osan ghanhin-ghanhin; and in Igala, it is called Alemu inale [13].
1.2. Structures and biochemistry of phytochemicals
Phytochemicals are the numerous chemicals present in plants. They are primarily produced
by the plants to serve the purpose of defense to insects and microbial aack. They are thus,
called plants secondary metabolites. The following are some citrus phytochemicals.
1.2.1. Citrus avonoids
Flavonoids are a group of extensively large class of plant phytochemical of over 5000 hydrox-
ylated polyphenol compounds, which abound in fruits, vegetables, legumes and tea [14].
Flavonoids are divided into a major subclass of 12 based on dierences in chemical structures
[15]. Flavonoids that are of dietary importance include avones, avonols, avanones, antho-
cyanidins, avan-3-ols and isoavones [16]. Citrus has been identied to have the following
class of avonoids; avonols, avans, avones, avanones and anthocyanins. Anthocyanins
are included as citrus avonoids because it has been isolated in blood oranges [17].
Citrus avonols, avones and avanones (Figures 1–3) abound largely. Most avonoids exist
in their glycosylated forms or aglynol and aglycone forms. Glycosylated forms of avonoids
(Figures 4–6) include, naringenin, maringin, rutin and hesperidin.
The glycosylated forms have been classied into two types, these are; the neohesperidosides
and the rutinosides [18].
Neohesperidosides, naringin, neohesperidin and neoeriocitrin are said to have a bier taste
[19]. While rutinosides, hesperidin, narirutin and didymin, have been found to be tasteless and
Figure 1. Structures of avanones and derivatives.
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
33
Figure 3. Structures of avones and derivatives.
have a disaccharide residue e.g. rutinose (ramnosyl-a-1,6 glucose). Most avanones are usu-
ally found in diglycoside forms, which confer the typical taste to Citrus fruits [19]. Using UV,
IR, FABMS, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR analyses, [20] isolated two glyvones (C-glucosylavones)
from the peel of lemon fruit (Citrus Limon BURM. f.), and identied 6,8-di-C-b-glycosyldios-
min and 6-C-b-glycosyldiosmin. The compositions of the seed and peel of citrus fruits are not
always the same. The lemon seed contains eriocitrin and hesperidin and the peel contains
neoeriocitrin, naringin and neohesperidin [21]. The concentration of the glycosylated.
Flavanone in peel and seed varies. In peels, the concentrations of neoeriocitrin and naringin
are similar while, in seed, the concentration of eriocitrin is reported to be 40 times higher than
the concentration of naringin [22].
Figure 2. Structures of avonols and derivatives.
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology34
Neohesperidin, naringin and neoeriocitrin are extracted from peel in great amounts [23]. It
has been reported that bier orange is a marvelous source of neohesperidin and naringin
which are very signicant in the industry for the production of sweeteners [19]. Generally,
most citrus fruits are said to possess lile quantity of glycosylated naringin [24].
Figure 4. Structure of rutin, a glycosylated avonoid.
Figure 5. Structure of hesperidin, a glycosylated avonoid.
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
35
It is reported that naringin is found in lemon peel and seed, in mandarin seed and absent in
the juices [25]. Mouly et al. [26] found that glycosylated avanones, responsible for bierness,
cannot be in sweet orange juice, thus their presence will mean the fruit is aldulterated or spoit.
1.2.2. Citrus carotenoids
It has been reported that pink grapefruit has a higher content of carotene than other citrus
fruits such as tangerines and oranges, which contain high levels of other carotenoids, includ-
ing lutein, zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin that have signicant anti-oxidant activity [27].
Carotenoids are hydrocarbon of the class of carotene and their oxygenated derivatives, the
xanthophyls. Carotenoids are composed of eight isoprenoid units linked in a reversed iso-
prenoid units at the center of the molecule, making the two central methyl groups to have
1,5-position relationship, and are the pigments responsible for the colors of many plants [28].
Figure 7 shows structures of some selected (including lutein, zeaxanthin, lineal, epoxy carot-
enoid, lycopene and β-carotene) carotenoids. There are more than 800 carotenoids and their
derivatives identied and isolated and are divided into two main groups, called carotenes
and xanthophylls. Carotenes are composed of hydrocarbon structure and xanthophylls that
contain oxygen atoms in their structure [29]. The pink grapefruit also has been found to be
very rich in the red pigment, lycopene, with a potent anti-tumor activity [30]. They serve as
light harvesting complexes in photosynthesis [1]. Carotenoids (β-carotene and lycopene clari-
ed in the carotenes) are known to be responsible for the orange-red colors found in orange,
tomatoes and carrots fruits as well as the yellow colors of many owers [31] and in xantho-
phylls, lutein in spinach and broccoli and β-cryptoxanthin in Satsuma mandarin are well-
known [29]. Yokayama and White [32] reported that the avedo of the fruit of the trigeneric
hybrid, Sinton citrangequat contains new carotenoid ketones (apocarotenones) pigments that
are unique in the carotenoid series in that they contain the terminal methyl ketone group in
the side chain responsible for the rich red color of the avedo. Carotenoids in plants are a very
important component of photosynthesis and prevent disastrous photo oxidation [31]. They
isolated and characterized these methyl ketone carotenoids with nonaeneone and decaeneone
chromophores to include; sintaxanthin, citranaxanthin, 3-OH-sintaxanthin, reticulataxanthin
Figure 6. Structure of naringin, a glycosylated avonoid.
