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Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 4
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3990-2.ch004
ABSTRACT
This chapter on international businesses and environmental issues addresses the
relationship between activities of international businesses and environmental goals.
Because of the increasing awareness about environmental issues, the related groups,
international policies, and relation force the businesses to be more environmentally
friendly and consider the future of resources in their operations. The international
regulations, declarations, and other pressures can change the usages of the businesses.
The combination of the planet, profit, and people are conceived to protect nature
with the aim of growth. From this viewpoint, this chapter provides an overview of
the environmental issues, international politics, relations, standards, and successful
examples of businesses about being environmentally conscious.
INTRODUCTION
International relations, policies and standards force the businesses to consider
the global environmental issues which include eutrophication, global warming,
mine-water pollution, air pollution, agricultural pollution, acid precipitation, and
deforestation. International committees and other collaborations gather different
countries to provide environmental sustainability and reduce the wastes and emission
footprint. The acceptance of the environmental approach show differences from one
business to another, but the primary goal has the same character for whole institutions
as the reducing the impacts of human on the environment. For that purpose, the
International Businesses
and Environmental Issues
Fatma Ince
Mersin University, Turkey
Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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International Businesses and Environmental Issues
chapter is organized into three parts. In the first section of the chapter a review of the
literature on international business and the environmental effects. And the second
part of the chapter is about the environmental issues as eight sub-titles. The third
and also the last part of the chapter give some successful global activities of the
well-known businesses to see the environmental friendly applications.
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND THE
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
In the first main title of this chapter includes the evaluation of international
environmental agreements, Environmental Management System, Eco-Management
and Audit Scheme, International Politics and the Environment, International Relations
and the Environment.
The Evaluation of International Environmental Agreements
Web & Bentlage (2006) summarize the progress of environmental management
system chronologically. This progress also shows the increasing environmental
awareness and efforts towards the environment. In the 1960s, some serious accidents
or disasters draw peoples’ attention to nature, and the environmental awareness starts
in these years. First prevention of pollution is about the treatment of wastewater so,
this period is called the end of pipe approach in the 1970s. Owing to the complex and
compound nature of the environment, it is noticed that end-of-process approaches
are inadequate and process-integrated approach is considered in 1975s. Because
the issues of the environment are not only about wastewater or sewage, it is about
all results of decaying. However, environmental problems have global extent with
long-term effects. Therefore, the coordination and cooperation are needed by the
countries, firms and other institutes to avoid the unwanted or unexpected results.
From this point of view, environmental coordination starts in the 1980s, right after
Environmental Management System and Auditing are accepted as environmental
standard series in the 1985s. This standard has different concepts to encourage firms
being more environmentally sensitive. Additionally, Eco-Management and Audit
Scheme (EMAS) developed by the European Commission for companies and other
organizations to evaluate, report, and improve their environmental performance in
the 2000s. This progress looks promising, but the continuity of all is the most critical
issue. Thus, nowadays sustainability approach and integrated management systems
are seen as a reliable tool to solve or at least prevent the environmental problems.
The complexity of the environmental challenges, pressure from citizens, national
and international policymakers, rapid pollution and urban growth, are the main
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reasons of the growing interest of local authorities and other committees (UNEP,
2017). Not only economic factors, but also social and ecological dimensions,
force the public Ana private agencies and individuals into collective activities and
collaborations. According to the Sulphey and Safeer (2015), some principles shape
the way firm and individuals interact and help guide the environment as nations
develop. The Rio Conference is one of the most remarkable meetings which is the
polluter pays principle endorsed by the public authorities. More efficient production
processes through the promotion of economic efficiency are aimed at pollution
control policies and potential trade volume. This law is called as The Polluter Pays
Principle (PPP), and it forces the responsible foundations to pay their pollutions
with tax or other prices.
The second principle is Users Pays Principle (UPP), and it involves the full cost
payment of losses for the future generations. Equality and achieving efficiency are
the central assumption of the principle to bear the cost of using the resources and
its related services. According to this principle, beneficiaries or customers, use
the future generations’ natural resources, so they must pay the price for the scarce
source. Another principle is named the Precautionary Principle (PP), and its scope
differs from others owing to the precautionary aspect. Threats and damages of the
environmental issues are not known precisely. After the events happen, the cost
can be calculated, but it is not enough to protect the environment. The environment
requires a proactive approach to prevent the disasters. To guide the sectoral policies
to minimize the potential distortions and provide resource efficiency there is also
a Subsidiary Principle (SP). This principle is developed for political decisions, and
it is used for applying the UPP, PP and the PPP. Therefore, it can be said that SP is
about the legislative standards and processes which are based on the decisions of
public authorities. Lastly, Intergenerational Equity Principle (IEP) is devised in line
with management approaches with the systematic approach. After the Brundtland
Report, sustainable development is trying to provide through the trilogy of economic,
environmental and social outcomes (Garcia, 2003). Intrinsically the environmental
perspective of the business should be a function of the entire management system.
The long-term performance efficiency can be achieved with the proactive and
integrated system, because of the facilitating effects of the environmentally friendly
management styles.
Environment Management System (EMS)
Sustainability requires the integrated approach in business which includes the
complying with management style, organizational structure, and environmental
requirements. The support of the management is one of the critical factors of the success
because the monitoring and reviewing the process belong to managers. Secondly,
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there is strong need teamwork to provide entirely environmental management in
the enterprise. With the employee commitment and strategic environmental aspect,
the integration of economic and environmental targets can be easier. Moreover, the
press of local and international authority can enforce the business on this journey.
After one level, this enforcement can be facilitated and a competitive tool for the
environmental business.
Environmental management is defined as “if financial management is managing
the finances of a company and quality management is managing the quality of its
products and process, then it stands to reason that environmental management is
managing the environment that the company operates in” by Sheldon and Yoxon
(2012). In other respects, Pataki and Crotty posited that (2017), “an Environmental
Management System is a set of management tools and principles designed to create
the administrative procedures that an organization needs to integrate environmental
concerns into its daily business practices.” The basis of environmental management
is a proactive management to reduce the risks while improving the safety and
health. Moreover, this management style helps the businesses satisfy the local and
international regulatory demands with a cost-effective manner as well as source
efficiency and the stronger operational control.
