Content uploaded by Anastasios Zopiatis
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Anastasios Zopiatis on May 25, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
The celebrity chef phenomenon:
a (reflective) commentary
Anastasios Zopiatis
Department of Hotel and Tourism Management,
Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus, and
Yioula Melanthiou
Department of Marketing, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
Abstract
Purpose –This paper aims to explore the nature of the celebrity chef phenomenon and its impact on the
contemporary hospitality industry, to both enrich current knowledge on the topic, as well as inform future
research endeavors.
Design/methodology/approach –The study was based on a narrative literature review of secondary
data sources, namely, academic literature and industry-related articles, and video data collected from popular
video-hosting websites.
Findings –Despite the vast popularity of celebrity chefs, the phenomenon remains underexplored, with
limited coverage given to it by hospitality-related literature. Prior investigations primarily focused on
celebrity chefs’commercial influence and power of advocacy, with little reference to their impact on the next
generation of culinary professionals and on the sustainability of the profession.
Research limitations/implications –This commentary has numerous theoretical and practical
implications for industry stakeholders who wish to explore this phenomenon beyond the limited confinements
of its commercial impact. In particular, the study explores the nature of the phenomenon, where television,
social media and the celebrity status of chefs influence both the values and norms surrounding the profession,
and individuals’vocational choices. That said, findings suggest that additional research is required on this
topic.
Originality/value –The exploration of celebrity chefs as a topic has so far been limited and has leaned
toward one dimension in hospitality literature, despite its interesting scope. This critical overview provides
conceptual clarity on issues such as the phenomenon’s commercial and vocational impact and highlights
areas of concern and opportunity. Moreover, the study sets a clear pathway for further research.
Keywords Celebrity chefs, Consumer perceptions, Culinary arts professions, Culinary education
Paper type General review
1. Introduction
A growing body of literature (Chen et al., 2017;Clarke et al.,2016;Henderson, 2011)isfocusing
on the emergence and proliferation of celebrity chefs, a phenomenon which has irrevocably
changed public perception around “[...] one of the most challenging professions in the
hospitality industry”(Zopiatis, 2010, p. 459). Despite the fact that the phenomenon has
redefined and rejuvenated what was once one of the most marginalized jobs in the industry,
questions persist as to its actual impact, especially with regards to its commercial and
vocational capabilities.
Widely regarded as one of the more “inhumane”hospitality professions, culinary jobs
have traditionally received moderate academic coverage, with studies focusing mainly on
aspects relating to human resource management. Studies have gone some way in exploring
the kitchen environment, especially with regards to unusual characteristics such as
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Received 22 December2017
Revised 27 March 2018
25 June 2018
Accepted 4 September2018
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
© Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-6119
DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-12-2017-0822
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
psychological harassment and physical abuse experienced by employees (Bloisi and Hoel,
2008), conditions causing high turnover and attrition rates (Robinson and Barron, 2007),
high levels of occupational stress (Murray-Gibbons and Gibbons, 2007), extensive alcohol
and other drug use (Giousmpasoglou et al., 2018a), emotional burnout (Zopiatis and
Orphanides, 2009), work/life balance and gender segregation issues (Giousmpasoglou et al.,
2018b;Harris and Giuffre, 2010) and other managerial challenges, such as labor shortages,
training deficiencies and employee retention challenges (Pratten and O’Leary, 2007;Rowley
and Purcell, 2001).
Celebrity chefs –whose profession was traditionally confined to “back of the house”
operations, with limited clientele interaction –have recently experienced meteoric success in
popular culture, capturing the attention of millions worldwide. Chefs such as Emeril
Lagasse, Joël Robuchon, Marco Pierre White, Alain Ducasse, Gordon Ramsay, Ferran Adrià,
Wolfgang Puck, Jamie Oliver and Anthony Bourdain have become household names and
gained a large number of loyal followers. By unveiling the creativity, mastery and hardiness
(physical and mental) required by their profession, celebrity chefs have gained commercial
and financial power (Henderson, 2011); this in turn has allowed them to influence both
public perception and the future of their profession. By exploiting the tangibility of their
craft, namely, the production of ready-to-eat food, celebrity chefs have piqued the public’s
curiosity. They have also become the driving force behind the creation and expansion of
dedicated TV channels (e.g. Food Network) and syndicated reality television shows, thus
creating a multi-billion global industry (Lane and Fisher, 2015).
Theories abound on celebrity chefs, both with regards to their emergence and their
incredible popularity. Leschziner (2015, p. 15) notes:
The dramatic expansion of media devoted to food, and of reviews, ratings, rankings, and awards;
the growth of culinary schools, the rapid changes in fads and fashion; and last but not least, the
phenomenon of celebrity chefs (itself a sign of an area structured around individuals’careers)
show a more organized, and also more dynamic, world of high cuisine than existed previously.
With these changes, professional cooking gained social status, and chefs’names became valuable
capital for restaurants.
Along the same lines, in a panel discussion organized by the Connecticut Forum in 2009
[CTFORUM (Connecticut Forum), 2009, 00:00:09 - 00:01:24], CNN’sParts Unknown host
Anthony Bourdain, a renowned celebrity chef, provided a colorful explanation as to the
popularity of the phenomenon, which he believes revolves around the emergent voyeur
culture:
Traditionally we were the losers of the family. It is a profession that has been welcoming to
misfits throughout history [...] The people who couldn’t make it in the world find a welcoming
place in restaurants [...] So why do these people have TV shows? [...]It’s the new pornography.
People see things on TV that they are not going to be doing themselves anytime soon [...] just
like porn!
Despite the phenomenon’s immense popularity, certain aspects have attracted criticism.
Anthony Bourdain has criticized TV programs for promoting “ready-made bobblehead
personalities”instead of real chefs. Another celebrity chef, Bobby Flay, similarly warns
about deviating from the core values of the profession by reporting that his students more
often ask “How can I get my own show?”rather than “How can I learn to make great food?”
(911 Chef Eric, 2016). From a different perspective, Scholes (2011) criticizes the macho
personas and gender inequality promoted by celebrity chefs, with specific reference to
Gordon Ramsay, whereas Jones (2009) argues that the overemphasis on haute cuisine is
problematic, especially during times of economicdownturn.
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
This paper uses a narrative literature review approach to provide a historic overview of
the celebrity chef phenomenon –an ongoing topic of interest to hospitality industry
stakeholders –by exploring issues such as its commercial and vocational impact. This
commentary, which also contains personal reflections on the topic, aims to explore the
impact of the phenomenon on the contemporary hospitality industry, with the intention of
offering new insight, as well as informing future research endeavors.
2. Celebrities and the “celebrity culture”
Barron (2014) notes that the term “celebrity”derives from the Latin word celebren and is
related to the French word célèbre, which conveys fame and being well known. The link, as
well as the discrepancies between fame and celebrity, has received extensive academic
attention, with Barnes (2010, p. 19), for example, suggesting that the concept of celebrity
“[...] is more transient, relying on marketing, timing and instant appeal,”whereas fame is
“[...] associated with individual demonstrations of superior skills or striking deeds as
displayed by a select few”.
There have been many definitions of celebrity over the years, with Boorstin (1961, p. 57)
being the first to define a celebrity as an individual who is “[...] well-known for their well-
knownness”. Other academics have taken this definition and given it nuance, such as Rein
et al. (1997, p. 15) who suggested that a celebrity is “[...] a person whose name has attention-
getting, interest-riveting and profit-generating value,”whereas Van Krieken (2012, p. 10)
notes that:
[...] it is a quality or status characterized by a capacity to attract attention, generating some
‘surplus value’or benefit derived from the fact of being well-known (highly visible) in itself in at
least one public arena. It can be either positive or negative, including notoriety.
