No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Re-evaluating the reconstruction of Proto-Eskimo-Aleut
Abstract
The relationship between Unangam Tunuu (Aleut) and Eskimo was established in the early 19th century, and the 20th century especially saw a number of efforts on the reconstruction of Proto-Eskimo-Aleut (PEA). Reconstruction has supported assumptions of a largely genealogical relationship between the EA languages, assumptions which include a long history of independent development in isolation from other languages and language families. The reconstruction of PEA, however, is incomplete; many apparent cognates have irregular or imperfectly understood sound correspondences. Furthermore, advances in archaeology and genetics have called into question many assumptions about EA prehistory and about the isolation or lack thereof of Unangam Tunuu. In this study, I re-examine the proposed cognates and evaluate them based on the strength of their correspondences and their distribution within the lexicon, with reference to new findings regarding technological innovations and periods of cultural contact. Several patterns emerge, including a large group of proposed cognates with overly-specific semantic correlations relating to technologies or cultural practices post-dating the split of EA languages, a gender-based difference in the number of cognates relating to cultural activities, and a correlation between known borrowings and high levels of cognates in certain semantic domains. Results suggest extensive language contact, especially in the past millennium.
... Finally, a third cumulative list was used for the Eskimo-Aleut pair (Berge 2018). Although phonological correspondences between Eskimo and Aleut are not very complex (Bergsland 1994), the Eskimo-Aleut relationship is distant, and the number of Eskimo-Aleut etymologies within the 110-item wordlist is quite modest. ...
Relationships between universally recognized language families represent a hotly debated topic in historical linguistics, and the same is true for correlation between signals of genetic and linguistic relatedness. We developed a weighted permutation test which represents the classical permutation tests with weights introduced for individual Swadesh concepts according to their typological stability. Further, the obtained values were calibrated on a negative control group to override non-uniform distribution of phonemes within the Swadesh wordlist. We applied the calibrated permutation test to the basic vocabularies of nine languages and reconstructed proto-languages to show that three groups of circumpolar language families in the Northern Hemisphere show evidence of relationship through common descent or borrowing in the basic vocabulary: [Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Nivkh]; [Yukaghir, Samoyedic]; and [Yeniseian, Na-Dene, Burushaski]. The former two pairs showed the most significant signals of language relationship. Our findings further support some hypotheses on long-distance language relationships previously put forward based on linguistic methods but lacking universal acceptance.
... A similar situation is observed for the Chukotko-Kamchatkan family (49), consisting of the distantly related Chukotian and Itelmen; for this pair we prefer to compile a cumulative Proto-Chukotian + Proto-Itelmen wordlist. Finally, a third cumulative list is used for the Eskimo-Aleut pair (50). ...
Relationships between universally recognized language families represent a hotly debated topic in historical linguistics, and the same is true for correlation between signals of genetic and linguistic relatedness. We developed a weighted permutation test and applied it on basic vocabularies for 31 pairs of languages and reconstructed proto-languages to show that three groups of circumpolar language families in the Northern Hemisphere show evidence of relationship though borrowing in the basic vocabulary or common descent: [Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Nivkh]; [Yukaghir and Samoyedic]; [Yeniseian, Na-Dene, and Burushaski]. The former two pairs showed the most significant signals of language relationship, and the same pairs demonstrated parallel signals of genetic relationship implying common descent or substantial gene flows. For finding the genetic signals we used genome-wide genetic data for present-day groups and a bootstrapping model comparison approach for admixture graphs or, alternatively, haplotype sharing statistics. Our findings further support some hypotheses on long-distance language relationship put forward based on the linguistic methods but lacking universal acceptance.
Significance statement
Indigenous people inhabiting polar and sub-polar regions in the Northern Hemisphere speak diverse languages belonging to at least seven language families which are traditionally thought of as unrelated entities. We developed a weighted permutation test and applied it to basic vocabularies of a number of languages and reconstructed proto-languages to show that at least three groups of circumpolar language families show evidence of relationship though either borrowing in the basic vocabulary or common descent: Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Nivkh; Yukaghir and Samoyedic; Yeniseian, Na-Dene, and Burushaski. The former two pairs showed the most significant signals of language relationship, and the same pairs demonstrated parallel signals of genetic relationship implying common descent or substantial gene flows.