From this point of view, Environmental Management System (EMS) is developed
through the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to reduce the businesses’
environmental impacts and increase their operational’ efficiency. EMS is a set of
process and practices for private businesses and industries as well as federal, local
and state agencies (EPA, 2017). The integration of the businesses in this system
differs owing to the participation degree. Tinsley (2002) embraces the level of the
businesses’ EMS integration in four stages. According to the study of the author,
the first phase of the being environmentally conscious is dividing of EMS model.
In this approach, there is no accreditation of EMS, and the aim of the management
is just to reduce operational disadvantages of the organizations with the lower level
environmental risks. Therefore, there is no any effort to save the environment, while
the single operation is energy efficient or decreasing wastes.
Secondly, a business can choose the isolated EMS Model to have an accredited
system with limited environmental interest. The management considers the
environment as a problem and rule maker for the enterprises. To solve this problem
and show the following the rules, they only one or two units and teams are employed
for effect.In this way, the business does not want to have any environmental trouble
with regulations. Third environment management model is devolved EMS model
which includes an accreditation system that is a part of the daily operational
activities. There is a responsible manager to assure the progress of periodic reports
and training programs. Additionally, waste recycling and energy efficiency are
monitored To remain faithful to the program step by step. The last and broadest
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approach is the integrated EMS model which has a systematic environmental aspect.
Not only should the environment be considered, but also safety and quality are the
primary manners for this model (Tinsley, 2002). As a proactive approach, integrated
environmental model obtains the commitment and self-regulation of employees as
well as environmental goals.
As can be seen from the scope of the models, all levels of integrations have
some barriers and some advantages for the organizations. And only the deciding
of the environmental management style is not enough for the successful outcomes
or activities. Therefore, there are some organizational or managerial practices
such as training, communication, awareness, and participation. The reason is
that environmental approaches require the participation of all employees in
the organization. In a large scanning, the harmony of the business strategy and
environmental policy have some significant advantages for the business (Yakhou
and Dorweiler, 2004). Therefore, the integrated model has more sustainable future
with the implementation, monitoring and controlling of the process performance
owing to the environmental programs and plans. To sum up, briefly, the business
strategies of the organization are the determiner of the environmental approach.
There are also facilitating management systems and standards for the public
and private sectors to achieve the environmental management in time The most
well-known of EMS model is ISO 14001 Environmental Management System as
an international quality system. Secondly, more common EMS model European
Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). Also there are some other EMS
models such as Responsible Care Model developed by the American Chemical
Council (ACC), EPA National Enforcement Investigation Center (NEIC) Compliance
Focused EMS, US Department of Justice (DOJ) Seven Key Compliance Program
Elements, National Biosolids Partnership EMS, DEP College & University EMS
and Best Practices Manual, The Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series
OHSAS 18001, The British guidance standard BS 8800, The Security Certificate
Contractors (SCC), Standard on Quality Management ISO 9001:2000.
Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
EMAS is defined as “a premium management instrument developed by the European
Commission for companies and other organizations to evaluate, report, and improve
their environmental performance” by the Commission. The flexible structure of the
Scheme helps every type of organization improve the environmental performance
with three main dimensions. The first dimension of the eco-management and audit
scheme is the credibility which is about the third party verification to guarantee the
independence of the process. The second one is the performance which is about the
supporting the organizations to find the right environmental tools. This dimension
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includes both the evaluating and reducing the firm’s environmental impact. Third
and the last dimension of the Scheme is transparency, which refers to the necessity of
informing the internal and external related groups about environmental involvement
(ec.europa.eu, 2017). Also, the public must be informed about the environmental
performance of the organizations owing to the transparency principle.
Providing an achieving sustainable improvement and being an environmental
leader, EMAS gives the business ten steps and four critical factors. According to
the European Commission, the process starts with the contacting the component
body and an initial environmental review. Secondly, the Deming Quality cycle
constructs the next four steps as do, check, act and plan stages. After this period,
the phases of verification and validation, registration, promote exist for using of
external processes. These steps are designed to help, improvement, evaluation,
impact reduction, reputation, environmental policy, culture change, pollution
prevention, legal compliance, corporate responsibility and resource management.
At the beginning of the process, it can be seen as a very difficult and complicated
Scheme but, after the system starts to adopt the specific benefits emerge. The first
advantage of the Scheme is about image management of the business and gaining
the enhanced credibility and recognition. External audit and launching are more
impressive to the customers and stakeholders. Consumers feel safe with the product
of the firm due to the EMAS informing and transparency. The second benefit of
the Scheme is Registration List which is followed by the business to achieve the
EMAS process. This registration list also has a guiding role in the environmental
and organizational requirements. Fulfillment of needs makes the process clear for
the organization. Last but not least benefit from the Scheme is the EMAS logo,
which leaves the environmental impression on the external stakeholders and provides
brand’s reliability for the investors and consumers (nqa.com, 2017). And therefore
it can be said that EMAS includes the publicly available environmental statement
and verified results for the institutions. Owing to the ten steps of the Scheme,
EMAS may take a long time, but it is a potent tool for managing both for external
and internal shareholders.
International Politics and the Environment
International environmental politics and their intergovernmental aspects are
a necessity for the dealing with the global environmental issues. Because the
determining the causes of the problems and solutions about them, the term requires a
multinational and integrated approaches and rules. Human impact on the environment
needed international attention, awareness and efforts are the concepts of the global
environmental politics. These politics is not only the cooperation and collaboration
among governments or institutes, but it is also about the conflict between all parties
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concerned due to the environmental problems. Environmental degradation and natural
resource use or human-generated impacts may create a conflict of interest (Mitchell,
2010). The environment is changed by humans deliberately or unconsciously for
many centuries. These effects, which were seen in the early ages, increased further
with industrialization and it became uncontrollable. From an agricultural revolution
to the industrial revolution, there are various human impacts seen as a significant
environmental disaster. The change process starting with the discovery of tools
continues the present with reducing natural resources. Industrial revolution promotes
the growing population and using the animals and other resources of the planet for
the humans.