As suggested by Keel and Nataraajan (2012), this definition is continually evolving, as being
a celebrity means more than just being famous. The ideological shift caused by “[...] the rise
of public society, a society that cultivates personal style as the antidote to formal democratic
equality”(Rojek, 2001, p. 9) has elevated and established celebrities as benchmarks of
success in a culture preoccupied with personality (Fitzgerald, 2008). Noteworthy is also the
notion that celebrities of the twenty-first century differ from those who came before, as the
lines between public and private, ordinary and famous, proper and improper have become
blurred or even, at times, ceased to exist (Harmon, 2005).
Evidence suggests that celebrities in the public eye are highly narcissistic, with reality
television personalities exhibiting the strongest behavior in this regard (Young and Pinsky,
2006). Narcissism –from the myth of Narcissus, a young man who fell in love with his own
reflection –tends to be inherent to the type of person who naturally seeks public exposure.
Specifically, narcissists tend to have unconventionally extroverted personalities (Bradlee
and Emmons, 1992), are likable upon first impression and can easily relate to others. On the
other hand, they also tend to exhibit an array of negative traits, such as self-centeredness, a
constant need for attention, overconfidence and manipulative behavior (Sedikides et al.,
2002;Young and Pinsky, 2006).
It is therefore easy to see how the celebrity phenomenon emerged in the context of
twentieth century culture, as it fit both within the narrative of the 24/7 media, as well as the
rise of reality television. Celebrity culture can be viewed via two theoretical approaches,
namely the sociological and the semiotic. The former views celebrities as they have been
promoted, with their work being less important to their success, while the latter gives due
importance to their work (Harmon, 2005). From a different perspective, McCollum-Spielman
(1980) divided celebrities into two groups, namely, entertainers, such as actors, models,
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
comedians, singers, musicians and TV hosts, and non-entertainers, such as athletes and
politicians. More recently, Connor (2010, p. 227) suggested that celebrities can be categorized
as A-list, such as Hollywood stars or other celebrities with international appeal, all the way
down to Z-list, who he describes as “[...] scum-of-the-earth celebrities who populate the
reality shows”.
Theorists, mostly from the field of sociology, distinguish the phenomenon of celebrity
into the perspectives of celebritization and celebrification. Driessens (2013,p.643)
differentiates the terms by suggesting that celebritization is the “societal and cultural
changes implied by celebrity,”whereas celebrification “comprises the changes at the
individual level, or, more precisely, the process by which ordinary people or public figures
are transformed into celebrities”. In her lucid critique, Jerslev (2014, p. 174) suggests that
celebrification “[...] should be regarded broadly as covering the continuous cross-media
processes whereby the meaning of celebrity is negotiated and maintained through
interactions between the media, their users and the celebrity in question. As such,
celebrification is unthinkable without the media,”whereas celebritization is a much broader
term with global dimensions that transcends geographical and cultural borders.
Celebritization principles and tactics have been the subject of extensive academic research,
especially with regards to political marketing, and associated communication and campaign
strategies (Goodman, 2010).
In the context of discussing celebrity chefs, we first turn to celebrification, namely, when a
chef transitions from a “nobody”to a “somebody”or an unknown person to a famous or
infamous one. As Jerslev (2014) stated, celebrification is impossible without the media, and as
such, celebrity chefs often refer to their path to fame when giving interviews. At times, some,
consciously or not, reject the notion of having been celebrified, as they do not consider
themselves to be celebrities. They attribute their unintentional celebrification to either luck,
pure coincidence, or a series of fortunate events. For example, in a 2015 interview, responding
to a question on his transition from an ordinary chef to a celebrity, Jamie Oliver noted:
It wasn’t intentional. I didn’t want to get on TV. I think the worst people are those who just want
to get on TV. I think that you just have to be in a position that your work is of interest and then
things just happen. (Behind the Brand with Bryan Elliott, 2015; 00:00:46 - 00:01:00)
Similarly, in the early stages of his illustrious career, Gordon Ramsay utterly rejected the
label of celebrity chef.In an interview featured in the 1999five-part documentary mini-series
“Boiling Point”(1999, Episode 1, 00:01:30 - 00:02:00) Ramsay stated:
I am not a celebrity chef [...] Let’s get it right. I am a cook. I enjoy cooking and I am not interested
in signing a multimillion pound deal that I would conduct the kitchen from an office. I want to
continue cooking, I want my own individuality and I would like to have a setup in which I will
have 100% ownership.
Echoing a similar sentiment, Marco Pierre White also rejects the label and highlights the
media’s role in celebrification, emphasizing:
I don’t like the label of [...] celebrity chef because in my opinion celebrities tend to be celebrities
because of their personality [...] because of their ability to project on [a TV] screen. I am not very
good at projecting on screen. I am just a cook. I am not a celebrity and most chefs on TV have
never won three Michelin stars [...] never mind winning one star. They are there for their
personalities and not for their abilities as a cook. [Weekend Argus (Independent Newspapers),
2017, 00:01:37 –00:02:08]
In contrast to celebrification, which requires both the participation of the media and a sense
of commodification, Driessens (2013, p. 644) notes that celebritization is “[...] a meta-process
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
that points to certain changes in the nature of celebrity and its societal and cultural
embedding”. He categorizes the impact of celebritization into three distinctive indicators,
namely, democratization, diversification and migration.
Democratization itself has been the result of a shift from “achieved celebrity”to
“attributed celebrity”(Rojek, 2001). Ordinary people have been given increased access to
fame mainly through reality TV, the internet and social media platforms, resulting in a
disintermediation between influencers and consumers (Martina and Vacirca, 2017). Donnar
(2017) provides the example of a phenomenon called meokbang, which refers to ordinary
people earning thousands of dollars by sitting in front of webcams and live-streaming their
consumption of vast quantities of food to followers who number in their hundreds of
thousands.
While democratization refers to fame now accessible to ordinary, or non-famous,
individuals via electronic or social media, diversification is the growing attribution of
celebrity beyond the confines of traditional media, entertainment and sports. The fame that
celebrities accumulate can therefore be adapted for use in business models, either within the
same profession (albeit with different roles) or in entirely new or diverse areas (Singh and
Pandey, 2017). Driessens (2013) argues that a broad range of fields now produce their own
celebrities such as, politics (Street, 2004), gastronomy (Hyman, 2008), charity and
humanitarianism (Littler, 2008), academia (Williams, 2006) and climate change activism
(Boykoff and Goodman, 2009).
Finally, migration refers to the:
[...] process through which celebrities use both their relative autonomy as a public personality
and their celebrity status to develop other professional activities either within their original field
or to penetrate other social fields (Driessens, 2013, p. 648).
Notable cases include Justin Timberlake (musician turned actor), Arnold Schwarzenegger
(athlete turned actor and subsequently, politician) and, more recently, the case of comedian
turned politician Russel Brand (Ribke, 2015). Arthurs and Shaw (2016) used Bourdieu’s
(1993) field theory to understand the process of celebrity migration across social fields,
explaining that symbolic capital (as opposed to celebrity capital) as meta-capital can, under
certain conditions, be transferred across fields. While celebrities have capital, this may
eventually run out; on the other hand, it can be extended by a conversion to symbolic power,
that is to say, through winning public recognition from those with established power in the
field.