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology36
and an in-chain hydroxyl group 8′-OH-7′8′-dihydrocitranaxanthin methyl ketone carotenoid
[32]. For the rst time, other carbonyl carotenoids consisting of β-apo-10′-carotenal, β-apo-
8′carotenal, β-citraurin, Neurosporene, γ-carotene, β-carotene and probably 3-OH-β-apo-10′-
carotenal. β-Zeacarotene were detected and isolated from citrus in minor amounts [32].
Figure 7. Structures of citrus carotenoids.
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
37
1.2.3. Citrus limonoids
-
C. vitis) and
C. sinensis33
34
against insects, suggesting that one of the biological functions of limonoids in plants is pest
1.2.4. Citrus terpene
-lim-
35
36
-
-
carvone are formed as oxidation products when exposed to moist air to form carveol, carvone,
1.2.5. Citrus alkaloids
41
Figure 8
1.3. Metabolism of phytochemicals and bioactive compounds
-
42, 43
ββ
Figure 8.
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology38
It was demonstrated that the enzyme 15–151 β-carotenoid dioxygenase in the intestine and
liver, convert α-carotene, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin to vitamin A (retinal) [30]. However,
[28] reported that such in vivo formation of retinal is homeastatically controlled, so that the
conversion to retinol is limited in individuals with adequate vitamin A. Currently, there is an
increase production of carotenoids by biotechnology due to its demand in industry, added as
colorants to many manufactured food drinks, fruit juice and animal feeds either in the form of
natural extracts or as pure compounds manufactured by chemical synthesis [30].
The importance of dietary citrus avonoids becomes appreciated only when they are absorbed
and become available to target tissues within the body. In the intestine and liver, absorption
and metabolism of avonoids is rapidly carried out. In the liver phase II reaction, avonoids
metabolized to intermediate metabolites and transported in the bloodstream and excreted as
urine [44]. It appears that the biological activities of avonoid metabolites are dierent from
their parent compounds [45] and these metabolites (xenobiotics) must rst be modied in the
mucosa of intenstine and then in the liver [46]. Enzymatic transformation of avonoids by
the gut microbial enzymes of the large intestine is done through deglycosylation, ring ssion,
dehydroxylation, demethylation into metabolites that can then be absorbed or excreted [46, 47].
Dierent metabolites are produced after transformation but production depends on the diverse
activity of the colon bacteria, resulting from an individual’s dietary intake of avonoids rich
diet [47, 48]. The bioavailability of avonoids in the system increases the benecial exploits of
the nutrients which in turn depend on the composition of the colon bacteria [49]. When poly-
phenols are administered orally, only small quantities of these compounds appear in systemic
circulation because of very high levels of uridine diphospho (UDP)-glucuronosyltransferases
and sulfotransferases in the small intestine and liver, thus resulting in very low oral bioavail-
ability [50]. Quercetin was originally assumed to be absorbed from the small intestine follow-
ing cleavage of the β-glucoside linkage by colonic microora [51].
1.3.1. Metabolism of minerals and vitamins
Metabolism is a dual process involving catabolism (breaking down or oxidation) and anabolism
(biosynthesis). It a biochemical process which makes energy available to an organism following
the conversion of ingested food. Catabolism involves hydrolyses, digestion, absorption and
excretion of ingested food. Most vitamins and mineral are absorbed by the intestinal cells of
the body. Magnesium is absorbed by the intestinal cells through a specic carrier system; zinc
is absorbed mainly in the duodenum, dietary Mn is normally absorbed in the small intestine,
however, iron inhibits the absorption of Mn. Metallothionein is the transport protein that facili-
tates copper absorption mainly in the duodenum. Iron in the ferous form is soluble and readily
absorbed in the stomach and duodenum [52]. About 90% of K+ is absorbed from the gastrointes-
tinal tract. Sodium is readily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Phosphate absorption takes
place at the jejunum. However, calcitriol promotes phosphate uptake along with calcium. By an
energy dependent active process, calcium is mostly absorbed in the duodenum [53].