Due to the industrialization, the increasing amount of the environmental accidents
or problems such as eutrophication, mine water pollution, air pollution, global
warming, acid precipitation, and deforestation requires the common and acceptable
concern being an essential part of foreign policy and international relations. Reducing
the human effects on the environment can be real with the self-conscious efforts
of people, companies, and countries. Opponents, supporters and other bystanders
have responsibilities as well as enterprises. To prompt all interested parties and
to prevent conflicts that will emerge in this process, the study of the international
environmental politics should be the leader, which include the reason and the
concept of the conflicts arise over environmental issues and the solution methods.
Additionally, the failed resolutions and its reasons are also the subjects of these
politics because of the giving information about when the negotiations get nowhere.
International environmental politics use a multidisciplinary approach which
involves law, economy, chemistry, biology and philosophy modeling notwithstanding
that political science to understand the environmental issues. Therefore, assuming
the adoption of protocols accepted different countries have different costs for the
interested groups. Environmental politics provide the sharing cost among parties to
ensure the prevent the specific pollution. However, the protection the wild nature,
other natural resources, and species need the international scene to avoid being a
global wasteland. The first known example of the environmental policy is the Panel
on Climate Change and United Nations’ Conference on the Human Environment
(UNCHE) in Stockholm 1972. There is also a lot of study of international environmental
politics, but the impact of them are not always as expected, so they cannot become
widespread. Another popular development is the UN Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janerio in 1992 (Najam, 2005). The results
of the conference take part in two essential journals to generalize the outcomes and
arouse interest. After these critical meetings or conferences, the combination of trade
and environment become the main topic of international environmental politics.
Nowadays, studies are continuing in the light of the sustainability.
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International Relations and the Environment
Environmental issues indirectly and directly affect different countries at the same
time. Inherently, the pollutions and scarce sources require international diplomacy
and relations. After the Stockholm and Rio Conferences, international environmental
ties draw high interest. Both Stockholm and Rio Declarations involve some different
principles. Especially the developing countries are not willing to pay the environmental
costs with the new environmental programs. Similarly, after the Rio Conference
180 countries and private organizations which try to influence policymakers don’t
want to accept all subjects, and then only 27 principles are signed.
In the light of these developments, international environmental relations are
developed to avoid the long-term environmental issues and global press about
them. Climate change, marine resources, and diversity of species are some of the
subjects of international environmental relations as well as hazardous wastes, nuclear
pollution, and environmental security. The main target of the countries known as
sustainable development should occur with environmental consciousness. As the
report on Our Common Future emphasized in 1987 by the Brundtland Commission,
the environment must be a part of the development and poverty (Harris, 2002).
Therefore, the environment should not be considered separately from the sustainability
and development of the countries.
From this point forth, the environment and international relations involve the study
of the global environment and theoretical approaches used in international relations.
The environment in international relations. International ties interest social ecology
and the globalization of the environmental changes or issues as well as safeguarding
the planet. First international relation studies are mostly about conflicts, insecurity
and possible cooperations. After the Great War and changed aspect, optimistic and
liberal reforming project occur in the international system to build collaborations.
Environmental committees and their conferences guide the countries to decide their
stand against the global environmental issues. Maritime and air pollution takes place
in the international relationship framework mostly owing to the Antarctic Treaty
regime (Vogler & Imber, 2005). Additionally, the impacts of human are mainly
analyzed to understand the responsibility of the issues. The common point of all
studies is needed to the cooperation between countries and agencies.
UN, WTO, and OECD as the major international institutions are developed
for the economic growth and global trade. Similarly, environmental international
relations require the committees which can solve the problems of growth and the
environment. At this stage, it is so important to understand the environmental-based
growth and its effects on the other activities. Inherently, international relations have
a holistic approach to the environmental and economic issues among governments
(Purdey, 2010). The evidence and the impacts on the environment are known by the
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interest groups in a short period. But, international institutions and other economic
and politic policymaking cannot avoid the growth paradigm in the global structure.
Also, the long-term chain reaction effect of environmental issues is hardly measurable
for the earth. Because the results of a natural disaster in one country may be the
beginning of a problem in another country. Herewith, environmental issues cannot
be considered as a unique problem in society. So, the nations should integrate the
economic, environmental and social targets with the international relations and
policies. This is an unavoidable consequence of the international ties between private
and public institutions.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Global warming, air pollution, mine and water pollution, deforestation, acid
precipitation, agricultural pollution, eutrophication are the major environmental
issues. Therefore, these global issues are explained in this part of the chapter because
of the importance of the subject.
Global Warming
It is one of the most known environmental matters nowadays. First measurements
of the earth’s atmosphere are taken in the 1860s, and now the temperature of the
atmosphere is warmer than before. The climate and the dates of the mid-seasons
changed. This critical issue is so popular because the people can feel the change
in their daily life. The planet can live and save it habitable characteristics at this
level but, the greenhouse effect is getting more and more, so the medium level
will be passed in the future. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases in
the atmosphere above the land has a delicate balance. And this chemical balance
protects the earth from the short and longwave radiation of the sun and provide a
suitable warmth for the habitat and life. The greenhouse effect damages the layers
of gases, which absorb the short and long wave radiation and it causes the radiation
to pass through and warm the air and surface (Best, 1999). Especially the amount
of carbon dioxide which increases due to the human activities such as using fossil
fuels, growing population, is getting more and more.
The seriousness of the problem can be realized after some diseases and political
stages. International bureaucracies raise awareness about global temperatures through
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990. Two years later, about 154 countries come
together at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janerio, Brazil to decrease the emission with
the voluntary agreement. But an optional step is not enough to meet the needs. So,
there is need a specific target for the meeting of the emissions level. In 1997, Kyoto
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protocol signed to bind countries to emission reductions, because the effects of
greenhouse gases can be felt in the social and economic life. The greenhouse effect
on the earth warming is agreed by the scientist, after the Svante Arrhenius article in
1896. The author points out that humans are enhancing the damage of the warming
and increase the natural greenhouse effect. After the observing the warm and cold
period of the earth, this theory is promoted by the several scientists (Jones, 1997).