... The relation of related languages in comparative studies, in principle, can be proven based on the inheritance element of the parent language or proto-language (cf. Berge, 2018). Proto language is a theoretical idea that is redesigned (reconstructed) in a simple way to connect systems of related languages by utilizing some rules. ...
... Previous attempts to place regional archaeological records into a broader context of Holocene interaction have relied largely on typological comparisons of artifact types (Clark and Gotthardt, 1999;Greer,neighbouring people to further economic and socio-political goals. Networks of human contact in the Yukon and N.W.T., and changes to them over millennia, can inform hypotheses about the development of major linguistic groups (Dene, Tlingit, and Eskimo-Aleut) and the nature of interaction between them, including long-standing questions about culture contact across the Coast Mountains that separate the Yukon from the Pacific Ocean and across the Mackenzie Mountains between the N.W.T. and Yukon (Berge, 2018;Hare, 1995;Hare et al., 2012;Ives, 1990Ives, , 2010Krauss and Golla, 1981;Kristensen et al., 2019;Millar, 1981;Morrison, 1987;Workman, 1978). ...
Lithic provenance analyses offer means to reconstruct ancestral social relationships in Subarctic North America. We summarize sourced obsidian data from 462 archaeological sites in the Yukon and Northwest Territories, Canada, and interpret obsidian distribution through the Holocene with particular attention to the volcanic White River Ash East event of A.D. 846–848. We argue that social mechanisms explain overlapping occurrences of exotic and local obsidians and that the volcanic ash fall triggered changes to obsidian exchange patterns. Following the volcanic event, obsidian from British Columbia moved north into the Yukon with higher frequency. Instead of a population replacement, persistent patterns in the distribution of some obsidian source groups suggest that the ash temporarily pushed some Yukon First Nations south where they strengthened networks of exchange that were retained upon their return. The short- term displacement may also have facilitated the movement of bow and arrow technology into the Yukon, which appears concurrent with the volcanic event. The large-scale eruption had the potential to sever connections between a small group of ancestral Dene (Athapaskans) and their homeland, which culminated in a continent-wide migration in the Late Holocene.
Language contact is pervasive in the history of all Eskaleut languages of the Pacific Rim, and the languages show contact effect regardless of typological similarity or degree of relatedness. Moreover, the degree of contact has allowed for the borrowing of features that are generally thought of as relatively impervious to borrowing, including verb inflection. In particular, Sirenikski has been in close contact with the closely related language Central Siberian Yupik, and contact effects on the phonology, prosodic system and lexicon have been well described, however, the verbal inflectional morphology has largely been assumed to be cognate. In this article, I present evidence that some elements of the inflectional paradigm have been borrowed from Central Siberian Yupik.
We synthesize environmental and cultural change following a volcanic eruption at A.D. 846–848 in Subarctic North America to demonstrate how social relationships shaped responses to natural disasters. Ethnohistoric accounts and archaeometric studies reveal differences in human adaptations in the Yukon and Mackenzie river basins that relate to exertions of power over contested resources versus affordances of security to intercept dispersed migrating animals. The ways that pre-contact hunter-gatherers maintained or redressed ecological imbalances influenced respective trajectories of resilience to a major event. Adaptive responses to a volcanic eruption affected the movement of bow and arrow technology and the proliferation of copper use in northwest North America.
For a century, archaeologists have puzzled over the enigma of successful whaling unfolding with no predecessors prior to the last two millennia. The emergence of social complexity is linked with the appearance of the Old Bering Sea (OBS) aesthetic engraved on walrus ivory implements found in sites with large cemeteries and thick middens. Significantly, many OBS sites co-occur with major haulout locations for Pacific walrus, whose procurement engendered relationships that, along with seafaring or hunting technology, were the pivotal drivers that fostered whaling. Our revision of extant ¹⁴C assays to correct for marine carbon produces a younger ‘Low’ chronology placing the OBS florescence between AD 650–1250, with its earliest phase Okvik and allied Ipiutak communities from AD 300 to 600. The lithic technology of OBS is distinctive in its notched bifaces with affinities to 3000-year-old Chukchi Archaic assemblages. Later influences on OBS development include Ipiutak lithic technology and suggest migration, and either adversarial, or trading relationships with Alaska. The acquisition of rare commodities (driftwood, iron and obsidian) contributed to differential success and resulted in inequality recorded in burials.
