Dyeing Chemicals

Abstract

Dyeing auxiliaries play an important role in the determination of the final dyeing quality. The formation of additional complexes with dyes and auxiliary agents enhances the exhaustion of dyes on textile substrates. For aqueous-based dyeing, dye auxiliaries such as chelating agents, dispersing agents, leveling agents, electrolyte, pH control agents, and surfactants form complexes with the dye on natural and synthetic fibers. A growing awareness of the impact of industrial pollution on the environment became crucial for the dyeing industry in the closing decades of the twentieth century. These chapters discuss the characteristics of dyeing chemicals and how auxiliary substances can assist in achieving outstanding dyeing performance.

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
Chapter
Dyeing Chemicals
Shekh Md.Mamun Kabir and Joonseok Koh
Abstract
Dyeing auxiliaries play an important role in the determination of the final dye-
ing quality. The formation of additional complexes with dyes and auxiliary agents
enhances the exhaustion of dyes on textile substrates. For aqueous-based dyeing,
dye auxiliaries such as chelating agents, dispersing agents, leveling agents, electro-
lyte, pH control agents, and surfactants form complexes with the dye on natural
and synthetic fibers. A growing awareness of the impact of industrial pollution
on the environment became crucial for the dyeing industry in the closing decades
of the twentieth century. These chapters discuss the characteristics of dyeing
chemicals and how auxiliary substances can assist in achieving outstanding dyeing
performance.
Keywords: chelating agent, dispersing agent, leveling agent, electrolyte, pH control
agent, surfactant, antifoaming agents
. Introduction
The textile dyeing industry is constantly increasing because of the growing con-
sumption of fabrics and garments; moreover, till the next decade, a billion consumers
will be added to the global market [1]. The processing of such a large volume of fabrics
and garments is conducted through dyes and chemicals. A variety of factors can influ-
ence the quality of dyeing and its complex mechanisms in batch reproduction. The
degree of levelness and reproducibility of dyeing depends on not only the dyes and
chemicals used but also the control of temperatures and pH conditions in the dye bath
[2]. To achieve any progress in such studies, it is necessary to control the parameters
in order to determine their effect on the dyeing system. To study the performance
of dyeing in an aqueous dye bath system, it is essential to alter the dye concentration
while maintaining, and all other conditions constant so that the changes in the chemi-
cal structure of the solvent and the nature of the dye species can be analyzed [3].
Natural and synthetic dyes play an important role in the process of dyeing textile
fabrics and garments. Different classes of dyes are used for coloring different textile
materials with the aid of auxiliaries, which facilitate the homogenization of the mix-
tures [4]. The method of determining the equilibrium constant of the dye–auxiliary
complex can be constructed.
The association between the dye and the auxiliary agent may proceed as far as
the colloidal particles are dispersed in dyes. Apart from this, there exists an equi-
librium between the dyes and the textile auxiliaries, which have been added to the