In the twenty-first century, the impact of climate change, global warming or
greenhouse effect is estimated with various aspects. A complex network of evolution
shows that of coastal areas for agriculture, there are a lot of direct and indirect effects
exist in the ecosystems on earth. Thermal expansion of the oceans and the rising
of the sea level will affect the coastal areas seriously. The freshwater resources can
damage because of the unbalanced weather events and climate changed. According
to the lack of water and acid rain, the food supply will decrease staidly and may risk
people’s life. Sustainable agriculture is getting hard and costly in a short period.
Also, the quality of the air will not be enough for the plant and peoples’ life. The
impact of human health has already started in some countries such as Africa and
China. Back to nature and fix the balance cannot be possible after the critical level
of warming but, to this level, any applications or industrial implementation can be
seen in the adaptation of the climate change.
Air Pollution
Air quality has vital importance for the human and natural life. Especially big cities
have unhealthy conditions for breath because of the cumulative bonfire or coal fire
of homes. In the early days, Henry III and Queen Eleanor leave the castle because
of the coal fires of the houses of the kingdom and choose another place in the fresh
air. After the modern businesses, Parliament starts the Public Health Act to decrease
the air pollution of factories in 1936. Some committees have appointed, and various
steps were taken, but the world meets the air pollution and its results in London events
dramatically. In 1952, great and terrible smog descended in London for five days.
The combination of the warm and cold air lead such a smoke and moisture, fog and
it blankets the area suddenly. Four thousand people died because of the breathing
difficulties, crash and other events as a result of the smog and bad weather quality
(Best, 1999). This tristful event takes the world’s attention on the incident and the
importance of the air quality.
The impact of the London smog is profound, and The Clean Air Act starts for
some control areas. The air plan is moved into action to decrease the amount of SO2
and change the domestic fuel. In 1990 the emission level of the UK falls from 6,3
million tons to 3,7 million tons. This considerable reduction provides an improved
air and rainwater quality and helps to minimize the acid degree of rains. The
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importance of the air quality requires multinational solutions and collective steps.
Because the air pollution of the China can affect the USA in an extended period
and the deterioration of the atmosphere has a common characteristic for all nations
or countries. After the UK legislation, EU and UNECE start air-quality legislation
in the member countries. Also, World Health Organization, Asia legislations, EU
industrial emissions legislation and vehicle emissions exist (Tiwary & Colls, 2010).
All standards and legislation serve the main aim of the controlling the air pollutions
and its harmful effects. In short and long-term effects of air quality on human and
other species has a survival extent. Also, the sources and control of gases are about
the lifestyle of the modern society to a large extent.
Air pollution should be handled different aspects because of the complicated
balance of the atmosphere. The primary and vertical structure of the atmosphere has
a critical importance for absorption of gases and minimize the other air pollutants.
Plants, humans, and animals have the effects of the combined of the gases and
aerosol. Pollution is named anthropogenic, which arises from human activities, while
it is called biogenic which I about animals and plants (Popescu & Lonel, 2010).
Because the air pollution is handled in connection with environmental damage
and its specific capacity to damage life system with toxins and ammonia or carbon
dioxide contents. The changeover of the origin of the atmosphere has normal and
abnormal periods, but some regular disturbances change the natural constituents of
air permanently and detrimentally.
Mine and Water Pollution
It is widely known that the planet’s surface consists of 70 percent water and mostly it
cannot be used by humans because of the ice caps at the Poles. Humans can use the
only freshwater which is the 30 percent of water and on the surface. Rivers, lakes,
and wetlands provide fresh and usable water from underground to the surface. Not
only for the drink, but also for irrigating crops there needs a certain amount of clean
water. Also, power mills and machines or some industries require water for cooling
and force. Remaining from drinking water is used for sewage disposal. Growing
population also uses more fresh water day after day. Increased demand for water is
met with drained water pumped from underground (Fridell, 2006). Therefore, lakes,
rivers, and barrages cannot be fed from underground and open mines used to be.
Water pollution also arises from a lot of reasons such as oil pollution, sewage
pollution, organic and inorganic pollutions. Thermal pollution is also classified in
this kind of pollution or disaster. So, water pollution is emerging as a threat to all
creatives directly and indirectly. The quality of the water is about to the chemical,
biological and even physical content of the water which includes not only organic and
inorganic substances in solution but also identity, temperature and impact or organism
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in it. The atmosphere, rocks, soil shape the water characteristic with cultivation
practices or vegetation canopy. Therefore, the pollution of the water originates in
different resources such as natural process, agriculture as well as deforestation,
urbanization, and chemicals. Solid or liquid-solid washes from industry, dwelling
areas, disposal of gaseous (Agarwal, 2009). On the other hands, the effects of the
industrial wastes or chemicals have the damage power of nature and human life.
Uncontrolled human activities are the most effective response to the accelerated
flow of minerals which form the water and its quality.
Radiologically or biologically, the substances of water lose quality and become
usefulness form of nature. Moreover, discharges of wastes include some radioactive
effects and can change the temperature, taste or odor of the water. In addition to
that, any impairment of water quality is seen as water pollution because it has the
unsuitable form for beneficial use hereafter. Natural reasons for the decreasing quality
of the water are not named water pollution such as atmospheric dissolved gases,
decomposition of animal or vegetable materials. These effects are called non-point
sources while others are known as point sources such as individual and industrial
sources which include agricultural or municipal waste, spillage of oil and watercraft
waste. Sand, paper, sewage, foam, and pigments are the physical reasons for the
dissolution of the water, while fluorides, salts, phosphates, detergents, plastic are
the organic and inorganic chemical reasons of the pollution. Additionally, bacteria,
nematodes, protozoans, slime, and nematodes can damage humans, or animal health
is known as biological factors of the water pollution (Abbasi & Abbasi, 2012). Hence,
the pollution of the water has various properties and struggle with it is needed the
systematic aspects of different science and foundations.
Deforestation
Ecological well-being is affected by global deforestation and its impact on the earth.