It is therefore possible to conclude that celebrity chefs, via celebrification, have become
celebritized through democratization, diversification and migration; as a result, their
function within society has become of pivotal importance to knowledge transfer and
practice. Barnes (2017), by focusing on the work and influence of Jamie Oliver, highlights the
importance of the function of celebrity chefs within society, especially with regards to their
contribution to advancements in cooking, food habits and ethics, consumption practices and
healthy eating.
3. The evolution of celebrity chefs
There is no such thing as the world’s best chef. What matters is who is the most
influential because this can be measured.
Ferran Adrià, Spanish Chef (NOWNESS, 2010, 00:01:40 -00:01:55)
Evidence of celebrity chefs can be traced back to the sixteenth century, when Bartolomeo
Scappi, cook to Pope Pius IV, developed the first cookbook in 1577, entitled Opera Dell’arte
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
del Cucinare, which included more than 1,000 original recipes (Krohn, 2015). Subsequently,
others such as François Vatel (1631-1671) and Antoine Carême (1784-1833) gained attention,
especially amongst the aristocrats of their respective eras, both for serving royalty, as well
as their extravagant culinary offerings (Kelly, 2004). Influenced by the work of both Vatel
and Carême, Auguste Escoffier (1846-1935) emerged as the most influential chef of the
twentieth century, with his seminal cookbook Le Guide Culinaire (first published in French
in 1903), which became the cornerstone of contemporary culinary arts (James, 2002).
The twentieth century was influenced by the work of renowned chefs who, for the first
time, were featured on television. Individuals such as James Beard, who hosted the first ever
cooking show on TV in 1946 (NBC: I Love to Eat, USA), Fanny Cradock who is credited as
England’sfirst celebrity chef (with a BBC program in the 1950s) and Julia Child (with
multiple TV shows in the USA during the 1960s) gained attention and public recognition for
their culinary competency and expertise (Miller, 2007). These programs, which reflected the
narrative of their era and mostly targeted housewives, portrayed a rather staid and mono-
dimensional approach to food preparation, that is to say, cooking via the execution of a
standardized recipe. That particular tranquil perception of celebrity chefs radically changed
in the early 1990s with the arrival of the infamous Marco Pierre White, the youngest ever
chef to be awarded three Michelin stars.
Marco Pierre White, the personification of a culinary rock star, quickly captured the
attention of the media and the public with his culinary mastery, his rebellious attitude and
unconventional temperament (Pierre-White and Steen, 2007). Pierre White eventually went
on to own several upscale restaurants, to star and judge in numerous television shows and
endorse products. In the late 1990s, another celebrity chef, perhaps the most powerful,
influential and controversial, and Marco’s protégé, rose to stardom, namely, Gordon
Ramsay. Ramsay, a chef best known for his fierce temper and profane language, redefined
the art, the commercial capabilities, and the idiosyncrasies of his profession. Owner of
dozens of award-winning restaurants (16 Michelin stars in total as of 2016) and bars all over
the globe, and the creator of numerous reality and competitive cooking programs, such as
Hell’s Kitchen, The F Word, Ramsay’s Kitchen Nightmares, MasterChef and MasterChef
Junior, he introduced a more thorough and transparent –and some say exaggerated –view
of the culinary profession. The audience was enraptured, and often shocked at this new style
of TV chef, who deviated drastically from the sterility and innocence of programs broadcast
in previous eras (Jones, 2009). His remarkable power regarding endorsements and
international advocacy received extensive coverage by the academic community and
provided inspiration and guidance to many envisioning a similar culinary career (Soneji
et al.,2015).
The rapid rise of celebrity chefs over the last 20 years brought names such as Jamie
Oliver, Mario Batali, Rachael Ray, Bobby Flay and Nigella Lawson into the public eye.
Following in the footsteps of their predecessors, and by fully embracing the advantages of
modern technology, the internet and social media (Clarke et al.,2016), these individuals
developed the notion of the “celebrity entrepreneur”through the emergence of the so-called
“business entertainment format”(Boyle and Kelly, 2010). Henderson (2011) discussed the
ways in which today’s celebrity chefs become involved in restaurant ventures, book and
magazine publications, television broadcasting, websites, branded products such as food
items and kitchenware and product endorsements.
The rise of celebrity chefs also reshaped the landscape of the profession’s economics. As
cited by Hale (2010) the revenue from celebrity-endorsed culinary brands reached $4.75bn in
the USA (between September 2009 and September 2010); a staggering 12.6 per cent increase
compared to the preceding two years. Also noteworthy is the unprecedented personal
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
income that celebrity chefs have managed to accumulate over the past twenty-five years; on
a recent Forbes list of The World’s Highest-Paid Celebrities, Gordon Ramsay’s yearly
earnings were estimated at $54m, surpassing entertainment mega-celebrities such as Elton
John, Jennifer Lopez and Tom Cruise (Forbes, 2016), whereas Jamie Oliver’s net worth was
valued at $400m. These figures were unthinkable 40 years ago, especially for a profession
that was often labeled “unattractive”, with below average remunerations.
4. Marketing and social media
As previously noted, the evolution of celebrity chefs can be separated into three distinct
eras. The first era (prior to the twentieth century) depicts the phenomenon’s humble
beginnings with chefs establishing themselves through their professional connections with
powerful figures and the publication of their cookbooks, whereas the second era
incorporated the use of television and other media as a primary means of gaining popularity.
The first signs of intensifying commercialization and deepening branding potential emerged
in the second half of the twentieth century, with chefs endorsing a variety of products and
services, mostly on television and in print media. These became full-scale income-generating
activities in the third era (post-1990), fueled by rising consumerism, the internet and social
media (Henderson, 2011). Reflecting on this evolving commodification, Cashmore and
Parker (2003, p. 215) argued that celebrities have “[...] turned into things, things to be
adored, respected, worshipped, idolized, but perhaps more importantly, things which are
themselves produced and consumed”.
The “consumption”of celebrities relies on the individual’s ability to identify with them
via perceived similarities; this, in turn, forges connections and bonds across members of a
social group who share common consumption traits (Turner, 2004). Individuals are attracted
to people with whom they perceive some similarity, and are motivated to observe, learn from
and emulate them (Gibson, 2004). According to Ibarra and Petriglieri (2016), celebrities who
can be viewed as role models –individuals who are successful in a particular field or
profession –are imitated by those attempting to assume similar roles. Nowadays, viewers
can choose which celebrity they want to “consume”via identification and aspiration rather
than their cooking style or type of cuisine (Stringfellow et al., 2013).
Cashmore (2006, p. 266) argues that celebrities, enabled by the rise of electronic and social
media, globalization and an ever-changing society, “[...] have become godlike objects”; they
have successfully transformed themselves into marketing vehicles, encouraging, validating
and endorsing a consumerist culture. Academics have carried out extensive research in the
power wielded by celebrity chefs via endorsement and advocacy (Keel and Nataraajan,
2012). As a result, the characteristics of effective celebrity spokespersons have been
identified (Magnini et al.,2008), with the most important attributes being trustworthiness,
expertise and attractiveness (Kim et al., 2014). In hospitality literature, Henderson (2011)
explores the entrepreneurial activities of celebrity chefs by highlighting their undisputed
power to develop and endorse products and services via business growth strategies and
internalization tactics; these topics have also been investigated by Jones (2009) and Yang
(2018).