This paper uses a theory of the emotions to motivate a semantic analysis of English words referring to emotions. The theory assumes that emotions have a two-fold communicative function, both externally amongst members of the species, and internally within the brain so as to bypass complex inferences. It implies that there is a small number of basic signals that can set up characteristic emotional modes within the organism, roughly corresponding to happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust. In human beings, these modes can be modulated by the propositional content of the cognitive evaluation that caused the emotion signal, or else, if this content fails to impinge on consciousness, these modes can be experienced as emotions that have occurred for no apparent reason. According to this “communicative” theory, there should be a set of terms that refer to basic emotions, and these terms should have no internal semantics, since they cannot be analysed into anything more basic, such as a prototype or a set of semantic features. Other terms should refer to states that combine a basic emotion with a propositional content. Finally, the theory implies that any emotional term should devolve upon one of the five basic emotion modes, or some subset of them, and that there will be no need to invoke any other emotional states. These predictions were borne out by the semantic analysis of 590 emotion words.
There were at least four waves of bow and arrow use in northern North America. These occurred at 12000, 4500, 2400, and after about 1300 years ago. But to understand the role of the bow and arrow in the north, one must begin in the eighteenth century, when the Russians first arrived in the Aleutian Islands. At that time, the Aleut were using both the atlatl and dart and the bow and arrow (Fig. ). This is significant for two particular and important reasons. First, there are few historic cases in which both technologies were used concurrently; second, the bow and arrow in the Aleutian Islands were used almost exclusively in warfare. The atlatl was a critical technology because the bow and arrow are useless for hunting sea mammals. One cannot launch an arrow from a kayak because it is too unstable and requires that both hands remain on a paddle. To use an atlatl, it is necessary only to stabilize the kayak with a paddle on one side and launch the atlatl dart with the opposite hand. The Aleut on the Alaska Peninsula did indeed use the bow and arrow to hunt caribou there. However, in the 1,400 km of the Aleutian Islands, there are no terrestrial mammals except humans and the bow was reserved almost exclusively for conflicts among them. The most significant event in the history of the bow and arrow is not its early introduction, but rather the Asian War Complex 1300 years ago, when the recurve and backed bows first entered the region, altering regional and hemispheric political dynamics forever.
Aleut male as shown in Liapunova Figure 2, remastered and edited by Maschner. A) Atlatl and darts, B) the recurved bow, C) armor, and D) shield. Drawing by M. C. Levashov, 1764–1769, original in the Central State Archives of the Navy, Russia.
image
The Aleut language, currently spoken along the Aleutian chain and the Pribilof and Commander islands, is the only language in its branch of the Eskimo-Aleut language family, and traditional methods of linguistic reconstruction have neither satisfactorily explained its relationship with languages on the Asian continent nor its development from Proto-Eskimo-Aleut. Linguistic reconstruction has always been important in understanding the prehistory and history of the Aleuts, and new approaches in comparative linguistics, more comprehensive information on typological features of neighboring languages, and continuing language documentation allow us to propose a rich and continuous history of contact with various groups of people. I evaluate evidence that the Aleut language may have been shaped by contact with neighbors in Asia and Alaska, eventually giving rise to its differentiation from the Eskimo languages. I look at dialect differentiation along the Aleutian chain and what this differentiation reveals about the migration trends of the Aleut along the chain. I look at the colonial expansion of the Aleut-speaking area and resulting additional varieties of Aleut in the historical period. Finally, I review the effects of the Russian and American colonial periods on the Aleut language and the severe endangerment that the language faces today as a result. I conclude that there is evidence of possible Aleut contact with both neighboring peoples; however, much of this evidence has not yet been subjected to systematic comparative reconstructions. Linguistic evidence supports theories of at least two westward expansions of Aleuts along the island chain, but it is not yet clear what motivated the dialect differentiations. Finally, I offer some thoughts on directions for future dialect studies and the continuing documentation of Aleut.