10 percent of the earth is covered by forest, while 20 percent of it is the continental
area. Developing or tropical countries have more forest area than developed states
with 55 percent part. Canada, China, Democratic Republic of Congo, Brazil, Russia,
Indonesia, and the USA have more than 60 percent of the whole forests which is
the considerable part of the ecosystem. Accordingly, these forests provide a useful
living space and the most extensive habitat for animals and other creatures. Forests,
which supply fresh air also can stop soil erosion and produce wood or fuel for energy
(Vajpeyi, 2001). Additionally, plants which grow in the forest are used to the medicine
and help people food control for the sustainability of the economic and ecological
system. Especially the tropical forest cover is changing over time due to using the
trees for industrial consumption.
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Taking into account all of these, replanting is not enough and the forests
disappearing dramatically. To a level, the forest has some reproductive and restorative
features due to the evolutionary diversity and genetic traits. After the renewable level,
destruction is beginning and then diversity decrease under the risk level. Modern-
day efficient like new roads and buildings expand the rate of deforestation as well
as industrialization. Extreme climatic conditions and insect pests are other reasons
for the deforestation and disappearing the forests swiftly. Deforestation makes major
differences in the environment through the impact of destructive and manifold
(Kaimowits & Angelsen, 1998). As a result of all this process has the adverse effect
of the sinking of carbon and absorbing carbon dioxide. It is not only about carbon,
but this process also causes the warming of climate because of the unequal water
recycling and then climate warming. The knock-on effect of hydrology triggers the
recession of glaciers and uneven flows due to decreasing of flow in rivers.
Margulis (2004) explains the deforestation in a broad aspect and take the subject
in hand with geologically, ecologically and economically. Because governments feel
pressure about opening more roads and serving large masses due to the population
increase. As the society develops, the needs grow, and there are some new demands
which affect the geo-ecologic conditions and environment. Deforestation for the
new roads is one of these claims and pressure. Also, new buildings and roads have
geopolitical subjects of the countries, as well as them, give profitable chances for
the firms. So, it can be said that a balance must be established between profitability,
costs and social benefits for the future of the forest and nature. Economic activities
and targets as the aim of the firms cannot be the only dimension of the economy.
Because protection of the forest as a social target is not only a non-profit target but
also about the future of the economy and human life. The results of the deforestation
have a relationship with economic factors as well as social cost and benefits.
Therefore, deforestation has multinational boundaries and various dimensions for
the sustainability of the natural resources.
Acid Precipitation
Acid or rain precipitation is about the unremovable airborne pollutants in rain droplets.
Acidification of snow or rain can be seen on the effects of buildings, plants, and trees
as well as human health. First damage from acid rain is seen as a local problem and
result with the close the chemical factories. Widespread dispersion of the pollutants
cannot be seen in early times. After the growing activities of the heavy industries
and energy firms, the damage to the atmosphere shows an excessive increase. The
waste gases from heavy industries or energy firms provide the acidic gases into
nature, such as sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrous oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Road
traffic and other human activities help the increasing damage of the gases and its
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chemical reactions. These gases undergo chemical exchange with sunlight and cloud
water and become more acidic for some countries such as Norwegians and Swedes
(Best, 1999). Also, the problems of the extreme snowmelt and black snow which is
about the acidic and dirty snowflake are not a local issue. However, black snow and
unbalanced pH level of meltwater kill the aquatic organisms and fishes. Thus, the
problem of acidity is both about pH level and other chemical compounds of water.
In addition to water life, acid precipitation becomes a threat not only to the forests
and agriculture but also for human health and sustainability of the earth. The harmful
effect of acidic raindrops on nonindustrial areas is seen more than industrial areas
due to the moving around of gases. Gases and their particles are lighter than air, so
they can carry themselves long distances and cause the environmental loss in wild
areas, while smoke particles are heavier than air and they sink to the area which
is near the factories. When the some reach the ground level, it makes breathing
problems for a living creature because of the feature of thinning and range over a
wide field. Prevailing winds are the main reason of the polluting gases spread other
areas at high speeds (Petheram, 2002). Unsurprisingly, the acidic water or current
air damage, the sources of the neighborhood countries. But, surprisingly the damage
can reach the other continents with wind and flow. For this reason, the issue of acid
precipitation is a universal issue, at least as much as other environmental problems.
According to the Heij and Erisman (1995), acid deposition has large-scale impacts
of forest and forest soils. Therefore the measurement of the ecological effects of
the atmospheric deposition on forest and non-forest ecosystems are so difficult and
complicated. The research about acidic contents of the rain or other water sources is
shown that there is the need to integrate acidic deposition modeling and solves with
supra-national aspects. Developed countries as Canada, US, and Switzerland speed
up the study about the causes and effects of the acid precipitation as well as trying
the solve this universal problem for the next generations (Lane, 2003). Because the
acid deposition can endanger the areas in the wet and dry form which include acidic
rain, toxic fog, black snow and acidic particles or gases.
Agricultural Pollution
Pollution from farming has various effects on nature which are both about animals
and humans. Especially monoculture farming treat the animals and human health
unexpectedly as well as the effect on the sustainability. This effect takes place through
feedlots which are seen as a super productive and effective tool of the meat-eating
demands. Feedlots and monoculture are both harmful effects on the soil and water
chemistry. Because the waste of animals in a small space makes soiled the natural
resources. Some regulations are sanctioned by the government to decrease the
pollution, but they are not enough for nature. Disastrous results have still seen in
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International Businesses and Environmental Issues
the industries of the food, agriculture, and livestock (Fridell, 2006). The immediate
influence of this pollution can be seen due to consuming the grain, pesticides, drugs,
petroleum, water, and other natural sources.
Key routes of the agriculture pollute the environment, classify into two sections
as contamination of water and food. Fertilizers, nitrates, and pesticides which are
used in the agricultural productivity can cause the cancers, taste problems and other
dreadful illness through water consumers, fisheries, tourism, surface water transport
as well as agriculture sector. Also, organic livestock manures make the water plus
deoxygenation, while soil leads the filling of lakes or harbor and destroying coral
reef and fisheries. Additionally, ground and surface waters wash the pesticides away
and affect water’s quality mortally. The wildlife, agriculture and other industries
are also affected by the livestock manures, paddy rice and biomass burning through
food consumers, farmers, other users. Methane which is seen as a result of paddy
rice and ruminant livestock has a critical role in global warming and acid rain
(Angell, Comer & Wilkinson, 1990). This gases with other smoke and particulates
can damage the health seriously and irreversibly.