1.3.2. Biosynthesis of phytochemical in citrus plant
Generally, the biosynthesis of phytochemicals in citrus and other plants has been reported
to be organ, cell or development specic in almost all higher plant species [54]. The path-
ways, and genes involved in their synthesis are most tightly regulated and may be linked to
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
39
54
55–
54
compounds such as the terpene-based essential oils are stored in trichomes, glandular hairs,
56
56–34] reported that
-
34
-
36 -
61-
36, 61
-
3535] also reported that ter-
35
62
63, 64] to involve a head-to-head con-
-
65
66
66] reported their investigation on the relationship between carotenoid accumulation
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology40
Citrus unshiuCitrus sinen-
sisCitrus limon
observed with a decrease in the transcript level for CitPDS and concluded that the carotenoid
66
β
1.4. Benecial eects of citrus fruits
1.4.1. Citrus phytochemicals and bioactive compounds in disease prevention
of age-related macular degeneration, which happen to be the leading cause of blindness in
-
cal data provided that diets which are rich in carotenoids containing fruits are associated with
31
several epidemiological studies have shown decrease in cataract onset with high blood content
β
33 -
33,
33
1.4.2. Domestic and industrial benets of citrus
] and in the production of
-
orange juice manufacture produced from a renewable source as an organic solvent in dissolving
reported to be used as a paint stripper, as a constituent of some paints and used as an alternative
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
41
-
1.4.3. Antimicrobial potentials of citrus
-
-
,
-limonene in traditional
-
birth to the use of lime juice as a sauce eaten with rice and was also found to have a strong protec-
,
of Citrus aurantifoliaCitrus aurantifolia
-
Citrus aurantifolia,
Citrus reticulata, Citrus microcarpa, Citrus limon and Citrus sinensis against Streptococcus pyogenes,
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa] to evalu-
Citrus
microcarpa, Citrus reticulata and Citrus sinensis
Citrus aurantifolia and Citrus limon against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli
1.4.4. Citrus eects on immunity
Citrus medicaCydonia
oblonga as immunomodulators and antiallergic substances were investigated on an in vitro
α with results which showed reduction of degranulation of
α
1.4.5. Anti-rheumatoid arthritis and cardiovascular eects of citrus
showed that subject who maintained high consumption of citrus food rich in vitamin C, had
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology42
An experimental study of the eects of Citrus aurantifolia on cardiovascular parameters was
carried out on Spargue Dawely rats by checking the anti-hypertensive eect on three experi-
mental hypertensive models. The models include cadmium induced hypertensive model,
glucose induced hypertensive model, Egg feed diet induced hypertensive model, and normo-
tensive model. Result obtained after 0.75 mg oral administration of Citrus aurantifolia methanol
extract revealed a signicantly (p < 0.01) reduced blood pressure parameters of the test groups
compared to control groups [87]. The diastolic blood pressure of healthy middle-aged, normal-
weight men was reported to be reduced after consuming orange juice for 4 weeks [88]. A study
on the protective eect of the ethanolic extracts of Otroj, Citrus medica (EEOT) against isoproter-
enol (ISO)-induced cardiotoxicity was evaluated in rats. Results obtained from histopathologi-
cal examination and myocardial biochemical assay demonstrated cardioprotective potential of
EEOT [89]. It was reported recently that citrus fruits oer protection against cardiovascular
diseases by reducing levels of homocysteine [90]. Homocysteine is a toxic agent for the vascular
wall and, when plasma levels rise above normal, there is an increased risk of cardiovascular
disease. It was reported that a low dietary intake of citrus folate contributes to the decrease of
plasma folate and the raising of plasma homocysteine levels [91]. A recent study from the juice
of freshly squeezed oranges, with high intakes of vitamin C (500 mg/day) showed that a rise in
the levels of oxidized LDL was prevented, even in the presence of a high-saturated fat diet [92].
1.4.6. Anticancer potentials of citrus
In a laboratory test carried on human cells and animal studies, limonoids from dierent spe-
cies and category of citrus fruits, including lemons and limes, have been reported to posses’
anticancer ability against cancers of the mouth, skin, lung, breast, stomach and colon [3].
Do-Hoon et al. [93] reported that the numerous phytochemical contents in citrus including
terpernoids, alkaloids, avonoids, limonoids, and coumarins are found to be associated with
a reduced risk of gastric cancer, breast cancer, lung tumorigenesis, colonic tumorigenesis,
hepatocarcinogenesis, and hematopoietic malignancies [94, 95]. The avedo extract of Ougan
(Citrus reticulata cv. Suavissima) was found to exhibit potential anti-tumor eects by its inhibi-
tory eect on epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and interfering with the canonical TGF-
β1-SMAD-Snail/Slug axis [96]. Puried bioactive compounds isolated from seeds and peels of
Citrus aurantifolia have been reported to have inhibiting and suppressing eects on pancreatic
cancer and colon cancer cells respectively [97]. Citrus aurantifolia potentials as anticancer were
reported to be due to apoptosis-mediated proliferation inhibition of human colon cancer cells
by volatile principles [98]. Human colon cancer has been reported to have 78% inhibition and
induction of apoptosis conrmed by isolated volatile oil of Citrus aurantifolia fruit [99]. Eects
of volatile oils from fresh Citrus limon fruit peels have been shown to possess a genotoxic
eects on human lymphocytes by measurement of mitotic and blast indexes [100].
1.4.7. Citrus hypoglycemia and antidiabetic eect
The hypoglycemic potential of citrus avonoids including hesperidin, naringin, neohesperidin,
and nobiletin, were reported to signicantly inhibit amylase-catalyzed starch digestion, where
naringin and neohesperidin specically inhibited amylose digestion, hesperidin and nobile-
tin inhibited both amylose and amylopectin digestion. Results showed the potential of citrus
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
43
avonoids in preventing the progression of hyperglycemia, partly by binding to starch, increas-
ing hepatic glycolysis and the glycogen concentration, and lowering hepatic gluconeogenesis
[101]. Also, the dietary hesperidin, was reported to have exhibited antidiabetic activities, partly
by lowering hepatic gluconeogenesis or improving insulin sensitivity in diabetic animals [102].
Annadurai et al. [103] demonstrated in a study the antihyperglycemic and antioxidant eects
of a avanone, naringenin, in streptozotocin-nicotinamide-induced experimental diabetic rats
and showed that naringenin conferred protection against experimental diabetes through its
antihyperglycemic and anti-oxidant properties in streptozotocin-nicotinamide-induced dia-
betic rats. In another study, it was shown that in vivo chronic treatment of diabetic rats with
naringenin could prevent the functional changes in vascular reactivity in diabetic rats through
a NO-dependent and prostaglandin-independent pathway [104]. Another study evaluated the
antihyperglycemic activity of Citrus limea fruit peel in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats
and the results showed that hexane extract exerted signicant hypoglycemic activity and the
activity of extract was comparable to that of standard drug [105].
