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Chapter 1: Introduction to Action Learning and Action Research: Genres and Approaches
... co-production and emphasized the importance of both researcher and participant reflection (Rowell et al. 2015;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) The cycle of action research: ...
... 1. Fact-finding (Lewin, 1946) / Data collecting: through observations, interviews, discussion, and reading (Rowell et al., 2015; Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) 2. Planning: through co-production (Rowell et al., 2015;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) 3. Action (Lewin, 1946) / Acting: through group events and interventions (Rowell et al., 2015; Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) 4. Evaluation (Lewin, 1946) / Reflecting: analysis of data, researcher reflections and reflective discussions between participants and researchers (Rowell et al., 2015;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) We ran the action research process over four cycles involving participants in a process of coproduction (Lewin, 1946;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019). The full details of the cycles are explained in Appendix 1. Cycle 1 involved co-constructing the research process with the management team to enable them to explore a management problem they had identified in relation to their consulting practice. ...
... 1. Fact-finding (Lewin, 1946) / Data collecting: through observations, interviews, discussion, and reading (Rowell et al., 2015; Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) 2. Planning: through co-production (Rowell et al., 2015;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) 3. Action (Lewin, 1946) / Acting: through group events and interventions (Rowell et al., 2015; Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) 4. Evaluation (Lewin, 1946) / Reflecting: analysis of data, researcher reflections and reflective discussions between participants and researchers (Rowell et al., 2015;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019) We ran the action research process over four cycles involving participants in a process of coproduction (Lewin, 1946;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019). The full details of the cycles are explained in Appendix 1. Cycle 1 involved co-constructing the research process with the management team to enable them to explore a management problem they had identified in relation to their consulting practice. ...
Through a process of action research with a non-religious organization, this article provides a foundation for the characteristics of a secular discernment process. Importantly, we argue that discernment can be conceptualized as a process of entwined individual unlearning and collective relearning. Our action research study contributes to both the discernment and the unlearning literatures by unpacking how discernment encourages a process of individual unlearning – which our study suggests entails a process of ‘setting aside’ and reflexive-distancing from a priori individual knowledge – to be more open and receptive to new ways of emergent collective re-learning. The process of unlearning – and the behavioural norms and routines that are central to discernment – underscores the collective relearning process. The article concludes with future pathways for research.
... Additionally, several research studies have revealed the benefit of introducing the ALAR process in a practical, linear manner, providing step-by-step instructions, along with observing the organic, free-flowing process of ALAR (i.e. Stewart et al., 2019;Zuber-Skerritt & Wood, 2019a). ...
... The project positioned an ARPLS scheme to create and implement an innovative framework to develop emerging academic leaders' capacity to both articulate and enhance their leadership for learning and teaching practice (Dick, 2017;Zuber-Skerritt & Wood, 2019a). The ARPLS adopted the qualitative approach with the implementation plan outlined in Figure 2. ...
The higher education (HE) landscape continues to grow in complexity; thus, there is a need to improve the understanding of leadership in this context. This action research (AR) study was undertaken in a multi-disciplinary context of an Australian university to develop and evaluate an action learning (AL) project promoting leadership practice. An overview of AL is provided to situate the case study methodology and to demonstrate how it is used to develop leadership capabilities and benefit ‘team learning’. The findings support the development of AR programs for leaders in the ever-changing environment of HE. The need for an understanding of what leadership is, the development of a learning community and the articulation of the learning processes are seen as essential to support leaders in their development. Leaders not only need to be reflective but also require a safe and trusting environment to support their quest for career progression, grants and awards.
... The question that guided this article was: "What are the benefits and possible dangers of using body mapping with vulnerable populations such as NEET youth?" Action learning as a positive theory of change AL as a paradigm or theory of change acknowledges the worth of embodied knowledge, which is self-directed, empowering and sustainable (Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019). By engaging with participants to find ways to develop creative learning and thinking "outside the box" that is appropriate for people facing social and economic adversities, youth who are in danger of losing hope can develop confidence, capability and character and understand how they can initiate and sustain personal development. ...