Wildlife and landscape protection must be one of the main aims of the Agri-
environmental policies to decrease the phosphate and nitrate pollution of lakes, rivers
and streams as well as the spillages of silage effluent from storage areas. Also, to
avoid pesticide drift and to control the accidental spillages of diesel oil from tanks,
there is a need for some regulations embracing the agricultural sector. In addition
to all these, runoff water from vegetable washing plants is considered as a kind of
pollution from farming. Unfortunately, soil erosion is not recognized as a serious
problem as well as dairy farming areas (Shortle & Abler, 2001). Water pollution
due to farming is not just about the fish-killing; it is a severe problem with a wide
exhaustive. Using of manure on frozen fields, spraying pesticides and other agricultural
practices need farmer education and some policies which consider all dimensions
of farming pollution with water and air pollution as well as soil conservation.
Eutrophication
The eutrophication threat to dynamics of aquatic ecosystems both in local and
global. Tourism and lakes are directly affected, but the changes of the eutrophication
balance of the ecosystem. Salt marshes, fresh water, and plankton get also changed
crucially due to eutrophication processes.The eutrophication of water is about
over-enrichment by phosphate and nitrogen due to the decomposition of algal
organic matter. Because the deterioration of the water chemistry leads the oxygen
depletion in water bodies. Point and non-point resources of the nutrients consist of
industrial discharges, sewage, agricultural and urban outcomes. Especially excessive
application of fertilizer cause phosphorus in soils (Ansari & Gill, 2014). Then, these
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phosphorus-rich soils reach lakes and other water sources and trigger the growth
of aquatic plants and phytoplankton. Drivers of the ecosystem always interact with
each other in a synergic way. Hence, eutrophication causes more energy loss and
increase the consumption of fertilizer owing to direct and indirect drivers.
Harmful algal blooms are common issues in lakes with eutrophication. Strong
lake lands, air water or water sediments interactions make the water body available
to chemical degradation in shallow lakes. At the end of the eutrophication and algal
blooms process, shortage of fresh water or drinking water and forced degradation of
lake ecosystems are seen as a big problem for the environment and supply of water.
Algal blooms which are also named microcystins is about the deterioration of water
quality, and they especially occur in the summer owing to the decreasing water
supply. Industrial wastes enhance the degradation with sewage disposal and make
the eco-environmental problems bigger in lakes. Lakes have their hydrodynamics and
potential for the renewable their water bodies unless intervened the process outside.
However, remediation of eutrophication in Aqua ecosystems is the first of the nutrient
pollution of sources (Quin, Liu & Havens, 2007). It means that eutrophication is the
beginning of the sequence environmental problems in aquatic ecosystems around
the world. Water quality and fish population are the first articulable evidence of
the disorder.
The problem of the rendering rich in nutrients are considered the last 30 years
by the countries to save the fresh water of lakes in the worldwide. Human activities
enrich the water with nutrients unintended and change the lake’s life cycle or
ecosystem permanently. Other factors can also affect the ecosystem of the lakes, but
the harmless one is wasted of the human or factories (Somlyody & Straten, 2012).
This situation must be remedied to avoid the changing of the original functions
of the lakes. A watershed is seen as a solving tool for this problem in the shortest
time, while the natural assimilation process is considered as a lasting solution for
the sustainability of the lakes. Development of the countries provides through
urbanization, agriculture, tourism, and industrial. But, countries are now aware
of increasing of nutrition in the lakes and they start to consider the results of the
process in the near future. The solving of the problem needs a broad scanning owing
to the nature of the lake ecosystem which includes both external natural factors and
interrelated chemical, physical, biological process.
Other Important Issues
Environmental issues are of the whole economic, social and politic dimensions of a
country. Therefore, one of the important issues about the environment is ceramics and
so glasses which are used by the nuclear industry and so important for the defense
industry. Because of the importance of the subject, government use regulations to
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manipulate the energy. The nuclear industry has high-level and low-level radioactive
outcomes due to the ceramic or glass. Thus, countries try to make environmental
stewardship to growth with nuclear and environmentally friendly products. Ceramic
Science and Technology for Nuclear Industry and Science and Technology in
Addressing Environmental Issues in the Ceramic Industry are two of the symposia
about ceramic and nuclear which are organized by The American Ceramic Society
(Smith, Sundaram & Spearing, 2002). This society organizes various activities as
well as other foundations and public enterprises. Product stewardship, refractory
users, markets and some policies and other factors force corporations and producers
consider the environment and recycling of the resources for the nuclear industry.
Other energy resources are classified into three factors as radiant energy emitted
by the sun, gravitational energy resulting from the interactions of the Moon, Sun,
and Earth, and geothermal power originated inside the planet. Thus, the resources
are mainly four kinds of nuclear energy which is abundant yet exhaustible. But,
all these resources of energy are not efficiently usable or available to use because
of some geological, wind regime and hydrological reasons. Some of them are
provided with economically, while others have 50 percent probability of use or 10
percent probability of exploitation under some circumstances. Because the supply
of energy is a manner of a geopolitics position of a country and internal reserves
determine the international trade and negotiations of environment against foreign
or borders (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2010). For this reason, energy resources have a
vital importance, and it is a critical issue for the countries. Because it is one of the
significant tools of the sustained growth of an economy or country as well as it is
about the defense system.
Additionally, some natural hazards can affect the balance of the energy resources
and the environment. But the human impact of nature can be more harmful in the
long term. Because human has a lot of roles as cultivators, metal workers, and keepers
in nature. These roles have effects on vegetation, grassy plants, and forest through
grazing and firing. Also, the human has some negative influences on animals and
wild nature with the dispersal and domestication of animals. Directly or indirectly,
human lead the animal decline and habitat change solicitously (Pickering & Owen,
1997). All these old and recent developments oblige alternative assessments with
the environment and new assignments for all special interest groups. After the last
events, it has become a necessity, not a precaution for the future.