Svejenova et al. (2010,p.409)define business models “[...] as sets of activities,
organizing, and strategic resources that individuals employ to pursue their interests and
motivations, and to create and capture value in the process”. Celebrity chefs deploy a variety
of business models over the course of their careers to effectively capture value. Some follow
a particular business model at the early stages of their career to secure funding for a new
business venture; later, however, this can change, either because of evolving customer
expectations, or due to their conscious decision to project a more radical value proposition,
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
for example, by developing their own culinary style, thus building personal brand equity
(Henderson, 2011). This latter stage is usually the starting point of a chef’s celebrity status;
nevertheless, some (Ruhlman, 2007) highlight the danger of commercialization that may
push individuals away from the core values of their craft.
The vital role and significance of television in nurturing celebrity chef culture is well
documented. In 1974, Raymond Williams observed that television was playing a big role in
the household, with people spending more time watching programs than preparing and
eating food (Williams, 2003). This decline in actual culinary practice, accompanied by the
rise of cookery as entertainment has continued to the present day. The key to understanding
this trend is the audience’s relationship with TV broadcasting (Scholes, 2011). The British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), for example, assumes a public service ethos in its
programming and aims “to inform, educate and entertain”(Ashley et al.,2004), with some
cookery shows being more informative and educative in nature, while others are more
entertaining. By facilitating the “aesthetics of attachment”, television shows have created a
sense of intimacy between celebrity chefs and audiences (Berlant, 1998). This sense of
attachment and closeness is a powerful marketing tool, which stimulates viewer
consumerism, encouraging the purchase of products, services and experiences.
Celebrity chefs initially used television to primarily promote their brand, until the
internet and social media came along, providing more direct promotional opportunities.
With markets moving away from a transactional dynamic toward a relationship-driven one,
social media sites have become an important element of marketing strategy (Zeng and
Gerritsen, 2014), with 71 per cent of internet users currently active on social networks
(Statista, 2017). These channels, due to their nature and scope, nurture relationships over
transactions, and it is through these relationships that the audience becomes attached to the
celebrity. To have a celebrity chef posting a status, sharing a picture, retweeting or even
conversing with regular folk is probably the closest most come to attaining fame
themselves. Unsurprisingly, chefs like Gordon Ramsay, Jamie Oliver, Anthony Bourdain
and Paula Deen are avid users of social media, particularly Facebook and Instagram.
5. Celebrities’impact on culinary education and the profession
In a nutshell, the literature indicates that the phenomenon of celebrity chefs reflects the
idiosyncrasies of modern celebrity culture; it is a manifestation of the symbiotic relationship
of influential individuals, the media, market capitalism and public fascination. Chefs’
evolving role as entrepreneurs (Balazs, 2002;Ratten and Dana, 2015), advocates, endorsers
and avid social media users has been well established; nevertheless, there is a little-
discussed aspect that needs to be highlighted. Contemporary literature fails to adequately
inform as to the impact of celebrity chefs on both the newfound popularity of the culinary
profession, and the proliferation of related tertiary education. The impact of this
phenomenon is a topic worthy of investigation for hospitality professions in general, as
these are often labeled as unsocial, unattractive and with a myriad of HR-related problems
(Baum, 2015).
When investigating the role and impact of the media, which is the primary vehicle of
communication for celebrities, on consumer and vocational choices, mixed results are
revealed. In a recent study conducted in Germany, Gehrau et al. (2016, p. 480) argue that
“[...] television usage [...] would have the effect of enhancing the probability of developing
corresponding vocational aspirations”.Allen and Mendick’s (2015) qualitative study in
England exemplifies the impact of celebrity culture on youth vocational aspirations, with
findings suggesting that:
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
‘[...] celebrity talk’is implicated in the ways in which young people think about their futures in
work [...] by talking about celebrities they liked or whose jobs they would enjoy having, young
people were saying something about themselves, using celebrity talk to construct and perform an
imagined future self in work (p. 17).
These arguments are supported by others (King and Multon, 1996) who highlight the
immense capacity of the media to influence perceptions, attitudes and behaviors. In contrast,
other studies (Lane and Fisher, 2015;Villani et al.,2015) posit that television cookery
programs and celebrities have limited effect on individuals’choices, as the public mostly
watches these shows for entertainment purposes.
The influence of celebrity chefs on young adults has received moderate attention. In a
recent study, Lane and Fisher (2015), reported on a sample of 238 university students in the
UK, suggesting that although the vast majority of the respondents perceive celebrity chefs
positively, the overall influence on their food habits (defined in the study as purchasing,
preparing, and cooking food) was insignificant, as they tend to watch the relevant television
shows primarily for entertainment purposes.
Only a handful of studies have investigated the impact of this phenomenon on formal
culinary arts education. In Denmark, Steno and Friche (2015) point out a positive association
between the popularity of celebrity chefs and the volume of student enrollment in related
tertiary study programs; nevertheless, they argue that this increase cannot be solely
attributed to the phenomenon. The study revealed that, despite the fact that the respondents
(male vocational school students) could identify a number of celebrity chefs, the latter were
perceived neither as idols nor as role models. This discourse suggests that other motives
may have influenced their choice to pursue culinary education. In Cyprus, Zopiatis and
Kyprianou (2007) found that the unprecedented rise in the popularity of culinary arts (an
increase of over 40 per cent in enrollment figures compared to the preceding three years) can
be partially attributed to the undeniable national popularity of celebrity chefs. The reported
upward trend is in direct contrast with Cypriot hospitality and tourism study programs,
which have been experiencing dismal take up and diminishing enrollment numbers,
especially amongst the local population.
The general consensus suggests, despite the lack of definitive empirical evidence, that
the phenomenon has caused, either directly or indirectly, an increase in the enrolment of
students in culinary arts programs worldwide. We can point to the increases reported in
primarily non-academic technical publications in the USA (Grannis, 2008), where renowned
hospitality scholar, Rosemary Batt, suggests that:
[...] celebrity chefs, myriad cooking shows and stylized menus have energized foodies with
dreams of commanding a restaurant kitchen (or TV show) and have educated a public that has
become more discerning of food and demanding of chefs (as cited in Simon, 2014).
The rise in enrollment was reported mostly in the early 2000s, which significantly surpassed
all other hospitality programs at the time, creating an unprecedented propagation of what
was once the most overlooked profession in the global hospitality industry. Simon (2014),
citing information published by the American Culinary Federation Education Foundation,
stated that, in 2013, a total of 476 accredited culinary programs were offered by 273
institutions in the USA, with the four-year increase reaching in excess of 30 per cent for
institutions, 39 per cent for programs and 25 per cent for graduates. Similar trends have
been cited in regions such as Asia –with Waldron (2016) reporting significant increases in
the number of culinary students, which was attributed to the influence of culinary programs
and celebrity chefs on television and social media –in Singapore, Malaysia and Japan.