1.4.8. Citrus eect on body weight
Asnaashari et al. [106] investigated and reported that essential oil from Citrus aurantifolia pre-
vents ketotifen (an antihistaminic drug that causes weight-gain) induced weight-gain in mice.
Groups treated with Citrus aurantifolia essential oil showed decrease in body weight and food
consumption, possibly through promoting anorexia which might have played a role in weight
loss. The results reveal the potential of Citrus aurantifolia essential oil in weight loss and could be
useful in treatment of drug-induced obesity and related diseases. Similarly, the eect of Citrus
aurantifolia (fresh lime fruit juice) and honey on lipid prole fed dierent concentrations of cho-
lesterol enriched diet, using rat model were investigated. During the experiment, groups were
administered with lime alone, honey alone and mixture of lime and honey. Administration
of lime alone resulted in signicant decrease (p < 0.05) of LDL, TAG and TC and a signicant
increase (p < 0.05) in HDL and a corresponding weight loss compared to other groups [13].
1.4.9. Citrus eect on hypolipidemia
The eects of Lime Juice and Honey on Lipid Prole of Cholesterol Enriched Diet Fed Rat
Model were investigated by [13]. The research investigated the eects of lime juice and honey
on lipid prole of albino Wistar rats fed varying concentrations of cholesterol enriched diet.
Results obtained showed that fresh undiluted lime juice, honey and mixture of lime juice
and honey possess anti-inammatory ability in preventing hypercholesterolemia, with eect
greater in administration of fresh lime juice alone than in mixture of lime juice and honey.
Another study using Citrus medica cv Diamante peel extract, showed a lowered plasma cho-
lesterol and triglycerides in mice [107]. Demonty et al. [108] reported that tangeretin and nobi-
letin, with the optimal molecular structure, may lower blood cholesterol and triacylglycerol
concentrations, whereas other citrus avonoids without a fully methoxylated A-ring such as
hesperidin and naringin may have virtually no or only weak lipid-lowering eects in humans.
The eect of Citrus aurantifolia peel essential oil was studied on serum triglyceride and choles-
terols in thirty Wistar rats of ve groups. The results of experimental groups treated with peel
essential oil in 50 and 100 μl/kg doses demonstrated a signicant reduction in triglyceride,
cholesterol, and LDL (p < 0.01) [109]. In a study of a high-fat fed Ldlr−/− mice, the addition
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology44
of nobiletin resulted in a dramatic reduction in both hepatic and intestinal triacylglycerol
accumulation, aenuation of very low-density lipoprotein(LDL)-triacylglycerol secretion and
normalization of insulin sensitivity [110].
1.5. Citrus mineral, nutrients and vitamin contents
Citrus is loaded with appreciable mineral, nutrients and vitamins, especially the antioxidant
vitamins contents. The nutritional content of carbohydrate, protein and fats in citrus fruits
were reported to varied from 4.60 to 8.50, 5.80 to 7.90 and 2.50 to 9.50 g, respectively [111].
Katrine [112] reported some mineral value of citrus fruits as follows; calcium in citrus fruits
ranges between 20 and 30 mg calcium/100 g and the iron content of citrus ranges from 0.2 to
0.4 mg/100 g. Obviously, citrus is generally not a good source of iron, however, iron is concomi-
tantly released from other source of food owing to the high level of vitamin C content in citrus
and citrus juices and therefore maintaining iron status [113, 114]. Consumption of orange juice
or citrus foods with iron containing foods has been recommended by nutritionists for optimum
iron absorption [115]. Low iron status has been reported to be one of the major deciency
challenges in Australia, particularly for adolescent girls and young women [112]. Citrus was
reported to have a magnesium value of ranges between 8 and 11 mg/100 g, phosphorus value
from 16 to 24 mg/100 g, a very low sodium content between 0 and 2 mg/100 g, a very low zinc
content ranging from 0.1 to 0.2 g/100 g in citrus, copper value of citrus also very low to be
between 0.03 and 0.05 mg/100 g, manganese value in citrus to be 0.01–0.03 mg/100 g, the content
of the antioxidant element, selenium, ranges from 0.4 to 1.4 mg/100 g in citrus and the value of
potassium in citrus fruits ranges between 120 and 145 mg/100 g potassium [116]. It is reported
that fruits currently provide about 10% of potassium in the Australian diet daily [112].
The nutrients and non-nutrients contents of citrus fruits and juices products are wide spread.
An assessment carried out in Australia by [112] on the composition of oranges, lemons, man-
darins and grapefruit in relation to other common fruits and the composition of orange juice
in comparison to soft drinks and sports drinks shows that the carbohydrate (sugar) content
of citrus fruits ranges from 1.8 g/100 g for lemons to 4.8 g/100 g for grapefruit and about
8 g/100 g for oranges and mandarin. The values of carbohydrate in citrus and many other
fruits assessed show a low glycemic index [117]. Protein content of citrus fruits ranges from
0.6 g/100 g for lemon to about 1 g/100 g for other citrus and generally, protein is low for all
fruits assessed, ranging from 0.3 to 1.7 g /100 g [118]. While citrus fruits assessed for dietary
ber, ranged from 0.6 g/100 g (grapefruit) to 2.5 g/100 g (lemons) [112].