Global Activities of the Businesses About Environment
There are successful examples of environmentally successful in different sectors.
Especially renewable energy sector draws attention as well as cleaning producer. In
this section, some of the most exciting and successful firms are given as examples
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of environmentally friendly companies. However, the journal of Forbes (2017) also
provides extensive publicity to these businesses as the best firms for the environment.
The importance of these samples arises from the mission of showing other big
companies that it is impossible the being environmentally sustainable when still
making the profit.
Werner & Mertz known as FROSCH introduce itself as a well established on the
European and Japan market as an innovative company which always feel equally
committed to the principles of an environmentally sound and sustainable business
approach. Because the firm considers the environment that sustainability is not a
fad, it is a company tradition for the daily activities. For 150 years, they provide
innovative solutions for the consumers and give importance loyalty of employees.
The firm sells the products to 15 countries and has an innovative leadership aim in
the target market. The business started as a small green eco-pioneer initially, then
the objective of the producing environmentally friendly products expanded. After the
serious environmental incidents, Germans become to be the high level of awareness
about environmental issues; then the firm notices the demands for environmental
products. Consumers enjoy the feeling good eco-quality when they are meeting
their requirements. Therefore, environmental alternatives become favorite among
consumers. Firstly, phosphate-free detergents launch to the market, then the products
of environmentally friendly cleaning are expanded. To increase the consumer trust,
the firm uses the environmental solutions for the process and activities. Resource
efficiency and environment certified (EMAS III) gathered with value-added supply
chain, green frog, and waste management. The firm gains a medal as the most trusted
brand about the environment, and it provides environmentally friendly cleaning and
care products in nearly all areas of the household. Cleaning, dishwashing, washing,
baby care, room freshener and creme soap are some of the products of the firm in the
market. “Feel good eco-quality since 1986” is the slogan of the company and show
it as a successful eco-pioneer with the environmental and skin-friendly properties
of the products. The nine aspects of the aim of the creating sustainable products are
naturally based ingredients, skin-friendliness, vegetable origin, organic compounds,
reducing utilization of packaging materials, vegan, energy-conscious production,
experiences, and water treatment plant (Frosch, 2017).
Another successful firm in environmental business is in the same sector. Seventh
Generation is a biggest plant-based producer certified as a B Corporation by Vermont
which means that the company is better for the environment and employees. To create
a good future for the earth, the firm indicates that trying to reduce the environmental
impacts of the products with the sustainable supply chain. According to the company,
performance and safety should provide the more mindful way of doing business with
the customers and stakeholders. This is the critical factor in the making a difference
in the target market. The firm produces the household, baby care and feminine
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products such as diapers, laundry, cleaners, tampons, baby skin care, recycled paper
and Botanic disinfectants with the considering the impacts of the decisions on the
next seven generations. Since 1988, firm sustainably produce the goods with the
participant of the employees. Renewable energy and low emission cars using are
promoted while the solution for the sustainability of employees is rewarded. The
slogan of the firm is “it’s time to tell the industry to come clean” (Seventhgeneration,
2017) and it shows the environmentally friendly aspects of the operations.
Similarly, Seventh Generation which has the top score is a competitor, METHOD
also product environmentally friendly personal care and cleaning product such as
dish soap, laundry detergent, all-purpose soaps and shower gels. The firm offers
the consumers the naturally-derived power to fight stain with the aim of reducing
plastic waste and helping to save the environment. The company has a benefit
blueprint program to increase the C Corp Score, compass score and to reduce the
carbon footprint, water usage.firm has a green glossary for the customers that gave
high-level environmental awareness and it uses recyclability evaluated materials
in all products to reach the animal and nature friendly aims at reducing carbon
emissions, using renewable energies and offsetting the supplier to be environmental
(Methodhome, 2017). From the design of the transfer of products, all processes
include green sourcing programs, fuel efficiency, and biodiesel fleet.
Other firms that produce environmentally friendly products for nature lovers or
campers and is very successful in this section. Go Lite produced various goods as
outdoor clothing and equipment maker since 1998. Ultra-light packs, down jackets
and sleeping bags are produced with the aim of the mitigating 100% of the firm
environmental footprint. For this purpose, company use recycled nylon and polyester
as Environmentally Preferred Materials instead of petrochemical raw materials. Firm
gain the 67 percent of the minimizing the footprint. The buildings and factories of
the company try to prove a zero waste facility with recycling and composting of
all wastes (GoLite, 2017). The company provides the nature lovers gears to go the
distance. Therefore, it can be said that the company serves the customers with their
environmental sensitivity.
One of the popular environmentalist firms is an Ale company.New Belgium
Brewing is a maker of Fat Tire Amber Ale since 1991. The founder of the company
is a bike tripper, and he encourages the employees to get on the bicycle. The firm
reduces 75 percent waste of its products and using of energy; also the managers
consider the emissions and recycles as an important gain for the sustainability.
Employees purchase the share from the firm, and this provides commitment and
awareness of the environmental subjects. The principle of the employees is “hard
work and continuous push for the invention.” The vision of the firm includes ten core
values and beliefs. Two of these values are directly about the environment. First one
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International Businesses and Environmental Issues
is “Kindling social, environmental and cultural change as a business role model”,
while the second one is “Environmental stewardship: Honoring nature at every
turn of the business”. Innovative, quality and efficiency are trying to provide to the
participant of the employees and increasing environmental processes (NewBelgium,
2017). The firm has specific targets for reducing CO2, climate change, wastes, water
use ratio, protect and restore the waterways.
According to the article on the Forbes (2017), the other firm considered better
for the environment is in the manufacturing sector. Solberg Manufacturing product
for the protection of the machinery and its surroundings with renewable energy and
better energy using in the within the scope of the Better Buildings Better Plants
program. The firm firstly examines the entire operation and then try to do more
sustainable practices about designs, manufacturing, and processes. The slogan
of the company as”protect your equipment, protection your environment” serves
the environmentally friendly activities. According to this aspect, firm gain “Best
for the Environment Award” and take a certified as B Corporation. The view of
sustainability starts with top managers and continue the lowest employees in the
firm (SolbergMfg, 2017). Thus, corporate and social responsibilities are considered
seriously as well as other market targets.