Purpose
This study aims to explore the NEET (Not in Education, Employment and Training) experiences of young people living in impoverished settings.
Design/methodology/approach
Methodologically, this study was informed by a qualitative analysis of visual and textual data related to a body mapping exercise with eleven young people who were participants in a four-day start-up workshop in a larger action research project.
Findings
The findings reveal that, although being NEET negatively affects young people’s self-esteem, confidence, hope for the future and general well-being, body mapping can help them discover latent assets useful for reducing their insecurities.
Originality/value
Researchers using this method need to be well prepared to deal with possible emotional trauma, and to this end, we provide some guidelines for the effective implementation of body mapping.
... It is one of the prominent methodologies used in healthcare, social care and educational setting (French, 2009) due to its capacity to link theory, practice and research (Holter and Schwartz-Barcott, 1993). In AR methodology, the case study was developed by the direct intervention of the researchers, rather than as sole observer (Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019). This type of methodology assists the researcher to have a deeper understanding of the situation from a sociocultural and sociotechnical perspective, which helps to unearth the answers to the RQs (Coughlan and Coghlan, 2002). ...
Purpose: The article evaluates the obstacles, lessons learned and managerial implications of deploying Lean Six Sigma (LSS) in a dental college hospital in India. Design/methodology/approach: The work adopts the action research (AR) methodology to establish a case study, which is carried out using the LSS define-measure-analyze-improve-control (DAMIC) approach in a dental college. It uses LSS tools to enhance the productivity and performance of the Conservative Dentistry Department of a dental college and to unravel the obstacles and success factors in applying it to the education and healthcare sector together.
Findings: The root cause for high turnaround time (TAT) is ascertained using LSS tools and techniques. The effective deployment of the solutions to the root causes of variation assists the dental college to reduce the TAT of the Conservative Dentistry process from an average of 63.9 min-36.5 min (i.e. 42.9% improvement), and the process Standard Deviation (SD) was reduced from 2.63 to 2 min. This, in turn, raises the sigma level from 0.48 to 3.23, a noteworthy successful story for this dental college.
Research limitations/implications: While the results and recommendations of this research are focused on a single case study, it is to be noted that the case study is carried out with new users of LSS tools and techniques, especially with the assistance of interns. This indicates the applicability of LSS in dental colleges; thus, the adopted modality can be further refined to fit India's education and hospital sector together.
Originality/value: This article explains the implementation of LSS from an aspiring user viewpoint to assist dental colleges and policymakers in improving competitiveness. In addition, the medical education sector can introduce an LSS course in the existing programme to leverage the potential of this methodology to bring synergy and collaborative research between data-based thinking and the medical field based on the findings of this study. The most important contribution of this article is the illustration of the design of experiments (DOE) in the dental college process.
... This project is the result of a participatory process of public policy implementation related to land rights, in which the main phases of what is identified as action research can be recognised: planning, design, action (McNiff, 2013;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood, 2019), and reflecting. A process of learning from social practices was implemented and is a means to build knowledge and capacities within communities and groups, especially in complex social settings with uncertainties and political changes (Chevalier and Buckles, 2019). ...
Urban development in Latin America in the last decades is the result of the formal and informal processes of land occupation. As the largest city and main port of Ecuador, Guayaquil is no exception and as a case study, offers new insights into the dynamics of these processes. This city’s metropolitan expansion has exceeded its natural geographic limits (e.g. hills, rivers, estuaries), resulting in segregated populations and a fragmented urban landscape that exacerbates social inequalities. This paper explores the potentialities and limitations of a participatory process as a strategy to gain the right to territory, by investigating the case of the San José site, a rural area of Samborondón Canton, and metropolitan Guayaquil. The study assessed whether the methods used in combination with land management tools were appropriate for the community’s process and needs and whether they contribute to the empowerment of rural and peripheral communities in the fight to claim land rights. Surveys and testimony concerning a participatory design in land readjustment are used. The research considers how a participatory process can allow inhabitants to become essential stakeholders in their community-planning process, to create a more equitable and inclusive city. Simultaneously, the process can contribute to providing essential knowledge for the different actors (public, private, and academic). The study discusses the potential and critical issues, limitations, and challenges of a participatory approach.