Assessment of citrus fruits vitamins reveals that citrus fruits have vitamin A value from 2 to
20 μg and vitamin A retinol equivalents of 10–130 μg betacarotene [112]. Citrus fruits vita-
min C content ranges from 36 to 52 mg/100 g. Essentially, fruits are not known to be a rich
source of vitamin E, a fat-soluble vitamin. However, the US data base, states that the vitamin
E content of citrus is about 0.25 mg/100 g. Fruits are generally not a major contributor to the
B vitamins, other than folate [118]. For vitamin B, citrus fruits content of thiamin range from
0.03 to 0.11 mg thiamin/100 g, riboavin content in citrus is between 0.02 and 0.03 mg/100 g,
niacin content in citrus ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 mg, vitamin B6 values in citrus was assessed to be
between 0.04 and 0.08 mg and citrus seem to be a rich source of folate with the value ranging
from 11 mg/100 g in lemons to 30 mg/100 g in oranges [112, 118]. Folate anticancer and protec-
tive eects against heart disease and spinal tube defects and its role in maintaining mental
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
45
function have been reported [119, 120]. It was reported that a glass of orange juice of 225 ml
provides about 75 mcg of folic acid [121].
2. Conclusions
Numerous therapeutic properties have been aributed to citrus fruits, like anticancer, anti-
viral, anti-tumor, anti-inammatory activities, and eects on capillary fragility as well as an
ability to inhabit platelet aggregation. It is therefore established that the exploitative benets
of this plant are not unconnected to the active biochemical substances present in the plant
in abundance. These bioactive substances (vitamins, phytochemicals, minerals and other
nutrients) may act as antioxidants, which stimulate the immune systems; induce protective
enzymes in the liver or block the damage of the genetic materials. From the review, it may
be concluded that fresh citrus fruits juice oer beer advantage thus, the best way to exploit
citrus, especially the fruits parts is using it freshly Table 1.
Author details
Idoko Alexander
Address all correspondence to: idokoalexander1@gmail.com
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Caritas University, Amorji-Nike,
Enugu, Nigeria
References
[1] Okwu DE. Citrus fruits: A rich source of phytochemicals and their roles in human health.
International Journal of Chemical Science. 2008;6(2):451-471
Orange Grapefruit Tangerine
Weight (g) 131 236 84
Energy (kcal) 62 78 37
Fiber content (g) 3.1 2.5 1.7
Ascorbic acid (mg) 70 79 26
Folate (mcg) 40 24 17
Potassium (mg) 237 350 132
Source: [122].
Table 1. Nutritional facts about citrus fruit.
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology46
[2] Okwu DE, Emenike IN. Evaluation of the phytonutrients and vitamins contents of citrus
fruits. International Journal Molecular Medicine and Advance Sciences. 2006;2(1):1-6
[3] Kawaii S, Tomono Y, Katase. Antiproliferative eects of the readily extractable fractions
prepared from various citrus juices on several cancer cell lines. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry. 1999;47(7):2509-2512
[4] Roger GDP. Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. Education and Health Library. Vol. 1.
Spain: Editorial Safeliz SL. 2002. pp. 153-154
[5] Berhow MA, Benne RD, Poling SM. Acylated avonoids in callus cultures of Citrus
aurantifolia. Phytochemistry. 1994;36(5):1225-1227
[6] George M. The World's Healthiest Food 2017. Retrieved from George Mateljan Foundation
[7] Wood M. Citrus compound, ready to help your body. Agricultural Research. 2005
[8] Ganguly S. Health benets of lime: A review. Asian Journal of Chemical and Pharma-
ceutical Research. 2014;2(1):94-95
[9] Roger GDP. New Life Style Enjoy It. Spain: Editorial Safelie SL; 1999. pp. 75-76
[10] Ali EA. Nutritional value and pharmacological importance of citrus species grown in
Iraq. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy. 2016;6(8):76-108
[11] USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information
Network-(GRIN). Beltsville, Maryland: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory; 2015.
Available from: hp://www.ars-grin.gov.4/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?10782 [Accessed:
11 October 2015]
[12] The plant list. Working list of all plant species. 2016. Available from: hp://www.the-
plantlist.org/tpl/record/tro-50149358
[13] Idoko A, Ikpe VPO, Nelson NO, Eong JU, Alhassan AJ, Muhammad IU, et al. Eects of
lime juice and honey on lipid prole of cholesterol enriched diet fed rat model. Annual
Research & Review in Biology. 2018;20(3):1-10
[14] Kumar S, Pandey AK. Chemistry and biological activities of avonoids: An overview.
The Scientic World Journal. 2013;2013:162750
[15] Manach C, Scalbert A, Morand C, Remesy C, Jimenez L. Polyphenols: Food sources and
bioavailability. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004;79(5):727-747
[16] Xiao J, Kai G, Yamamoto K, Chen X. Advance in dietary polyphenols as α-glucosidases
inhibitors: A review on structure-activity relationship aspect. Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition. 2013;53(8):818-836
[17] Horowi R, Gentili B. Flavonoids constituents of citrus. In: Nagy S, Shaw PE, Vedhuis
MK, editors. Citrus Science and Technology. Westport, CT: AVI Publishing; 1977.
pp. 397-426
[18] Gionfriddo F, Postorino E, Bovalo F. I avanoni glucosidici nel succo di bergamoo.