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
6. Vocational advice and critique
Celebrity chefs often share advice via social media to those with aspirations to pursue a
culinary career. Bobby Flay, an American celebrity chef, takes a pragmatic view of the
significance of education:
If you go to culinary school for 4 months, 6 months or 2 years it doesn’t really matter. This is only
giving you an opportunity to get an entry level job in the profession. Period. It doesn’t make you a
chef [...]. Get the foundations of your profession down [...] If you are not passionate about it then
it’s not the right thing for you. (Wall Street Journal, 2013, 00:02:43 –00:03:10)
In his advice to young chefs, Gordon Ramsay reiterates the importance of acquiring
knowledge first, since this, according to him, is the determining factor for embarking on a
successful culinary career:
From the ages of 16 to 29-30 [...] 14 years of becoming a sponge, absorbing knowledge, don’t take
a job for the sake of money, don’t worry about earning 500 pounds a month [...] go and get
knowledge because that becomes the biggest passport for everything. The money will come when
you master your craft, and you become incredibly talented [...][
Paul Bizonline (Adam Smith
Television), 2014, 00:00:17 - 00:00:30]
Michelin-starred chef Curtis Duffy highlights the importance of becoming familiar with the
business aspect of the culinary profession:
When you step into a culinary school, a lot of the times it’s focused 100% on food, and cooking
[...] but knowing the back side of what we do which is the business side, the finances,
understanding that in a great detail as well [...](
Escoffier School, 2016, 00:01:31 –00:04:56)
While most celebrity chefs limit themselves to giving verbal advice to the next generation
of culinary professionals, some are transforming their advice and ideas into concrete
actions. Renown Spanish chef Ferran Adrià, was the owner of El Bulli, a three-star
Michelin restaurant voted five times as the best in world and known for its molecular
gastronomy (although Adrià prefers the term deconstructivist); he decided to close the
restaurant and transform it into a culinary-think tank/research lab (the El Bulli Lab is
associated with the El Bulli nonprofit foundation for culinary research). In a public
presentation organized by the World’s 50 Best Restaurants in Barcelona (June 2017),
Adrià outlined his vision for educating the next generation of culinary professionals: he
would link together all vital knowledge pertaining to the culinary profession, via a hefty
investment in scientific publications (3 million euros in the first year). He noted
(translation from Spanish):
It is extremely important to create a new body of knowledge. That’s the challenge I have. I want
the new generation to be better than us. They already are! But I want them to understand what
they are doing, rather than just doing it [...]. (The World’s 50 Best Restaurants and 50 Bars, 2017,
00:01:20 –00:01:40)
Notable efforts have also been initiated by other celebrities, most notably Danish chef René
Redzepi. He is responsible for the Vild Mad initiative to educate children and adults about
local food and the individual behind the immensely successful Noma, a two Michelin star
restaurant in Copenhagen, which, for many, redefined Nordic cuisine.
Nevertheless, one issue with celebrity chefs persists: a disparity between the media’s
portrayal of the profession and reality can create a distorted picture, which may contribute
to the development of an academic bubble. The term “bubble”, which originally derived
from finance literature to describe an asset that is irrationally and artificially overvalued
and cannot be sustained (Cronin and Horton, 2009), has been widely used by numerous
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
scholars (Alajoutsijärvi et al.,2014;Wood, 2011) to highlight the sustainability challenges
facing higher education. With regards to culinary education, Zopiatis (2010, p. 461) notes:
Some are skeptical of this remarkable growth, characterizing it as short-lived in that it could
potentially create a generation of unemployed culinary school graduates. Other stakeholders
doubt whether the industry is able to absorb such vast numbers of graduates in such a short
period of time and whether academia is able to adequately prepare them to enter and successfully
contribute towards operational success.
In a follow-up study, Zopiatis et al. (2011, p. 117) posited that “[...] if the profession’s
unprecedented growth in recent years is based on short-term opportunistic motives, with
quantity overshadowing quality, then the industry is heading into trouble”.
Exacerbating stakeholder concerns, worrying news has been reported recently by
Associated Press correspondent Susan Allen (2017), regarding culinary schools; the
troubles include a decline in enrollment, which is in part due to expensive tuition fees
(also noted by Webley, 2011), cumbersome student loans, which are particularly
egregious when set in contrast with the industry’s below-average entry-level
remuneration, legal issues pertaining to deceptive advertising and recruitment practices,
and high drop-out rates (especially amongst the non-traditional student population). The
same article noted that, in response to the aforementioned issues, a number of renowned
culinary schools in the USA have been forced to cease enrollment and are in the final
stages of closing down. Undoubtedly, there is risk that the profession’s sustainability,
image, reputation and status, as well as the aspirations of the next generation of its
professionals, may be irrevocably damaged.
7. Reflections
A real chef in my estimation always has a certain amount of humility because they are
driven greatly by serving people [...] That act of hospitality [...] is an interexchange
that real chefs are addicted to [...] they derive meaning from that exchange.
Alton Brown, Celebrity Chef and Television Personality [Larry King Now (Ora TV),
2014, 00:00:07–00:00:47]
7.1 Practical and theoretical implications
Undoubtedly, over the past 30 years, the culinary industry has redefined itself,
rejuvenated its public image, created its own celebrities and role models (whether these
are good or bad, influential or not, is still under debate), used media technology,
influenced consumer behavior and captured the curiosity and interest of the new
generation. Individuals from this generation have been encouraged to cook more and eat
healthier, to become professional chefs, celebrities and culinary entrepreneurs, or just to
enjoywatchinganinterestingculinaryTV program. According to Ferran Adrià (The
World’s 50 Best Restaurants, 2017)this“revolution”changed the impact of gastronomy
on modern society by influencing public attitudes and affecting quality of life. In
particular, it reshaped the concept of gourmet cuisine, motivated youth –for the first time
in modern history –to want to cook at home, broke the invisible barriers for women’s
advancement in kitchens, a change that might go some way in softening the industry’s
“macho”persona (and related abusive behavior), and last but not least, elevated culinary
arts to an academic discipline.
Celebrity chefs, capitalizing on the tangible and visual elements of cookery, have
combined the deliverables of their profession with their personal style, capturing the
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
TV-viewing public’s attention. In contrast, celebrity hoteliers –fewer in numbers
compared to chefs –have not managed to replicate this success, mainly due to the
idiosyncrasies of their craft and the intangibility of the hospitality experience. Some early
attempts to portray the hotelier’s profession in a glamorous manner via reality TV shows
fell short compared to cookery shows; for example, American Casino, a reality show
which covered the daily operation of a Las Vegas casino only aired for two seasons, on
two different networks, with mixed critical reviews and below average ratings.
Nevertheless, in the context of the overall failure to project the hospitality profession’s
core values and specificities to the general public, success stories attributed to celebrity
chefs may contribute valuable lessons to an industry still facing considerable operational
and strategic challenges.
Anecdotal evidence presented in this investigation, suggests that the impact of the
celebrity chef phenomenon on culinary professions and adult vocational choices remains up
for debate. Unfortunately, the academic community has yet to respond to a number of vital
questions surrounding this phenomenon and its overall impact. For certain disciplines (for
example, science –see,Lindner et al.,2004) the impact might be limited, nevertheless for the
culinary profession, the impact on adult vocational choices and subsequent career
aspirations may be extensive and worthy of further investigation. In theory, adult
vocational career choices, and the subsequent satisfaction derived from them, are highly
personal, and based on elements such as job-person fit, reflective career awareness, and an
individual’s pragmatic occupational perception (Zopiatis et al., 2016). However, the influence
of contemporary celebrity culture, which embodies both individualism and market
capitalism, both dominant Western ideologies (Ferris, 2007), may cultivate a misguided –
and borderline deceptive –vocational strategy that produces individuals ill-equipped to
meet the challenges of the industry.
Skeptics highlight the danger of celebrities nurturing, be it directly or indirectly,
unrealistic vocational expectations for individuals wishing to pursue a culinary career.
There is a probable scenario unfolding in our modern day, one that sees us moving from
Freire’s (1972) revolutionary theory, the Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which promoted a
critical educational paradigm that espouses the principles of action and reflection to
empower impoverished and illiterate individuals mostly in underdeveloped countries,
toward the Pedagogy of the Delusional, where television, social media and the celebrity
status of individuals nurture a distorted picture of both the values and norms of a particular
profession. Celebrities may very well act as role models for individuals wishing to pursue
lucrative careers; nevertheless, the potentially misleading factors in celebrity chef culture
may be creating a toxic “virtual”reality, which would do a great disservice to personal
aspirations and the future of the profession.