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
dye bath [5]. The auxiliaries exist in a state of association equilibrium [6]. A new
era of dyeing chemical research began in 1930 when soap was replaced by synthetic
surfactants [7]. Since many researchers have described the use of various textile
auxiliaries in dyeing [8]. Thermodynamic studies of dyeing make useful contribu-
tions to the general theories of intermolecular forces while diffusion processes are
also influenced by the dye concentration, temperature, nature of dyeing auxiliaries,
and polymer structure [9]. A major challenge for textile wet processors is address-
ing the increasing cost and demand associated with the use of different auxiliaries
in industrialized countries. However, in recent years, there has been significant
demonstration of a lack of knowledge about the usage of dyeing chemicals. In this
study, the potential for dyeing auxiliaries was explained.
. Dyeing chemicals
This chapter demonstrates the characteristics of different auxiliary agents,
which tend to form colloidal flocculation and dye–auxiliary complexes with dyes.
A chelating agent is used to remove the hardness of water by bonding with calcium
and magnesium ions and other heavy metal ions in hard water, by forming a stable
complex compound that does not decompose over a prolonged processing period
[10]. Dispersing agents, pH, and temperatures affect the changes in shade and
fastness of disperse dyes [2, 11]. A greater degree of levelness is linked with greater
retarding effect, which means a longer dyeing time [4]. In the presence of electro-
lytes, dyeing of cotton fabric with anionic dyes is to suppress negative charge at
the fiber surface and to promote increased dye exhaustion [12]. If the dye bath pH
is adjusted prior to the dyeing process, it may affect the absorption of dye on the
fiber [13]. Synthetic surfactants have been extensively studied by many researchers
[14]. After World War II, fabric softeners emerged through the introduction of the
synthetic surfactant [15].
. Chelating agent
The word “chelate” is obtained from the Greek word “chel,” which means crab’s
claw. Chemically, a chelate is an organic compound that can form a ring structure
by bonding with metal ions. Chelating agents are mostly used in dye baths, as
they remove the hardness of water by bonding with heavy metal ion. Chelating
agents form a stable complex compound that does not decompose over a prolonged
processing period [10]. The coordination of water with metal ions enhances the
acidity of the dye solution, which is dependent on the physical and chemical charac-
teristics of the metal ions [16]. Inorganic chelating agents are also used as detergent
by suspending and dispersing agents. They require less than the stoichiometric
quantity predicted to keep ions in solution (threshold effect). They will dissociate to
sodium phosphate in water over time losing their ability to chelate, especially in hot
water. Polyphosphates are derivatives of phosphoric acid and are made by react-
ing phosphorous pentoxide with phosphoric acid. Important polyphosphates are
tetra sodium pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7), sodium phosphate (Na5P3O10), and sodium
hexametaphosphate (Na6P6O18) [ 17] (Scheme ).
Scheme 1.
Formation of sodium polyphosphates.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81438
Organophosphonic acids also act as chelating agents and aid detergency by dis-
persing and suspending soil. They are more stable than inorganic polyphosphates in
hot water and exhibit threshold effect(Figure ).
Amino carboxylic acids form very stable complexes, when reacting with metal ions.
They react stoichiometrically and can be formed quantitatively to determine calcium
and magnesium by titration. Disodium-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and
nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) are categorized in these groups [17] (Figure ).
Several hydroxyl groups containing organic compounds precipitate bi- and
trivalent metal cations in alkaline medium and also acts as effective sequestering
agents; however, they are not effective for calcium and magnesium. Some of the
well-known products in this category are glycolic acid, gluconic acid, and citric
acid (Figure ).
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid also prevents or removes scales by forming
water-soluble complex compounds, which vigorously react with metal ions [18].
Gluconic acid is obtained from fruit, honey, and wine. In an aqueous solution at
neutral pH, gluconic acid forms gluconate ion, which is used in cleaning products
in which it dissolves mineral deposits through the formation of ligand with metal
compounds [19]. Citric acid also strongly interacts with active metal components.
This interaction helps metal dispersion and decreases the specific surface area and
pore volume of the metal components. The addition of citric acid increases the
amount of metal ion adsorption. Increasing the adsorption depends on the forma-
tion of more complex structures (Scheme ).
Figure 1.
Organophosphonic acids.
Figure 2.
Disodium-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acids and nitrilotriacetic acid.
Figure 3.
Hydroxy acids sequestering agents.

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
Scheme 2.
Coordination of metal ions with different chelating agents.
Glycolic acid exhibits better chelation power in all metal ions because of the
lower molecular weight, which helps to remove all metal ions. Glycolic acid, which
is a naturally occurring organic agent, exhibits more penetration of metal ions.
Natural chelates are biodegradable and non-toxic to the environment. Under
natural conditions, EDTA is converted into ethylenediaminetriacetic acid, and then
forms a ring structure with other metals, creating persistent organic pollutants [20].
Kabir and Koh [21] have demonstrated that glycolic acid provides effective chela-
tion efficiency for a moderate acid donor. Consequently, glycolic acid exhibited a
higher percentage of dyebath exhaustions and better dye ability than other organic
chelating agents.
. Dispersing agent
Disperse dyes are nonionic chemicals that are barely soluble in water and often
crystallize with varying particle size [22]. These characteristics are inadequate
for dispersing dyes of water and cause unleveled dyeing. To achieve the required
particle size and distribution, the disperse dye is milled, usually in the presence
of a dispersing agent [23]. Generally, the dispersing agents are anionic, e.g., lig-
ninsulfonates, or polycondensates of arylsulfonic acids with formaldehyde, which
facilitate milling. Dispersing agents have shown a dual function role: breaking
down aggregated dye particles and dispersing dyes in the dye liquor. Dispersing
agents consists of high-molecular weight or polymeric compounds in which polar
or ionizing groups alternate with nonpolar groups along the chain. The backbone
of a dispersing agent is nonpolar, while the polar or ionizing groups are located in
the side chains. Johnson [24] demonstrated that the adsorption of dispersing agent
is oriented parallel to the surface, so that the nonpolar groups adjoin to the surface
and the polar groups turn outward.
The application of disperse dyes on polyester fabric mainly occurs via the inclu-
sion of dispersing agents. The hydrophobic tails of the dispersing-agent molecules
are oriented toward the center of the dye micelle, which facilitates micellar solubili-
zation of the disperse dye molecules, thereby conferring higher dye solubility.
The disperse dyeing mechanism has been categorized in four stages: (i) dissolution
of dye in water by the formation of the dye micelle with dispersing agents;
(ii) transference of dye molecules from the solution to the surface of the fiber;
(iii) replenishment of dyebath by the dissolution of solid material from the disper-
sion; and (iv) diffusion of dye into the fiber (Figure ).