... In the social sciences literature, action learning is variously located in the paradigm of experiential learning (Kolb 1984), lifelong learning (Jackson 2011) and lifelong action learning (Zuber-Skerritt and Teare 2013), as well as PALAR (Wood 2020;Zuber-Skerritt and Wood 2019). However, from our perspective, action research is normally conceived as being more complex than action learning because of the stringent quality criteria concerning the research process and the need to produce findings that make a contribution to knowledge. ...
Action learning within community-based research is a powerful capacitator of social action. Here, we consider three aspects of action learning that are vital to enable this: (i) developing self-directed and lifelong action learning; (ii) generating local and theoretical knowledge through action research and reflection on learning; and (iii) identifying the key principles and processes of action learning as an integrated concept within the participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) paradigm. We argue that action learning has to be developed in a systematic, educational way to enable people to take responsibility for improving their life circumstances. Examples from university partnerships with communities in South Africa and Australia demonstrate how action learning, within a PALAR process, can inspire and enable individuals and whole communities to learn and develop skills, attitudes, values, and understandings to engage in social action most effective for their particular needs and contexts. In this way, people become self-directed learners, creators of knowledge and activists able to challenge and disrupt dominant power relationships and traditional ways of conducting research. These case examples illustrate how action learning, as part of a PALAR process, enables the university to partner with community for social action towards a more just society.
The education transformation from teacher centred to student centred learning has inspired most of educator to be more selective and creative to develop the way they handle their teaching learning process. It is supported with the condition that all education must be held online due to the pandemic situation. The teachers ability in utilizing technology for their teaching learning process needs to be developed. This study aims at investigating the teachers readiness in exploring the potential of technology in form of professional development. Modifying action research in mixed method are used as methodology in this research. Data were obtained through a focus group discussion and workshop which was followed by a semi structured interview. Findings for this study have enhanced the understanding of some aspects that teachers put into consideration while designing technology-integrated lessons; identifying goals, analysing learners, planning instructional activities, and choosing the technology tools. However, teachers must be triggered by cognitive prompts in order to support them in making decisions about learning objectives, activity stages, and technology tools to integrate.
Many reviewers of applications for ethical approval of research at universities struggle to understand what is considered ethical conduct in community-based research (CBR). Their difficulty in understanding CBR and the ethics embedded within it is, in part, due to the exclusion of CBR from researchers’ mandatory research ethics training. After all, CBR challenges both pedagogically and epistemologically the dominant paradigm/s whose worldviews, values and inherent structures of power help sustain the status quo within academic institutions at large. Consequently, CBR ethics applications are often prolonged due to back-and-forth rebuttals. In this article, we analyse our experiences in a South African institution of the ethics approval process for our various CBR projects over the past couple of years. Data for this purpose was generated from analysis of our reflexive dialogues as well as our responses to feedback from the ethics review boards. To help support the trustworthiness of the study, we invited critical friends to a workshop to engage with our findings. We identified three main themes all associated with how the values, worldviews and approaches of CBR differ from those of the dominant research paradigm/s, that impeded on the progress of our applications through the ethics approval process. On the basis of our analysis, we offer guidelines and a participatory research checklist for university ethics review panels to help inform their evaluation of applications concerning CBR. While universities now actively promote community engagement initiatives, and since CBR is an efficacious approach to that end, we advocate for inclusion of CBR ethics in universities’ mandatory ethics training, to help address ethical concerns that impede CBR research.
Background:
The future success of any graduate or professional degree program is dependent upon continuous feedback provided by instructors and students. Various teaching models used by medical educators include didactics, problem/case-based learning, small/large group work, distance/online education, simulation, labs, and service/experiential learning. Action Learning is a process "that involves a small group working on real problems, taking action, and learning as individuals, as a team, and as an organization." Medical school curricula usually begin with a mostly knowledge-based approach to learning the relevant science courses. While it may include some experiential learning, there is limited organized reflection. The idea inherent in Action Learning is "learn while doing" and "reflect on the experience." This paper reports the process and outcomes of using the Action Learning Model (ALM) in teaching a master's level assessment and measurement medical education class.