7.2 Suggestions for future research
Faced with this possibility, the academic community must “take up the gauntlet”and
thoroughly investigate the phenomenon with the aim of enhancing insight into the industry,
especially in the interests of the next generation of culinary professionals. Likely topics for
future research endeavors, both quantitative and qualitative in nature, include
investigations on:
the ways in which the phenomenon can be transformed and/or evolve in such a way
that satisfies the vocational needs and expectations of individuals, as well as the
hospitality industry’s realistic labor requirements;
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
the actual impact of celebrities on career selection, and subsequent progression
planning;
the discrepancy between the media’s portrayal of celebrity chefs and the practical
realities of a challenging profession such as cookery;
the influence of contemporary celebrity culture on different generations;
the economic dimension of celebrities in the hospitality industry;
the sustainability of culinary education and the risk of nurturing an academic
bubble with potentially a multitude of negative repercussions for the industry;
and
the potential HR-related benefits associated with the phenomenon (e.g. breaking the
glass ceiling for women’s advancement in kitchens).
Another noteworthy subject is whether celebrity chefs, as role models, have a positive
impact on certain attitudes and behaviors. Celebrity influence can be categorized by
personality, skills, abilities, advocacy/expertise, etc., and each area might have a varying
degree of impact upon a prospective chef’s choices, decisions and actions. For example, some
might attribute Gordon Ramsay’s rise to fame to his unconventional personality and
exceptional culinary skills; nevertheless, such admiration might have zero effect on
someone’s choice to pursue the profession. In contrast, if Ramsay’s celebrity status is viewed
through the lens of his novel entrepreneurial skills, the internationalization of his business
ventures via different strategic modes of operation, and his undisputed financial success,
then this might very well influence an individual’s vocational attitude and subsequent
behavior.
7.3 Conclusion
Success is born out of arrogance [...] but greatness from humility.
Marco Pierre White, British Chef, Restaurateur, and Television Personality (Carmichael,
2017, 00:09:20 –00:09:30)
In the 1980s and 1990s, Michael Jordan, often lauded as the greatest basketball player of all
time, elevated his craft and transformed the National Basketball Association (NBA) into a
lucrative global sporting phenomenon. Beyond his achievements regarding the
commercialization and unprecedented broadcasting revenues secured for the league, Jordan
personified the ultimate celebrity athlete, becoming a role model who inspired (and
challenged) thousands of young individuals globally to change their views on basketball,
both as a sport and as a career choice. As a result, the NBA had 108 international players
from a record-breaking 42 countries in the 2017-2018 season, compared to only 23 players
from 18 countries back in 1991.
It is still unclear whether celebrity chefs will have a similar impact on their profession,
since many argue that their popularity is more transient in nature, which is likely to rise
or fall according to television ratings (Lane and Fisher, 2015). Up to now, evidence
suggests that these individuals have been successful in elevating their status, both
commercially and financially. Their entrepreneurial endeavors based on sound global
business strategies, their innovative use of social media, and their intriguing personas
have inducted them into a celebritized pantheon, privileged only for the few. Time will
tell whether their celebritization success translates into long-term sustainability and
prosperity for their profession.
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
References
911 Chef Eric (2016), “The rise of celebrity chefs”, available at: www.911cheferic.com/culinary-blog-
vancouver/131-food-industry-consulting-2/329-the-rise-of-celebrity-chefs.html (accessed 10
September 2017).
Alajoutsijärvi, K., Juusola, K. and Lamberg, J.A. (2014), “Institutional logic of business bubbles: lessons
from the Dubai business school mania”,Academy of Management Learning and Education,
Vol. 13 No. 1, pp. 5-25.
Allen, K. and Mendick, H. (2015), “Celebrity culture and young people’s aspirations: a resource for
careers education?”,Journal of the National Institute for Career Education and Counselling,
pp. 15-21.
Allen, S. (2017), Culinary Schools Struggle with Enrollment Decline, Associated Press, available at: http://
bigstory.ap.org/article/ea99da712d604b4cbd52a01989aef57a / culinary-schools-struggle-enrollment-
decline (accessed 2 April 2017).
Arthurs, J. and Shaw, S. (2016), “Celebrity Capital in the political field: Russell brand’s migration from
stand-up comedy to newsnight”,Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 38 No. 8, pp. 1136-1152.
Ashley, B., Hollows, J., Jones, S. and Taylor, B. (2004), Food and Cultural Studies, Routledge, London.
Balazs, K. (2002), “Take one entrepreneur: the recipe for success of France’s great chefs”,European
Management Journal, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 247-259.
Barnes, C. (2017), “Mediating good food and moments of possibility with Jamie Oliver: problematising
celebrity chefs as talking labels”,Geoforum, Vol. 84, pp. 169-178.
Barnes, R. (2010), Outrageous Invasions: Celebrities’Private Lives, Media, and the Law, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Barron, L. (2014), Celebrity Cultures: An Introduction, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Baum, T. (2015), “Human resources in tourism: still waiting for change? A 2015 reprise”,Tourism
Management, Vol. 50, pp. 204-212.
Berlant, L. (1998), “Intimacy: a special issue”,Critical Inquiry, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 281-288.
Bloisi, W. and Hoel, H. (2008), “Abusive work practices and bullying among chefs: a review of the
literature”,International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 27 No. 4, pp. 649-656.
Boorstin, D. (1961), The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-events in America, Penguin, London.
Bourdieu, P. (1993), The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature, Columbia
University Press, New York, NY.
Boykoff, M.T. and Goodman, M.K. (2009), “Conspicuous redemption? Reflections on the promises and
perils of the ‘celebratization’of climate change”,Geoforum, Vol. 40 No. 3, pp. 395-406.
Boyle, R. and Kelly, L.W. (2010), “The celebrity entrepreneur on television: profile, politics and power”,
Celebrity Studies, Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 334-350.
Bradlee, P.M. and Emmons, R.A. (1992), “Locating narcissism within the interpersonal circumplex and
the five-factor model”,Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. 13 No.7, pp. 821-830.
Cashmore, E. (2006), Celebrity Culture, Routledge, London.
Cashmore, E. and Parker, A. (2003), “One david beckham? Celebrity, masculinity, and the soccerati”,
Sociology of Sport Journal, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 214-231.
Chen,Y.S.,Raab,C.andChen,C.C.(2017),“The influence of celebrity chefs on restaurant customers’
behavior”,Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management,doi:10.1080/19368623.2017.1269305.
Clarke, T.B., Murphy, J. and Adler, J. (2016), “Celebrity chef adoption and implementation of social
media, particularly pinterest: a diffusion of innovations approach”,International Journal of
Hospitality Management, Vol. 57, pp. 84-92.
Connor, S. (2010), “Defiling celebrity”, in Jaffe, A. and Goldman, J. (Eds), Modernist Star Maps:
Celebrity, Modernity, Culture, Farnham, Ashgate, pp. 221-235.
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
Cronin, J.M. and Horton, H.E. (2009), “Will higher education be the next bubble to burst?”,The Chronicle
of Higher Education, Vol. 55 No. 7, p. A56.
Donnar, G. (2017), “Food porn’or intimate sociality: committed celebrity and cultural performances of
overeating in meokbang”,Celebrity Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 122-127.
Driessens, O. (2013), “The celebritization of society and culture: understanding the structural dynamics
of celebrity culture”,International Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol. 16 No. 6, pp. 641-657.
Ferris, K.O. (2007), “The sociology of celebrity”,Sociology Compass, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 371-384.
Fitzgerald, T.J. (2008), “Celebrity culture in the United States”,The Reference Shelf, Vol. 80 No. 1,
pp. 4-11.