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Murray and Mortimer [25] mentioned sodium dinaphthylmethane sulfonate
and lignosulfonates as agents used for disperse dyes. A combination of dispersing
agents and water-soluble polymers, for example, poly (vinyl alcohol), sodium
polyacrylate, and the maleic anhydride-styrene copolymer, in admixture with
anionic surfactants, would be useful in processing the pigments. Wolf and Bauer
[26] suggested the use of dissolved disperse dyes in dimethylformamide and formed
dispersions by pouring these solutions into aqueous solutions of the dispersing
agents. Dispersing agents formed the dispersion by varying particle size of disperse
dyes (Figure ).
Heimanns [27] explained that a high-concentration of dispersing agent acts as a
barrier to diffusion and reduces the dye yield in thermo-fixation. For better color yield,
liquid brands of disperse dyes contain a smaller amount of dispersing agent. To ensure
stability, the amount of dispersing agents must be maintained in the dye bath [8].
. Leveling agents
To achieve uniform dyeing on fabric, it is essential to add a suitable leveling agent in
the dye baths. However, it is quite difficult to explain the functions and actions of level-
ing agents. Werner [4] explained that the effects of textile auxiliaries, such as leveling
agents, would appear at first sight to contradict the very nature of physical methods.
Figure  shows that equilibrium in dyebath-fiber systems is caused by a large
number of processes that play an important part in producing good dyeing. Leveling
agents enhance the force in a state of association equilibrium in the dye bath. Werner
[4] investigated that the formation of dyes and leveling agents represents bonding
similar to what occurs in the dyeing of fibers. The effects of leveling agents are: (i)
leveling agents tend to decrease the absorption of dyes by forming a dye-auxiliary
Figure 4.
Sodium dinaphthylmethane sulfonate and sodium lignosulfonate.
Figure 5.
Mechanism for dyeing of polyester with disperse dye and dispersing agents.

Dyes in Industry

complex with free dyes maintaining equilibrium; (ii) leveling agents act as retarding
agents; and (iii) dye migration proceeds slowly, leads better leading to improved
leveling of dye on the fiber. A cationic polyethoxylated amine can perform strong
leveling action. The greater cationic character a strong complex formation, pro-
nounced retardation of dyeing, and higher risk of precipitation (Figure ).
The polyethoxylated chain is longer (n>50), and the dye auxiliary complex
is dispersed by the cationic leveling agents. Amphoteric leveling agents have both
anionic and cationic groups, so its activation depends on the dye bath pH [20].
. Electrolyte
During dyeing in the dyebath, electrolyte serves as three important roles—
driving dye into textiles causing, maximum exhaustion of dye molecules through
the presence of salt, and fixing dyestuff to the cellulose material [28]. The dyeing
mechanism of reactive dye can be classified into two phases, exhaustion and fixation.
The process is lengthy because considerable time is spent on the controlled heating
of the dyebath and the portion-wise addition of salt and alkali to avoid unleveled
dyeing and maximize the exhaustion and fixation [20]. A colorless crystalline solid
NaCl composed of inorganic compound of sodium and chloride, a salt in which ionic
bonds hold the two components together in the familiar water-soluble white crystals,
has a key role in the textile dyeing process in maintaining the electrolytic balance
in the textile dyeing process. Glauber’s salt is the common name for sodium sulfate
dehydrates Na2SO4. 10H2O; it occurs as white or colorless monoclinic crystals, which
are most commonly used in the dyeing industry [29]. Vacuum salt is manufactured
by recrystallization of purified brine solution. In the vacuum crystallization process,
raw salt is dissolved in water to make a saturated solution and clarify the impurities
from the bottom. A vacuum is generated by using a suitable vacuum pump [30].
Figure 7.
Different leveling agents.
Figure 6.
Equilibrium in dyebath-fiber systems containing leveling agents.