Objective:
The objective of this quality improvement education study was to ascertain students' knowledge, skills, and attitudes demonstrated in conducting substantive evaluations using the ALM in a graduate medical education assessment and measurement course.
Method:
This study was a formative evaluation of a 16-week master's level medical education assessment and measurement course. The curriculum included teaching the traditional knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) to conduct formative and summative evaluations in medical education. In addition, students learned applicable quality improvement skills. Specifically, they learned how to identify and work with valid customer (student) requirements, how to map and improve processes, and how to collect and analyze process data. Students were taught the KSAs while conducting a formative evaluation of the class as their major project. They evaluated the class they were taking while reflecting on the experience. In addition to the ALM, the course incorporated both the Bloom Taxonomy (a hierarchical framework for cognition and learning objectives) and the Kirkpatrick Model (a globally recognized method of evaluating the results of training and learning programs). The one-sample significance test was used to evaluate the median of the difference between the pre-and post-test groups. Descriptive statistics were also performed.
Results:
Nine students who were medical students, dental students, physicians, and simulation lab technicians participated in the course. Students learned medical education assessment and measurement of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) and experienced the process of performing a formative evaluation. The post-test results for all students combined revealed that 277 of the 450 (61.6%) data points were greater than zero. A total of 139 data points showed no improvement and 34 results were worse than the pretest. Discussion: The ALM for teaching assessment and measurement in medical education can be challenging, but it may provide a more realistic and rewarding educational experience. The students gained a greater appreciation of the positive and negative aspects of using an experiential approach. Finally, the weekly formative surveys provided regular feedback that led to instructional improvements. With regards to medical education, action learning is best suited for students during the clinical phase of their education.
Background: Children's holistic development includes physical, cognitive, socio-emotional, moral and affective development and lies in early childhood development education (ECDE). According to research, children learn through different age-appropriate teaching and learning pedagogies. Therefore, the importance of implementing a play-based methodology in the early years. This study was underpinned by the theory of play as a spiral of learning.
Aim: This study aimed to demonstrate how a play-based pedagogy could be utilised to enhance holistic development in young children.
Setting: Three ECD centres in Gauteng, South Africa participated in the Thutopapadi (play-based learning) research. The action learning set (ALS) consisted of one Grade R teacher and two practitioners; the Grade R facilitator and three North-West University researchers.
Methods: We employed a qualitative approach within the participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) design to interrogate the extent to which a play-based pedagogy could be useful in enhancing the holistic development of young children. Transcriptions of meetings held by the ALS and photovoice were used to generate data. The participants reflected on and communicated about themes discussed during the ALS. We used the principles of thematic content analysis to analyse the generated data.
Results: The results of this study proposed that to support holistic development in young children, practitioners and parents should maximise the use of a play-based methodology in both social and learning environments.
Conclusion: Follow-ups should be made to ensure that the pedagogy that is being used in early childhood development education centres corresponds with the needs for the development of young children.
In this article we combine Boyer’s 4 domains of scholarship with Hutchings’ 4 types of questions and Ghaye, Melander-Wikman, Kisare, Chambers, Bergmark, Kostenius and Lillyman’s (2008) reflective learning framework using a Participatory Action Learning and Action Research (PALAR) method to explore the perceived gap in in-service teachers’ experience in classroom contexts. Qualitative data were collected in an action learning set (ALS) consisting of distance learning in-service teachers enrolled in a learning support programme through purposeful discussions, reflective diaries, observations, and open-ended reflective learning questionnaires. In the research reported on here we found that collaborative partnerships initiated scholarly thoughts and actions when sharing and evaluating insights during the research process, which resulted in building on learning that has been gained together. The findings point to the need for collaboration between lecturers and students to develop an awareness to not only take knowledge from one another to create theories about how they should deal with problems but rather to jointly become reflective collaborative scholars to address the theory-practice gap.