Forbes (2016), “The world’s highest-paid celebrities”, available at: www.forbes.com/celebrities/list/
#tab:overall (accessed 2 April 2017).
Freire, P. (1972), Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth.
Gehrau, V., Brüggemann, T. and Handrup, J. (2016), “Media and occupational aspirations: the effect of
television on career aspirations of adolescents”,Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media,
Vol. 60 No. 3, pp. 465-483.
Gibson, D.E. (2004), “Role models in career development: new directions for theory and research”,
Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 65 No. 1, pp. 134-156.
Giousmpasoglou, C., Brown, L. and Cooper, J. (2018a), “Alcohol and other drug use in Michelin-
starred kitchen brigades”,International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 70,
pp. 59-65.
Giousmpasoglou, C., Marinakou, E. and Cooper, J. (2018b), “Banter, bollockings and beatings’:the
occupational socialisation process in michelin-starred kitchen brigades in great britain and
Ireland”,International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 30 No. 3,
pp. 1882-1902.
Goodman, M.K. (2010), “The mirror of consumption: celebritization, developmental consumption and
the shifting cultural politics of fair trade”,Geoforum, Vol. 41 No. 1, pp. 104-116.
Grannis, L. (2008), “Today’s students just may be tomorrow’s celebrity chefs”,Missoulian,
available at: http://missoulian.com/entertainer/eating-missoula–today-s-students-just-
may-be/article_dd877771-1ab5-585e-a01e-418088421c7c.html (accessed 2 April 2017).
Hale, T. (2010), “Food the social network of the ages”,Nielsen Newswire, available at: www.nielsen.com/
us/en/newswire/2010/food-the-social-network-of-the-ages.html (accessed 2 November 2017).
Harmon, K. (2005), “Celebrity culture”,The Hedgehog Review, pp. 98-106.
Harris, D.A. and Giuffre, P. (2010), “The price you pay: how female professional chefs negotiate work
and family”,Gender Issues, Vol. 27 Nos 1/2, pp. 27-52.
Henderson, J.C. (2011), “Celebrity chefs: expanding empires”,British Food Journal, Vol. 113 No. 5,
pp. 613-624.
Hyman, G. (2008), “The taste of fame: chefs, diners, celebrity, class”,Gastronomica, Vol. 8 No. 3,
pp. 43-52.
Ibarra, H. and and Petriglieri, J.L. (2016), “Impossible selves: image strategies andidentitythreatinprofessional
women’s career transitions”, Working Paper Series (2016/12/OBH), INSEAD, Fontainebleau.
James, K. (2002), Escoffier: The King of Chefs, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Jerslev, A. (2014), “Celebrification, authenticity, gossip: the celebrity humanitarian”,Nordicom Review,
Vol. 35, pp. 171-186.
Jones, M.T. (2009), “A celebrity chef goes global: the business of eating”,Journal of Business Strategy,
Vol. 30 No. 5, pp. 14-23.
Keel, A. and Nataraajan, R. (2012), “Celebrity endorsements and beyond: new avenues for celebrity
branding”,Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 29 No. 9, pp. 690-703.
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
Kelly, I. (2004), Cooking for Kings: The Life of Antonin Carême, the First Celebrity Chef, Walker and
Company, New York, NY.
Kim, S.S., Lee, J. and Prideaux, B. (2014), “Effect of celebrity endorsement on tourists’perception of
corporate image, corporate credibility andcorporate loyalty”,International Journal of Hospitality
Management, Vol. 37, pp. 131-145.
King, M.M. and Multon, K.D. (1996), “The effects of television role models on the career aspirations of
African-American junior high school students”,Journal of Career Development, Vol. 23 No. 2,
pp. 111-125.
Krohn, D.L. (2015), Food and Knowledge in Renaissance Italy: Bartolomeo Scappi’s Paper Kitchens,
Dorset Press, Dorchester.
Lane, S.R. and Fisher, S.M. (2015), “The influence of celebrity chefs on a student population”,British
Food Journal, Vol. 117 No.2, pp. 614-628.
Leschziner, L. (2015), At the Chef’s Table: Culinary Creativity in Elite Restaurants, Stanford University
Press, Stanford, CA.
Lindner, J.R., Wingenbach, G.J., Harlin, J., Li, Y., Lee, I., Jackson, R., Johnson, L., Klemm, W., Hunter, J.,
Kracht, J. and Kochevar, D. (2004), “Students’beliefs about science and sources of influence
affecting science career choice”,NACTA Journal, Vol. 48 No. 2, pp. 2-7.
Littler, J. (2008), “I feel your pain’: cosmopolitan charity and the public fashioning of the celebrity soul”,
Social Semiotics, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 237-251.
McCollum-Spielman (1980), Star Power: Will the Force Be with You?, Great Neck, New York, NY.
Martina, M. and Vacirca, S. (2017), “The celebrity factory: new modes of fashion entrepreneurship”,
ZoneModa Journal, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 37-53.
Magnini, V., Honeycutt, E. and Cross, A. (2008), “Understanding the use of celebrity endorsers for
hospitality firms”,Journal of Vacation Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 57-69.
Miller, T. (2007), Cultural Citizenship: Cosmopolitanism, Consumerism, and Television in a Neoliberal
Age, Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
Murray-Gibbons, R. and Gibbons, C. (2007), “Occupational stress in the chef profession”,International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 32-42.
Pierre-White, M. and Steen, J. (2007), The Devil in the Kitchen: Sex, Pain, Madness, and the Making of a
Great Chef, Orion, London.
Pratten, J.D. and O’Leary, B. (2007), “Addressing the cause of chef shortages in the UK”,Journal of
European Industrial Training, Vol. 31 No. 1, pp. 68-78.
Ratten, V. and Dana, L.P. (2015), “Indigenous food entrepreneurship in Australia: Mark olive
‘Australia’s Jamie Oliver’and Indigiearth”,International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small
Business, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp.265-279.
Rein, I.J., Kotler, P., Stoller, M. and Rein, I. (1997), High Visibility: The Making and Marketing of
Professionals and Celebrities, McGraw-Hill, Columbus, OH.
Ribke, N. (2015), A Genre Approach to Celebrity Politics: Global Patterns of Passage from Media to
Politics, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, NY.
Robinson, R.N.S. and Barron, P.E. (2007), “Developing a framework for understanding the impact of
deskilling and standardisation on the turnover and attrition of chefs”,International Journal of
Hospitality Management, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 913-926.
Rojek, C. (2001), Celebrity, Reaktion Books, London.
Rowley, G. and Purcell, K. (2001), “As cooks go, she went: is labour churn inevitable?”,International
Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 163-185.
Ruhlman, M. (2007), The Elements of Cooking: Translating the Chef’s Craft for Every Kitchen, Scribner
Book Company, New York, NY.
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
Scholes, L. (2011), “A slave to the stove? The TV celebrity chef abandons the kitchen: lifestyle TV,
domesticity and gender”,Critical Quarterly, Vol. 53 No, No. 3, pp. 44-59.
Sedikides, C., Campbell, W.K., Reeder, G. and Elliot, A.J. (2002), “The self in relationships: whether, how,
and when close others put the self in its place”,European Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 12
No. 1, pp. 235-265.
Simon, C.C. (2014), “Culinary schools speed the rise of hopeful chefs”,The Seattle Times, available at:
www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/culinary-schools-speed-the-rise-of-hopeful-chefs/ (accessed
20 October 2017).
Singh, G. and Pandey, N. (2017), “Determinants of celebrity-owned brands leveraging price premium”,
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, Vol. 21 No. 3,
pp. 361-384.