Essenze-Derivati Agrumari. 1996;66:404-416
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
47
[19] Macheix JJ, Fleuriet A, Billot J. The main phenolics of fruits. In: Fruit Phenolics. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1990. pp. 1-103
[20] Miyake Y, Yamamoto K, Morimitsu Y, Osawa T. Isolation of C-glucosylavone from
lemon peel and antioxidative activity of avonoid compounds in lemon fruit. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1997;45:4619-4623
[21] Ooghe WC, Detavernier CM. Detection of the addition of Citrus reticulata and hybrids
to Citrus sinensis by avonoids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1997;
45:1633-1637
[22] Bocco A, Cuvelier ME, Richard H, Berset C. Antioxidant activity and phenolic com-
position of citrus peel and seed extracts. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
1998;46:2123-2129
[23] Yusof S, Mohd Ghazali H, Swee KG. Naringin content in local citrus fruits. Food
Chemistry. 1990;37:113-121
[24] Bocco A, Cuvelier ME, Richard H, Berset C. The antioxidant activity of phenolic com-
pounds measured by an accelerated test based on citronellal oxidation. Sciences des
Aliments. 1997;18:13-24
[25] Mouly P, Arzouyan CR, Gaydou EM, Estienne JM. Chromatographie des avanonosides
des jus de die’rentes varie’tes de pamplemousses. Die’renciation par analyses statis-
tiques multidimensionnelles (Dierentiation of various grapefruit and pummelo juice
varieties using liquid chromatography of avanone glycosides and paern recognition
techniques). Analysis. 1995;23:336-341
[26] Mouly P, Arzouyan CR, Gaydou EM, Estienne JM. Dierentiation of citrus juices by
factorial discriminant analysis using liquid chromatography of avanone glycosides.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1994;42:70-79
[27] Mangels AR, Holden JM, Beecher GR. Carotenoid content of fruits and vegetables, an
evaluation of analytic data. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1993;93:284-296
[28] Seddon JM, Ajani AU, Sperduto RD. For the eye disease case-control study group,
dietray carotenoids, vitamin A, C, and E and advanced age-related macular degenera-
tion. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1994;271:1413-1430
[29] Masaya K. Mechanism of carotenoid accumulation in citrus fruit. Journal—Japanese
Society for Horticultural Science. 2012;81(3):219-233
[30] Brion GS. Structure and properties of carotenoids in relation to function. FAESB Journal.
1995;9:1551-1558
[31] Bruno RS, Mediros DM. Lutein, Zeaxanthin and age related macular degeneration.
Journal of Nutraceuticals Functional & Medical Foods. 2000;3(1):79-85
[32] Yokayama H, White MJ. Citrus carotenoids—VI.: Carotenoid pigments in the avedo of
Sinton citrangequat. Phytochemistry. 1966;5(6):1159-1173
[33] Craig EJ. Phytochemical guardians of our health. Journal of American Dietetic Associa-
tion. 2002;97(2):199-204
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology48
12
30
369
57
26
81
63
60
-
51
-
1
132
51
2015
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
49
-
81
-
-
47
67
64
Conium maculatum chloroplasts and mito-
1
-
sis in leaf chloroplasts of Lupinus polyphyllus70
44
-
18
-
50
49
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology50
[64] Ronen GM, Cohen D, Zamir Hirschberg J. Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis dur-
ing tomato fruit development: Expression of the gene for lycopene epsilon-cyclase is
downregulated during ripening and is elevated in the mutant Delta. The Plant Journal.
1999;17:341-351
[65] Bramley PM. Regulation of carotenoid formation during tomato fruit ripening and
development. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2002;53:2107-2113
[66] Kato M, Yoshinori I, Hikaru M, Minoru S, Hiroshi H, Masamichi Y. Accumulation of
carotenoids and expression of carotenoid biosynthetic genes during maturation in citrus
fruit. Plant Physiology. 2004;134:824-837
[67] Goodner KL, Rouse RL, Hofsommer HJ. Orange, mandarin, and hybrid classication
using multivariate statistics based on carotenoid proles. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry. 2001;49:1146-1150
[68] Ikoma Y, Komatsu A, Kita M, Ogawa K, Omura M, Yano M, et al. Expression of a phy-
toene synthase gene and characteristic carotenoid accumulation during citrus fruit
development. Physiologia Plantarum. 2001;111:232-238
[69] Snodderly DM. Evidence for protection against age-related macular degeneration by
carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins. America. 1995;62:14615-14685
[70] Sugiura MM, Nakamura K, Ogawa Y, Ikoma F, Ando H, Shimokata MY. Dietary pat-
terns of antioxidant vitamin and carotenoid intake associated with bone mineral density:
Findings from post-menopausal Japanese female subjects. Osteoporosis International.
2011;22:143-152
[71] Hasegawa S, Zhang J, Lam LKT. Inhibition of chemically induced carcinogenesis by
citrus limited. In: Huang MJ, Osawa T, Ho CT, Rosen RT, editors. Food Phytochemicals
for Cancer Prevention I. Fruits and Vegetables. Washington, DC: American Chemical
Society; 1994. pp. 209-219
[72] Okwu DE. Phytochemicals and vitamins content of indigenous spices of south eastern
Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment. 2004;6(1):30-37
[73] Okwu DE. Phytochemicals, vitamins and minerals contents of two Nigerian medicinal
plants. International Journal of Molecular Medicine and Advance Sciences. 2005;1:375-381
[74] United State Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Fact Sheet on Limonene.
Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances: EPA-738-F-94-030; 1994. pp. 1-5
[75] Butler P. It's like magic; removing self-adhesive stamps from paper (PDF). American
Philatelist. American Philatelic Society. 2010;124(10):910-913
[76] Wynnchuk M. Evaluation of xylene substitutes for a paran tissue processing. Journal
of Histotechnology. 1994;2:143-149
[77] Carson F. Histotechnology. A Self-Instructional Text. Chicago: ASCP Press; 1997. pp. 28-31
[78] Kiernan JA. Histological and Histochemical Methods. 4th ed. Bloxham, UK: Cold Spring
Harbor Laboratory Press; 2008. pp. 54-57
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
51
[79] Sun J. D-limonene: Safety and clinical applications. Alternative Medicine Review. 2007;
12(3):259-264
[80] Rodrigues A, Sandstrom A, Ca T. Protection from cholera by adding lime juice to food—
Results from community and laboratory studies in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa. Tropical
Medicine & International Health. 2000;5(6):418-422
[81] Mata L, Vargas C, Saborio D, Vives M. Extinction of Vibrio cholerae in acidic substrata:
Contaminated cabbage and leuce treated with lime juice. Revista de Biología Tropical.
1994;42(3):487-492
[82] Reddy LJ, Jalli RD, Jose B, Gopu S. Evaluation of antibacterial & antioxidant activities
of the leaf essential oil & leaf extracts of Citrus aurantifolia. Asian Journal of Biochemical
and Pharmaceutical Research. 2012;2(2):346-354
[83] Sekar M. Comparative evaluation of antimicrobial properties of citrus varieties avail-
able in Malaysia market. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research.
2013;5(4):32-35
[84] Gharagozloo M, Ghaderi A. Immunomodulatory eect of concentrated lime juice
extract on activated human mononuclear cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2001;
77(1):85-90
[85] Gründemann C, Papagiannopoulos M, Lamy E, Mersch-Sundermann V, Huber R.
Immunomodulatory properties of a lemon-quince preparation (Gencydo®) as an indica-
tor of anti-allergic potency. Phytomedicine. 2011;18(8-9):760-768
[86] Paison DJ, Silman AJ, Goodson NJ, Lunt M, Bunn D, Luben R, et al. The risk of devel-
oping inammatory polyarthritis: Prospective nested case-control study. Annals of the
Rheumatic Diseases. 2004;63(7):843-847
[87] Souza A, Lamidi M, Ibrahim B, Samseny A, Mounanga MBM, Batchi B. Antihypertensive
eect of an aqueous extract of Citrus aurantifolia (Rutaceae) (Christm.) Swingle, on
the arterial blood pressure of mammal. International Research of Pharmacy and
Pharmacology. 2011;1(7):142-148
[88] Asgary S, Keshvari M. Eects of Citrus sinensis juice on blood pressure. ARYA Atheroscler.
2013;9(1):98-101
[89] Al-Yahya MA, Mothana RA, Al-Said MS, El-Tahir KE, Al-Sohaibani M, Rafatullah S.
Citrus medica “Otroj”: Aenuates oxidative stress and cardiac dysrhythmia in isoproter-
enol-induced cardiomyopathy in rats. Nutrients. 2013;5:4269-4283
[90] Bloom H. Determinants of plasma homocysteine. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
1998;67:188-189
[91] Tucker K, Selhub J, Wilson P Rosenberg I. Dietary paern relates to plasma folate and
homocysteine concentrations in the Framingham Heart Study. Journal of Nutrition.
1996;126:3025-3031
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology52
[92] Harats D, Chevion S, Nahir M, Norman Y, Sagee O, Berry B. Citrus fruit supplementa-
tion reduces lipoprotein oxidation in young men ingesting a diet high in saturated fat:
Presumptive evidence for an interaction between vitamins C and E in vivo. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1998;67:240-245
[93] Do-Hoon L, Kwang-Il P, Hyeon-Soo P, Sang-Rim K, Arulkumar N, Jin-A K, et al.
Flavonoids isolated from Korea Citrus aurantium L. induce G2/M phase arrest and
apoptosis in human gastric cancer AGS cells. Evidence-Based Complementary and
Alternative Medicine. 2011;2012:1-11
[94] Takuji T, Takahiro T, Mayu T, Toshiya K. Cancer chemoprevention by citrus pulp and
juices containing high amounts of β-cryptoxanthin and hesperidin. Journal of Biome-
dicine & Biotechnology. 2011;2012:1-10
[95] Asghar G, Maryam N, Mahmood JT, Hamid Z. The citrus avonoid hesperidin induces p53
and inhibits NF-jB activation in order to trigger apoptosis in NALM-6 cells: Involvement
of PPARc-dependent mechanism. European Journal of Nutrition. 2012;51:39-46
[96] Chang L, Jia S, Fu Y, Zhou T, Cao J, He Q, et al. Ougan (Citrus reticulata cv. Suavissima)
avedo extract suppresses cancer motility by interfering with epithelial-to-mesenchy-
mal transition in SKOV3 cells. Chinese Medicine. 2015;10:14-23
[97] Patil JR. Studies on isolation and characterization of bioactive compounds in lime
[Citrus aurantifolia (Christm) Swingle], their antioxidant and anticancer properties [PhD
thesis]. Dharwad: University of Agricultural Sciences; 2009
[98] Patil JP, Jayaprakasha GK, Murthy KNC, Tichy EE, Chei MB, Patil BS. Apoptosis-
mediated proliferation inhibition of human colon cancer cells by volatile principles of
Citrus aurantifolia. Food Chemistry. 2009;114:1351-1358
[99] Gharagozloo M, Doroudchi M Ghaderi A. Eects of Citrus aurantifolia concentrated
extract on the spontaneous proliferation of MDA-MB-453 and RPMI-8866 tumor cell
linesmore. Phytomedicine. 2002;9:475-477
[100] Addul Redha WA, Yaseen NY, Gali MA. Genotoxic eects of Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
on human lymphocytes. Iraqi Journal of Cancer and Medical Genetics. 2012;5(1):97-107
[101] Shen W, Xu Y, Lu YH. Inhibitory eects of citrus avonoids on starch digestion and
antihyperglycemic eects in HepG2 cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
2012;60:9609-9619. DOI: 10.1021/jf3032556
[102] Akiyama S, Katsumata SI, Suzuki K, Ishimi Y, Wu J, Uehara M. Dietary hesperidin
exerts hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic eects in streptozotocin-induced marginal
type 1 diabetic rats. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition. 2010;46:87. DOI:
10.3164/jcbn.09-82
[103] Annadurai T, Muralidharan A, Joseph T, Hsu M, Thomas P, Geraldine P. Antihy-
perglycemic and antioxidant eects of a avanone, naringenin, in streptozotocin–nico-
tinamide-induced experimental diabetic rats. Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry.