This paper outlines the personal transformation that occurred when three university educators from very different fields (education, midwifery, and oral health) and world views, established a common understanding of their research topic and subsequent development of a research question to improve health educators’ capability when teaching interprofessional practice. Most health educators entering higher education are specialists in their clinical practice foremost, and therefore, the health researchers engaged with an education specialist to develop a project scope. Through an eight-month process of challenging, learning, reflecting, and actively testing the meaning of ideas and statements, a consensus was achieved on a research aim and proposal that would guide the research process. This paper presents the collaborative journey to achieve this consensus. The individual stories of two of the researchers’ journeys were analysed, identifying that a shift in the understanding of ontology and pedagogy takes time and effort, and change is reliant on a collective working together towards a positive outcome where consensus is arrived at through challenge and dialogue. There was an action learning phase that pre-empted the researchers’ capacity to collectively envision the research aim when working across professions, providing a practical knowing that is explored in this paper.
Both organizations and the information technology (IT) community have long worked to overcome the common problem of dissatisfaction with IT investments’ outcomes in multiple ways. Much attention has been on users’ involvement in IT design, while users’ engagement in later further utilization of IT is less explored. This paper reports on action research (AR) that sought to stimulate local learning processes and increase the exploitation of a case-handling system. The experiment is done in a county administration where the senior management has, for some time, felt that the IT is not fully utilized. The local intervention was based on an awareness of a need to overcome defensive routines to establish communicative spaces to facilitate communication between various units with strong local identities. The AR project was carried out in three local interventions and presented as an experimental approach. We could not guarantee that the design could overcome the issues identified after the first round of interviews with senior management and department managers. The intervention process espoused various defensive routines, even some that the communicative space approach could not overcome. The outcomes from the three experiments are, therefore, mixed. The results indicate that creating communicative spaces is a viable approach to engaging users in systems development. Nevertheless, defensive routines, reluctant managers, and communities of practices hamper the development of communicative spaces.
Community engagement (CE) is a core function of the university in South Africa. In the field of education, the imperative to pursue and promote CE provides an exciting opportunity for researchers to work with school communities to address the many challenges that threaten the quality of teaching and learning. Yet, relatively few researchers in education faculties have expertise in this emerging area of scholarship. There is therefore a need to develop among academics a capacity for community-based research and deep knowledge of how to approach it effectively. This conceptual article positions participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) as a creative, innovative, collaborative and self-developed way to achieve this purpose. Findings from various PALAR projects, in which the authors have participated, provide evidence of PALAR's utility for disrupting traditional notions of partnership, power relations and knowledge creation. However, they also highlight the challenges this form of enquiry poses within academic environments geared for research that follows a more predetermined, researcher-controlled trajectory. Thesefindings are helpful for stimulating thinking about how such challenges can be addressed to ensure that the research, action, and knowledge we create through this process actually translate into practical community improvement.
Purpose
The purpose of this action research is to begin to assess to what extent organizations have in practice begun to make the shift towards triple bottom line (TBL) sustainability.
Design/methodology/approach
A definition of TBL sustainability is provided, and key elements of TBL sustainability considered necessary to success are identified based on current literature and public commentary. An assessment is made via published surveys and an action research study of how these components are being addressed now and for the future. The action research study involved the design and launching of a Zoomerang survey that was posted both in the USA and on international websites and blogs.
Findings
The synthesis from the research reveals a lack of a clear definition of sustainability which sets in motion a whole systemic dynamic. The data from the action research exemplify this dynamic. First, there is a pattern of adopting a short‐term focus and expediency in decision making. Second, problem solving favors the “quick fix” over thoughtful consideration and development of the key components for sustainability. The research may also lead to questioning the urgency of implementing the very complex systemic TBL sustainability at this time in view of widespread climate concerns, versus concentrating on the more straightforward carbon footprint reduction.
Research limitations/implications
A major implication is the pressing need to clearly define sustainability and its organizational implications. Organizations must then make the shift from a short‐term perspective to more of a long‐term perspective, such that the clearly defined sustainability concerns will be addressed. Research conclusions are based on limited published data and a single survey; further research is required to substantiate the conclusions.