The eastern Aleutian prehistoric archaeological sequence is key for understanding population movements, cultural exchanges, and adaptations to environmental changes over a wide area of the north Pacific and Bering Sea during the Holocene. An important question is, Can the settlement history of the eastern Aleutians be understood as a single continuous tradition lasting some 9,000 years, or were there major population and cultural influxes along with periods of widespread population abandonment? We review the available archaeological evidence with reference to recent mtDNA and nucleic DNA studies of prehistoric and contemporary Arctic and Subarctic populations and conclude that the evidence points to an overall cultural continuity with notable incursions and excursions of people and cultural elements into and out of the eastern Aleutians.
Building upon the model of Semantic Maps (Haspelmath 2003), which typologists have designed mainly for grammatical semantics, this chapter discusses methodological issues for a model in lexical typology. By breaking up polysemous lexemes of various languages into their semantic ‘atoms' or senses, one defines an etic grid against which cross-linguistic comparison can be undertaken. Languages differ as to which senses they colexify, i.e., lexify identically. But while each polysemous lexeme as a whole is language-specific, individual pairings of colexified senses can be compared across languages. Our model, understood as an empirical, atomistic approach to lexical typology, is finally exemplified with the rich polysemies associated with the notion “BREATHE”. Intertwined together, they compose a single, universal network of potential semantic extensions.
The journal Human Biology was founded 80 years ago by Raymond Pearl, an eminent biologist and professor of biometry and vital statistics at Johns Hopkins University. In celebration of the 80th anniversary of the founding of this journal, I was invited by Franz Manni (Executive Editor) to update a previously published history of Human Biology on the 75th anniversary of its founding (Crawford 2004). In the 1989 special issue “Foundations of Anthropological Genetics,” Gabriel W. Lasker compiled an earlier historical account of the journal. Additional comments about the circumstances surrounding his acceptance of the editorship of Human Biology in 1953 and the early years of his editorship are contained in Chapter 12 of Lasker’s memoirs, Happenings and Hearsay (Lasker 1999). In this review of the history of Human Biology I place greater emphasis on the periods that I know best, that is, from 1988 to the present, when I was the editor-in-chief, consulting editor, or the liaison between the sponsoring organization [American Association of Anthropological Genetics (AAAG)] and the current triumvirate of editors. I have also provided a timeline of the significant events associated with 80 years of publication of this distinguished journal and an analysis of the changes in topical coverage and focus from 1929 to the present.
In The Aleutian and Commander Islands and Their Inhabitants (Philadelphia: Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, 1945), Hrdlicka proposed a population replacement event in the Aleutian Islands approximately 1,000 years ago based on a perceived temporal shift in cranial morphology. However, the archaeological record indicates cultural, and presumed population, continuity for more than 4,000 years. We use mtDNA haplogroup data in the series of prehistoric eastern Aleutian samples (n = 86) studied craniometrically by Hrdlicka to test alternative hypotheses regarding population continuity or replacement in the region. This molecular characterization, in conjunction with direct dating of individual specimens, provided increased resolution for hypothesis testing. Results indicate an apparent shift in mtDNA haplogroup frequencies in the eastern Aleutians approximately 1,000 years ago, in concert with changes in mortuary practices and isotopic signatures reflecting resource acquisition strategies. The earliest Aleut populations were characterized by a high frequency of haplogroup A, as are most modern populations of the North American arctic. Later prehistoric peoples in the Aleutians were characterized by a high frequency of haplogroup D and a correspondingly lower frequency of haplogroup A, a pattern typified by modern Aleut populations.
Locally available copper and iron were used by the Indigenous inhabitants of the Arctic for several centuries before the arrival of Europeans. This chapter provides an overview of the use of metals across this region, methods of analysis, and issues of visibility in the archaeological record. Ideas regarding the movement of metals through networks of trade and exchange are summarized and the chapter concludes with suggestions for future archaeometallurgical research in the region.