2012;68:307-318. DOI: 10.1007/s13105-011-0142-y
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
53
[104] Fallahi F, Roghani M, Moghadami S. Citrus avonoid naringenin improves aortic reac-
tivity in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 2012;44:382. DOI:
10.4103/0253-7613.96350
[105] KunduSen S, Haldar PK, Gupta M, Mazumder UK, Saha P, Bala A, et al. Evaluation of
antihyperglycemic activity of Citrus limea fruit peel in streptozotocin-induced diabetic
rats. ISRN Endocrinology. 2011;2011:1-8. DOI: 10.5402/2011/869273
[106] Asnaashari S, Delazar A, Habibi B, Vas R, Nahar L, Hamedeyazdan S, et al. Essential oil
from Citrus aurantifolia prevents ketotifen induced weight-gain in mice. Phytotherapy
Research. 2010;24(12):1893. DOI: 10.1002/ptr.3227
[107] Menichini F, Tundis R, Loizzo MR, Bonesi M, Liu B, Jones P, et al. C. medica cv diamante
peel chemical composition and inuence on glucose homeostasis and metabolic param-
eters. Food Chemistry. 2011;124(3):1083-1089
[108] Demonty I, Lin Y, Zebregs YE, Vermeer MA, van der Knaap HC, Jäkel M, et al. The
citrus avonoids hesperidin and naringin do not aect serum cholesterol in moderately
hypercholesterolemic men and women. The Journal of Nutrition. 2010;140:1615-1620.
DOI: 10.3945/jn.110.124735
[109] Yaghmaie P, Parivar K, Haftsavar M. Eects of Citrus aurantifolia peel essential oil on
serum cholesterol levels in Wistar rats. Journal of Paramedical Sciences (JPS). 2011;
2(1):29-32
[110] Mulvihill EE, Assini JM, Sutherland BG, DiMaia AS, Khami M, Koppes JB, et al.
Naringenin decreases progression of atherosclerosis by improving dyslipidemia in
high-fat–fed low-density lipoprotein receptor–null mice. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis,
and Vascular Biology. 2010;30:742-748. DOI: 10.1161/ATVBAHA.109.201095
[111] Dipak KP, Ranajit K. Nutrients, vitamins and minerals content in common citrus
fruits in the northern region of Bangladesh. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences.
2004;7(2):238-242
[112] Katrine B. The health benets of citrus fruits. Sydney NSW: Horticultural Australia
Ltd., 2000;2003:1-100
[113] Varo P, Lahelma O, Nuurtamo M, Saari E, Koivistoinen P. Mineral element composition
of Finnish foods. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica. 1980;22(Suppl):89-113
[114] Hunt CD, Shuler TR, Mullen LM. Concentration of boron and other elements in human
foods and personal-care products. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1991;
91:558-568
[115] Ogawa K, Kawasaki A, Yoshida T, Nesumi H, Nakano M, Ikoma Y, et al. Evalulation of
Auraptene content of citrus fruits and their products. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry. 2000;48:1763-1769
[116] Anderson DL, Cunningham WC, Lindstrom TR. Concentrations and intakes of H, B, S,
K, Na, CI, and NaCI in foods. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 1994;7:59-82
Citrus - Health Benefits and Production Technology54
[117] Shearer MJ, Bach A, Kohlmeier M. Chemistry, nutritional sources, tissue distribution
and metabolism of vitamin K with special reference to bone health. The Journal of
Nutrition. 1996;126:1181S-1186S
[118] Booth SL, Sadowski JA, Pennington JAT. Phylloquinone (vitamin K1) content of foods
in the U.S.Food and Drug Administration's total diet study. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry. 1995;43:1574-1579
[119] Rao AV, Agarwal S. Role of lycopene as antioxidant carotenoid in the prevention of
chronic diseases: A review. Nutrition Research. 1999;19:305-323
[120] Hertog MG, Hollman PC, van de Pue B. Content of potentially anticarcinogenic
avonoids of tea infusions, wines, and fruit juices. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry. 1993;41:1242-1246
[121] Whitney E, Rolfes S. In: Rolfes W, editor. Understanding Nutrition. 8th ed. Belmont,
Ca., USA: West/Wadsworth; 1999
[122] Gutherie H, Picciano M. Human Nutrition. St Louis, MO, USA: Mosby; 1995
Exploitative Beneficial Effects of Citrus Fruits
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79783
55