Practical implications
Sustainability is making some inroads in organizations but far too many organizations are only “going through the motions” with predictable results for overall need for improvement. A cohesive, clear linkage among the defining characteristics of sustainability, and guidelines for implementation, are proposed in this paper.
Originality/value
This action research presents data on how sustainability is actually viewed and implemented in organizations, and suggests from a systemic point of view which critical components of sustainability are yet to be seriously addressed.
The purpose of this article is to provide an educational, theoretical, and methodological framework for using a special kind of action research, namely PALAR (participatory action learning and action research). This integrated methodology of lifelong action learning (AL) and participatory action research (PAR) has been developed over the past 25 years. It has been proven to be an effective approach to individual, professional, organizational, community (and generally practice) development. PALAR can be instrumental in pursuit of social justice and is well suited for both experienced and beginning researchers interested in researching and improving their own practice. The article illustrates with case examples how this framework has been put into practice for various programs in a variety of fields and countries. The PALAR framework is the basis for a generic program design, structure, and content, and for processes of learning, teaching, assessment, evaluation, and leadership development. It is a systemic and systematic program on how to design, justify, conduct, evaluate, write, and publish research that is particularly useful for community or work-based theses at master’s, professional doctorate, and PhD levels. An original feature of this article is its comprehensive overview and summary of the theory and practice of PALAR for the first time, with references to further readings.
This chapter draws conclusions from all previous chapters in this book into a coherent argument that early in this twenty-first century, when neo-liberalism and managerialism are dominant forces in much of the world we need to shift the dominant mindset towards a participatory paradigm of action learning, action research and action leadership to improve human and social conditions for ourselves, others and future generations. I argue that participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) can best facilitate the collaborative learning and shared democratic leadership required for individuals, groups and whole organizations and communities. This argument is evidenced by my own, my colleagues’ and other authors’ experience and research and summarized in two new models, one for the advancement of PALAR praxis and project development and the other for action leadership towards a participatory paradigm – the title of this book. I also suggest a new genre for PALAR writing as developed in this book.
Purpose
This paper aims to: extend the concept of “The learning organization” to “The learning community”, especially disadvantaged communities; demonstrate how leaders in a migrant community can achieve positive change at the personal, professional, team and community learning levels through participatory action learning and action research (PALAR); and identify the key characteristics of a sustainable learning community.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper combines an innovative and creative methodology of PALAR and a new learning system designed by the Global University for Lifelong Learning (GULL).
Findings
A lack of cultural understanding on the part of government agencies contributes to a migrant community's socio‐economic disadvantage, e.g. high unemployment and crime rates, underachievement in education, exclusion from higher education. The Samoan community is a disadvantaged migrant group in Australia who were helped to help themselves to achieve positive change and quality learning in partnership with university researchers. The use of an enabling framework designed by GULL, mainly for developing countries, also proved to be an effective system for achieving personal and organizational learning in a disadvantaged community in Australia.
Practical implications
The findings represented in the conceptual models enhance understanding of the key principles and processes involved in an organizational learning project for sustainable development of a learning community.
Originality/value
This is one of the first papers to evaluate and track the learning outcomes in a community applying the GULL system that is used successfully in about 40 developing countries, but has not yet been sufficiently researched and documented in a developed country.
A fully-updated and reworked version of the classic book by Stephen Kemmis and Robin McTaggart , now joined by Rhonda Nixon, The Action Research Planner is a detailed guide to developing and conducting a critical participatory action research project. The authors outline new views on ‘participation’ (based on Jürgen Habermas’s notion of a ‘public sphere’), ‘practice’ (as shaped by practice architectures), and ‘research’ (as research within practice traditions). They provide five extended examples of critical participatory action research studies. The book includes a range of resources for people planning a critical participatory research initiative, providing guidance on how to establish an action research group and identify a shared concern, research ethics, principles of procedure for action researchers, protocols for collaborative work, keeping a journal, gathering evidence, reporting, and choosing academic partners.
Unlike earlier editions, The Action Research Planner focuses specifically on critical participatory action research, which occupies a particular (critical) niche in the action research 'family'.
The Action Research Planner is an essential guide to planning and undertaking this type of research.
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