In 1987, I had the good fortune to join in the excavation of a phenomenal archae ological site on the western coast of Kodiak Island, in Alaska. The New Karluk site (a. k. a. , "Karluk One") was perched on the edge of the small village of Karluk at the mouth of the river of the same name, once one of the most productive salmon rivers in the North Pacific. I had just completed my sophomore year of college, and under the direction of Richard Jordan, I enthusiastically joined sev eral other students in the Kodiak Archaeology Projects New Karluk excavation. I had participated in my father's archaeological research in Eastern Canada since early childhood, but the Karluk dig was unlike any archaeology I had experienced before. For three months, we peeled back layers of grass, wood, and earth floors separated by remnants of ancient sod roofs. Due to the unusual preservation and richness of the site, at every tum we uncovered perishable items such as bent-wood bowls, masks, dolls, puffin-beak rattles, grass baskets, fragments of fiber netting, locks of hair, and food waste. Preservation was so excellent, in fact, that we often exposed grass blades still green after hundreds of years, which once exposed to air would tum brown before our eyes.
This chapter explores the antiquity and evolution of Subarctic maritime traditions in the
Beringian North Pacific—precursors of maritime cultures that ultimately pushed north
and east across the Canadian and Greenlandic Arctic. Boat-based, maritime economies
and settlement show up by the Pleistocene-Holocene transition in the relatively warm
Subarctic Northeast Pacific (Gulf of Alaska and Aleutians) but appear delayed by 5,000 or
more years in the Northwest Pacific and Bering and Chukchi seas. Potential biases of
preservation and research histories are examined and dismissed, and two environmental
models are proposed to explain the delay (or disruption) of maritime settlement in the
seasonally frozen Okhotsk, Bering, and Chukchi seas. Late Holocene maritime traditions
intensify and converge in all regions of the Subarctic and Arctic Pacific over the past
2,000–3,000 years, forging a common ecological, economic, technological, and social
orientation, where none had previously existed.
The aim of this paper is to analyze several points of the Aleut historical phonology which up till now had not received enough attention. The programmed agenda comprises: (I) Proto-Eskimo-Aleut &z.ast;/e{capital schwa}/; (II) the pre-aspiration; (III) the Proto-Eskimo-Aleut sequences &z.ast;/-ne{capital schwa}-/ and &z.ast;/-{eng}e{capital schwa}-/, and (IV) Aleut lexicon containing x- (γ.-). An ideal understanding of these processes shall help to the reconstruction of the Proto-Aleut language, an issue totally rejected in the specialized literature.
The Inuit occupy an immense area of land - from the easternmost tip of Russia, through Alaska and Canada, to Greenland. Inuit language, history, semantics, sociology, and anthropology show a variety of distinct characteristics in different parts of this vast area. Covering an equally impressive range, The Language of the Inuit is the most comprehensive study to date of the language and the forces that have affected its development. The culmination of forty years of research, The Language of the Inuit maps the geographical distribution and linguistic differences between the Eskaleut and Inuit languages and dialects. Providing details about aspects of comparative phonology, grammar, and lexicon as well as Inuit prehistory and historical evolution, Louis-Jacques Dorais shows the effects of bilingualism, literacy, and formal education on Inuit language and considers its present status and future. An enormous task, masterfully accomplished, The Language of the Inuit is not only an anthropological and linguistic study of a language and the broad social and cultural contexts where it is spoken but a history of the language's speakers.
This article examines the relationship between the open skin boat (umiak) traditions of the Unangax/Aleut who inhabited the Aleutian Islands and the Sugpiat of Kodiak Island and Prince William Sound, the two southernmost Indigenous Alaskan peoples who used such watercraft. In a larger geographical context, the Aleutian Islands and the Kodiak Archipelago form a chain of lands stretching from the Alaska Peninsula to the eastern coast of Eurasia. Drawing from archaeological and ethnographic evidence, the author discusses both technological and social aspects of open skin boats. A comparison between Sugpiaq and Unangax/Aleut boats demonstrates similarities in some structural details and leads to a discussion of technological exchange in the larger region that encompasses Southeast Alaska, Prince William Sound, the Kodiak Archipelago, the Aleutian Islands, and the Kamchatka Peninsula. The different Indigenous boat types influenced each other along a chain of overlapping related elements and structural features, rather than being adopted in each case as a complete technological corpus. This exchange occurred along routes of trade and war but ultimately created a dynamic intellectual network of watercraft technology.