Successful environmentalist firms can be seen in any sector. This company
is one of the most important manufacturers of the 70-plus employees. West Paw
Design produces eco-friendly dog toys, beds, and mats with fiber from recycled
plastic bottles since 1996. However, the firm use recycled paper and soy-based
inks for packaging the toys and beds. Also, customers are invited to send back
used products for recycling to reduce the resource uses. The story of the firm starts
with five animal lover employees, and then 15 employees take part in this group in
Asia to avoid outsourcing and promote local talent to the work life. The first aim
of the firm sets out the world’s safest and highest quality dog and cat toys with the
eco-friendly manufacturing facility. Montana gives inspirations to the employee for
sustainable practices in manufacturing or designs. There is a Join the Loop program
to provide infinitely recycled toys. Therefore, the firm’ values give the employees
make differences when they produce the fun toys for the cat and dog lovers. Firms
gain the Certified B Corp as one of the best small companies and first benefit
corporation of the America. Nowadays, only less than 80 employees are designing
toys to achieve the aim of being the world’s most eco-friendly and safest pet products.
Organic catnip and re-usable banana boxes are some of the environmentally friendly
products of the West Paw Design. They also eliminate the buying or using plastic
totes, and they are the first IntelliLoft user which includes recycled plastic foil and
fabrics. Only eco-friendly materials are used for the product such as organically-
grown hemp, catnip, cotton and stuffing made from recycled plastic, bottles made
from old chew toys (WestPaw, 2017). At the end of the all these design processes,
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International Businesses and Environmental Issues
employees feel the happiness of the keeping waste out of landfills, chemicals out
of soil and water. They have fun with the design of extraordinarily toys and beds
with the satisfaction of being a part of an eco-conscious firm.
The Eco friend product is mostly about the energy demands of the household as
well as heavy industry. Therefore, some prospering firms offer an environmentally
friendly energy product for the consumers. Sungevity is an energy supply firm
which helps household and industry to reduce the energy losses with the renewable
natural energy. The slogan of the Sungevity is “we only have one home; it should
be powered by sunshine, ” which shows the environmental aspect of the firm. The
firm provides high-quality solar panel technology for the homes with solar panels
known as Sungevity Energy System to reduce the cost of energy for users. The
first step the process is the decision of the consumers to power his/her home with
sunshine. Solar energy can be used over 20 years, and it gives the people the chance
of saving the nature, trees, and atmosphere. Firm show the consumers the amount
of the energy using and the level of the damage to nature statistically and clearly
(Sungevity, 2017). Due to the sun based energy system, consumers and nature bear
less cost for the sources.
Similar to the previous firm Namaste Solar offer environmental, energy systems
for the consumers successfully. The firm claim responsibility of impacting on the
environment as well as customer and employee satisfaction in its operations and
maintenance services. The slogan of the firm is “transforming energy, transforming
business” with the target of the contributing the long-term health of the society and
the environment. Owing to the shared culture among employees and flexible working
arrangement, the firm target the work in a consensus building which allow the ideas
are growing and supported creatively. According to the firm’ cooperative model, a
strong relationship is gained among inner and outer partners and being a good neighbor
to the residents (NamasteSolar, 2017). The company gives the opportunity to work at
home for employees, and this practice fell them motivated to new solutions. Another
successful example of the energy firm is in Mexico, which there is a leading firm
in the solar industry and the firm notices with the employee-owned structure and
largest certificate of the Benefits Corporation (B Corp). The main target is customer
satisfaction with low environmental impact and leading residential and commercial
solar installer by Positive Energy Solar. The name of the firm is SunPower, and it
runs the business with the principles of combining People, Planet, and Profit on the
same importance level (PositiveEnergySolar, 2017). However, the firm prefers local
labor force, employment to improve the local communities it operates and lives in.
To solve the problem with next-generation waste reduction programs and American
firm is running with certified B-Corp. The company aims to cut the trash in half across
the United States by the name of WasteZero. Managing the wastes have financial
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International Businesses and Environmental Issues
and environmental costs for both private and public sectors. Since 1991, the firm has
helped the cities, counties, state agencies or private organizations reduce costs and
waste when increasing recycling. At first, the company analyzes a municipality or
company’s waste situation, and then design a powerful waste reduction program for
the consumers. After the detailed analyses, the new program is built and launched
with a management and control system. At the end of the process, the firm helps the
commenting the results and comparing with the modernization program (WasteZero,
2017). The concept of this corporation is different others owing to the providing
support services for various companies.
As it is seen clearly from the examples, solar energy or green energy and
detergent firms have successful environmental products and services as well as
recycling firms. The common point of these businesses is the synergy, structure of
the work system which combined environmental and employee friendly processes.
They value both people and planet together, while they gain the financial targets
successfully and sustainably.
CONCLUSION
In the third title of the chapter, the successful and liked businesses are seen with their
positive image on the public. From the stage of the product design to the transporting
to the consumers, the business can act an environmentally sensitive and operate the
process with environmentally. Because the second title of the chapter shows the
environmental issues reach the serious level for all interested groups and after a
while, it may be too late for everything. As seen the first title of the chapter, since
the 1970s there various environmental steps in the international scope. Unfortunately,
all meetings, conferences or declarations don’t gain the environmental targets.
However, the standards and international committees force the businesses being
innovative about the environment and try to show the advantages of environmental
consciousness. Butterfly effect can be seen globally in the environmental issues.
Inherently, air pollution triggers the global warming and acid rain, while deforestation
causes eutrophication and decreasing the air quality. And therefore, all issues are
considered as the multidisciplinary and integrated approach to international relations
contribution. The attitude about international policies and common goals are so
important for the future of the natural resources. The proactive approaches provide
a holistic view of the business instead of cleaning sewerages or wastes management.
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International Businesses and Environmental Issues
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