Soneji, D., Riedel, A. and Martin, B. (2015), “How Gordon Ramsay appeals to consumers: effects of self-
concept clarity and celebrity meaning on celebrity endorsements”,Journal of Strategic
Marketing, Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 457-468.
Statista (2017), “The portal for statistics: Social media statistics and facts”, available at: www.statista.
com/ (accessed 25 November 2017).
Steno, A.M. and Friche, N. (2015), “Celebrity chefs and masculinities among male cookery trainees
in vocational education”,Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Vol. 67 No. 1,
pp. 47-61.
Street, J. (2004), “Celebrity politicians: popular culture and political representation”,British Journal of
Politics and International Relations, Vol. 6 No. 4, pp. 435-452.
Stringfellow, L., MacLaren, A., Maclean, M. and O’Gorman, K. (2013), “Conceptualizing taste: food,
culture and celebrities”,Tourism Management,Vol. 37, pp. 77-85.
Svejenova, S., Planellas, M. and Vives, L. (2010), “An individual business model in the making: a chef’s
quest for creative freedom”,Long Range Planning, Vol. 43 No.2-3, pp. 408-430.
Turner, G. (2004), Understanding Celebrity, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Van Krieken, R. (2012), Celebrity Society, Routledge, London.
Villani, A.M., Egan, T., Keogh, J.B. and Clifton, P.M. (2015), “Attitudes and beliefs of Australian adults
on reality television cooking programmes and celebrity chefs: is there cause for concern?
Descriptive analysis presented from a consumer survey”,Appetite, Vol. 91, pp. 7-12.
Waldron, C. (2016), “Culinary arts in asia”,StudyTravel Magazine, No. 258, 27 April.
Williams, J.J. (2006), “Academostars: name recognition”, in Marshall, P.D. (Ed.), The Celebrity Culture
Reader, Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 371-388.
Williams, R. (2003), Television: Technology and Cultural Form, Routledge, London.
Wood, P. (2011), “The higher education bubble”,Society, Vol. 48 No. 3, pp. 208-212.
Webley, K. (2011), “Top chef dreams: Are cooking schools a rip-off?”,Times, available at: http://content.
time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2085467,00.html (accessed 2 April 2017).
Yang, W. (2018), “Star power: the evolution of celebrity endorsement research”,International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 389-415.
Young, S.M. and Pinsky, D. (2006), “Narcissism and celebrity”,Journal of Research in Personality,
Vol. 40 No. 5, pp. 463-471.
Zeng, B. and Gerritsen, R. (2014), “What do we know about social media in tourism? A review”,
Tourism Management Perspectives, Vol. 10, pp. 27-36.
Zopiatis, A. (2010), “Is it art or science? Chef’s competencies for success”,International Journal of
Hospitality Management, Vol. 29 No. 3, pp. 459-467.
Zopiatis, A. and Kyprianou, G. (2007), “Perceptions and attitudes towards the hospitality professions in
Cyprus”,Tourism Today, Vol. 6, pp. 33-46.
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
Zopiatis, A. and Orphanides, N. (2009), “Investigating occupational burnout of food and beverage
employees: the case of Cyprus”,British Food Journal, Vol. 111 No. 9, pp. 930-947.
Zopiatis, A., Kyprianou, G. and Pavlou, I. (2011), “Occupational challenges facing chefs: the case of
Cyprus”,Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality and Tourism, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 104-120.
Zopiatis, A., Theocharous, A.L. and Constanti, P. (2016), “Adult vocational decision, career satisfaction
and future intention: insights from the hospitality industry”,International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 28 No. 12, pp. 2696-2720.
Online videos
Behind the Brand with Bryan Elliott (2015), “Chef Jamie Oliver –Best advice for entrepreneurs”,
available at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=P3llj8nAN0E (accessed 15 October 2017).
Boiling Point (1999), “Boiling point (Episode 1, Channel 4, UK)”, available at: www.youtube.com/watch?
v=I_asNbdQa6U (accessed 10 August 2017).
Carmichael, E. (2017), “Marco Pierre white’s top 10 rules for success”, available at: www.youtube.com/
watch?v=fUO01FmsmMQ (accessed 20 November 2017).
CTFORUM (Connecticut Forum) (2009), “Anthony Bourdain on celebrity chefs”, available at: www.
youtube.com/watch?v=OR0pQcp5jYg (accessed 14 September 2017).
Escoffier School (2016), “Career advice from Michelin starred chef: Curtis duffy”, available at: https://
youtu.be/uadiAX6jMDw (accessed 27 August 2017).
Larry King Now (Ora TV) (2014), “The difference between a true chef and a celebrity chef: Alton
brown”, available at: https://youtu.be/dAgQD8cJyZc (accessed 12 September 2017).
NOWNESS (2010), “El bulli by alison chernick”, available at: https://youtu.be/Qglfsp_pfF8 (accessed 25
October 2017).
Paul Bizonline (Adam Smith Television) (2014), “Career advice - Gordon ramsay”, available at: https://
youtu.be/8kn7HHSvjK8 (accessed 25 August 2017).
The World’s 50 Best Restaurants and 50 Bars (2017), “Ferran adrià: ‘I never wanted to become a cook’–
best and Beyond”, available at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=EXl5_Hi2UNs (accessed 26
October 2017).
The World’s 50 Best Restaurants (2017), “Ferran Adrià on the new life of El bulli and teaching the next
generation”, available at: https://youtu.be/wI-_V1vAzcY (accessed 26 October 2017).
Wall Street Journal (2013), “How to become a professional chef (Bobby flay)”, available at: https://youtu.
be/YUtZzMGctdM (accessed 20 August 2017).
Weekend Argus (Independent Newspapers) (2017), “Marco Pierre white talks food, Fame and why he
hates being called a ‘celebrity chef”, available at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=lq3ijRKz6mM&
feature=youtu.be (accessed 19 August 2017).
About the authors
Anastasios Zopiatis, an Associate Professor in Hotel and Tourism Management at the Cyprus
University of Technology (CUT), holds a BSc in Hotel, Restaurant and Travel Administration from
the University of Southern Illinois at Carbondale, an MSc degree in Hotel Administration from the
University of Nevada at Las Vegas and a Doctorate in Professional Studies from Middlesex
University, UK. Prior to joining CUT, he worked in private tertiary education in Cyprus, both as a
Hospitality and Tourism Educator and Program Coordinator. His research interests include
hospitality human resources issues and ethics in the academic environment. His research work has
been published in international journals such as Tourism Management,the International Journal of
Hospitality Management and the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management.
Anastasios Zopiatis is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: anastasios.zopiatis@cut.
ac.cy
IJCHM
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
Yioula Melanthiou, an Associate Professor at the University of Nicosia, holds a BA in Business
Administration (Marketing Major), an MSc in Marketing (University of Salford, UK), a PhD in
Marketing (University of Manchester, UK) and is a Chartered Marketer. Yioula has worked in the
industry as a Research Executive, Research Account Manager, and Marketing Consultant prior to
joining the University of Nicosia in 2004, where she has since then been teaching several marketing
courses at an undergraduate and postgraduate level. Her primary research interests are in the areas
of Social Media Marketing, Consumer Behaviour and Marketing of Higher Education. Her research
work has been published in international journals such as the Journal of Customer Behaviour,Journal
of Business Research,the International Journal of Tourism Research and the Global Business and
Economics Review.
For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
Celebrity chef
phenomenon
Downloaded by CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY At 02:08 11 February 2019 (PT)