Our description of several phonetic properties of Western Apache may be summarized as follows. For consonants, VOT was longer for aspirated stops than for unaspirated stops, whereas closure duration was longer for unaspirated stops than for aspirated stops. The ejectives had VOT and closure duration values intermediate between those of the aspirated and unaspirated stops. Place of articulation was also shown to affect both VOT and closure duration. VOT was longest for the velar stops, followed by the alveolars and then the bilabials. Conversely, closure duration was shortest for the velars, longer for the alveolars, and marginally still longer for the bilabials. There is some phonetic evidence for a four-way manner contrast in the stop series between voiced, voiceless unaspirated, voiceless aspirated, and ejective stops, though voiced stops have a limited distribution relative to the other three categories. The four oral fricatives of Western Apache are well differentiated in terms of the location of their spectral peaks in the frequency domain and their sharpness. /s/ has the greatest energy at frequencies above 4,000 Hz for the males and above 6,000 Hz for the females. has a relatively sharp spectral peak at 3,500 Hz for the males and at 4,000 Hz for the females. /∫/ has the most pronounced peak and the peak at the lowest frequency, about 1,500 Hz. A/has a slightly flatter peak at frequencies intermediate between the peaks for /x/ and /∫/. Concerning the vowels, long vowels tend to be slightly more peripheral than their short counterparts, except for the /e, e:/ pair, which differed substantially for two speakers only. As in other languages with small vowel inventories, the highest back vowel was more like [o] than [u]. Finally, female speakers differed from male speakers in having longer VOTs, stop closures, and vowel durations.
Aleut population history has been a topic of debate since the earliest archaeological investigations in the region. In this paper, we use stable isotope chemistry to evaluate the hypothesis that two distinct groups of people, Paleo- and Neo-Aleut, occupied the eastern Aleutians after 1000 BP. This study focuses on 80 sets of directly dated eastern Aleutian burial assemblages from Chaluka midden, Shiprock Island and Kagamil Island. We use a linear mixing model informed by isotopic analysis of two large Aleut faunal assemblages to address temporal and spatial variation in human carbon and nitrogen stable isotope data from these sites. The patterning we report addresses both Aleut demographic and economic prehistory, illustrating a transition in both at ca. 1000 BP. Our results suggests that the Chaluka diet, dominated by Paleo-Aleut inhumations, differed in both trophic level and foraging location from the other two sites for much of the past 4000 years. Trends in our data also suggest that individuals from Shiprock and Kagamil burial caves, primarily Neo-Aleuts, had enough access to higher trophic level foods to differentiate their bone chemistries from those buried in Chaluka midden. These trends in diet, recently reported genetic differences, as well as the introduction of novel mortuary practices at ca. 1000 BP, suggest that Neo-Aleuts do represent a population new to the eastern Aleutians.
Warfare and violence played an important role in the history and development of complex hunter-gatherer societies on the north Pacific Rim. Wars were waged between islands over 700 km apart and included dozens of villages within and between ethnic groups. Wars were generally fought for revenge, status, over women, and rarely, over critical resources. Warfare was so ubiquitous in the later prehistoric sequence that is must be considered central to the development and organization of north Pacific society.
Evolutionary Phonology is a new theory of sound patterns which synthesizes results in historical linguistics, phonetics, and phonological theory. In this groundbreaking book, Juliette Blevins explores the nature of sound patterns and sound change in human language over the past 7000-8000 years. She presents a new approach to the problem of how genetically unrelated languages, from families as far apart as Native American, Australian Aboriginal, Austronesian, and Indo-European, can often show similar sound patterns, and also tackles the converse problem of why there are notable exceptions to most of the patterns that are often regarded as universal tendencies or constraints. A formal model of sound change is presented that integrates phonetic variation and patterns of misperception to account for attested sound systems, without reference to markedness or naturalness within the synchronic grammar.
Reexamining the Linguistic Prehistory of Aleut (Unangam Tunuu)
- Berge
Language Contact in Aleut
- Berge
Toward a (Yet) Newer View of the (Pre)history of the Aleutians
- Dumond
Archaeology of the Eastern Aleut Region
- Herbert D G Maschner
Maschner, Herbert D. G. 2016. Archaeology of the Eastern Aleut Region. In T. Max Friesen &
Owen K. Mason, eds., 323-348.
Eskimo en Oer-Indogermaansch
- Uhlenbeck
Eskimo and Aleut Languages
- Woodbury
Woodbury, Anthony. 1984. Eskimo and Aleut Languages. Handbook of North American
Indians, Vol. 5: Arctic ed. by David Damas, 49-63. Washington: Smithsonian Institution
Press.
Polysynthesis in Aleut (Unangam Tunuu)
- Berge
Berge, Anna. 2016b. Polysynthesis in Aleut (Unangam Tunuu). Linguistic Typology of the
North, Vol. 3 ed. by Tokusu Kurebito. Tokyo: ILCAA.
Etymological Notes on Aleut (I)
- Alonso de la Fuente
How Did the Aleut Language Become Different from the Eskimo Languages?
- Bergsland
Aleut Bases Not Found in Eskimo: Could They Reflect a Substratum?
- Fortescue
The Aleut Language and its Relation to the Eskimo Dialects
- Jochelson
Jochelson, Waldemar. 1912. The Aleut Language and its Relation to the Eskimo Dialects.
International Congress of Americanists, London, Part 1, 96-104.
Linguistic and Oriental Studies from Póznan 8
- Alonso De La Fuente
- José Andrés
Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés. 2008. Etymological Notes on Aleut (I). Linguistic and
Oriental Studies from Póznan 8.105-115.
Language Contact in Prehistory
- Henning Andersen
Andersen, Henning. 2003. Language Contact in Prehistory: Studies in Stratigraphy. Amsterdam:
John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.239
Pribilof Anĝaĝin Tunungin: The Way We Talk in the Pribilofs
- Anna Berge
Berge, Anna. 2016c. Pribilof Anĝaĝin Tunungin: The Way We Talk in the Pribilofs. Fairbanks:
ANLC.
Digging For Words: Archaeolinguistic Case Studies from the XV Nordic TAG Conference Held at the University of Copenhagen
- Anna Berge
Berge, Anna. 2018. Reexamining the Linguistic Prehistory of Aleut (Unangam Tunuu). Digging
For Words: Archaeolinguistic Case Studies from the XV Nordic TAG Conference Held at the
University of Copenhagen, 16-18 April, 2015 ed. by Rune Iversen and Guus Kroonen, 31-38.
Oxford: British Archaeological Reports (BAR).
Language Contact in Aleut. Handbook of Language Contact
- Anna Berge
- Forthcoming
Berge, Anna. Forthcoming. Language Contact in Aleut. Handbook of Language Contact ed. by
Anthony Grant. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
How Did the Aleut Language Become Different from the Eskimo Languages? Languages of the North Pacific Rim 2 ed. by Osahito Miyaoka & Minoru Oshima
- Knut Bergsland
Bergsland, Knut. 1997b. How Did the Aleut Language Become Different from the Eskimo
Languages? Languages of the North Pacific Rim 2 ed. by Osahito Miyaoka &
Minoru Oshima. Sakyo-ku: Kyoto University, Graduate School of Letters, 1-17.
From Magic Words to Word Processing: A History of the Inuit Language
- Louis-Jacques Dorais
Dorais, Louis-Jacques. 1993. From Magic Words to Word Processing: A History of the Inuit
Language. Iqaluit, Canada: Arctic College Nunatta Campus.
Toward a (Yet) Newer View of the (Pre)history of the Aleutians. Archaeology in the Aleut Zone of Alaska, Some Recent
- Don E Dumond
Dumond, Don E. 2001. Toward a (Yet) Newer View of the (Pre)history of the Aleutians.
Archaeology in the Aleut Zone of Alaska, Some Recent Research ed. by Don E. Dumond,
298-309. (= University of Oregon Anthropological Papers, 58.) Eugene: University of
Oregon Press.
Language Relations Across The Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence
- Michael Fortescue
Fortescue, Michael. 1998. Language Relations Across The Bering Strait: Reappraising the
Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. London: Cassell.