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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81438
When cotton/bast fibers are immersed in water, its surface due to the hydroxyl ions
also becomes anionic; hence, the dye particles and the cellulosic fiber tend to repel
each other. So, the level of substantivity is reduced. The addition of salt creates
an electrical positive double layer, which hides the negative electrostatic charge
(Donnan Potential) of the cellulose surface. This allows the dye to approach the
fiber, allowing better interaction of Van der Waals forces as well; this improves the
substantivity. Neale etal. [31] proposed the existence of the Donnan equilibrium.
The idea of the Donnan equilibrium was employed for the modern electrochemical
theories of the dyeing of cellulose from aqueous solutions of direct dyes [32].
NaCl enhances the diffusion of dye and its adsorption onto fiber. Bicarbonate
and carbonate increase the dye bath pH and perform dye fixation through the
formation of covalent bonds. “Bolaform” electrolytes contain anionic and cationic
organic groups, which are separated by large distances. The word ‘bola’ means a
long cord with heavy balls. The alkyl chains whose lengths are sufficiently long act
as electrolyte to become surface-active compounds. Hamada etal. [33] extensively
studied various physical properties of bolaform electrolytes or amphiphilies. The
bolaform electrolytes or amphiphilies contain a single positive or negative site
(Figure ).
. pH control agents
Dyebath pH is adjusted prior to the dyeing process; otherwise, it may affect
various factors, such as the absorption of dye into the fiber, by increasing or
reducing alkalinity [34]. The pH controlling agents play three important roles:
(a) maintain a high degree of acidity; (b) control the pH within narrow toler-
ances; and (c) slide the pH in acidic conditions [35]. The pH controlling agents
are usually based on two chemicals, a weak acid and its salt, with a stronger
base such as acetic acid, sodium acetate, or phosphoric acid-sodium phosphate.
When the dyeing temperature increases, pH control agents release more acidic
compounds. Ammonium sulfate decomposes gradually, proucing ammonia
and sulfuric acid, which is a strong acid that subsequently lowers the pH when
ammonia escapes, at boiling temperatures. However, enclosed or partially
enclosed machine, such as a winch, it is not very efficient because ammonia is
prevented from escaping into the dye bath (Scheme ).
Organic esters are also used as an alternative method for obtaining a pH that
slides in the direction of acidity under the conditions of processing. In 1953,
Brotherton Co. Ltd. introduced the Estrocon process, which is based on the addition
Figure 8.
Bolaform electrolyte.
Scheme 3.
Dissociation of ammonium salt.

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
of diethyl tartrate or ethyl lactate for dyeing wool with acid milling dyes and
chrome dyes by the single-bath method [36] (Scheme ).
Almost 35years ago, Sandoz introduced the Sandacid V process, in which
γ-butyrolactone undergoes hydrolysis to produce butyric acid [37] (Scheme ).
Koh etal. [37] found that hydrolysable organic esters achieved a relatively wider
range of pH sliding than ammonium sulfate or sodium di hydrogen phosphate, which
can produce good exhaustion with satisfactory dyeing in the closed dyeing process.
. Surfactants
Surfactant molecules should have surface active properties with the chemical
structure of a hydrophilic (water loving) and hydrophobic (having little attraction
for organic molecules) balance [38] (Figure ).
These molecules get preferentially oriented at the interface between air and
water, which lowers the surface tension of water substantially when dissolved in
the concentration range of 0.1–10g/l. The driving force for the activation of surface
active agents is the formation of micelles, in which the lyophobic tails are associated
with themselves, and the hydrophilic heads are surrounded by water molecules.
Surfactants are classified into different ways such as use, ionic charge, and chemical
structure. According to the ionic structure, surfactants can be classified into four
categories: anionic, cationic, amphoteric, and nonionic [39]. Anionic surfactants
are surfactants that are ionized into anions and cations but the anion is the domi-
nating ion in the solution. Examples are alkyl benzene sulfonate and sodium lauryl
sulfate (Figure ).
An ionic surface active agent that produces cation as the dominating ion when
dissolved in water is called a cationic surfactant. For example, dodecyl dimethyl
ammonium chloride and distearyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (Figure ).
Nonionic surfactants that does not show any ionic behavior when dissolved in
water are called nonionic surfactants. Examples are Lanolin ethoxylate and glycerol
monostearate (Figure ).
Scheme 5.
Dissociation of γ-butyrolactone.
Figure 9.
Schematic of a surfactant molecule.
Scheme 4.
Action of ethyl lactate as pH sliding agents.

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Surfactants that ionize and produce large segments (these segments are called
Zwitter ions) carrying both anionic and cationic ions when dissolved in water are
called amphoteric surfactants. Lauryl dimethyl betaine and cocamidopropyl betaine
are the most commonly used (Figure ).
Surfactants are widely used as wetting agents, emulsifiers, detergent, lubricants,
or dispersing agents [40].
. Anti-foaming agents
The dyeing process can lead to the formation of macro and micro foams during
circulation of dyes and auxiliaries in the dye bath. A macro foam is displayed with
large bubbles, which are visible on the surface of the system and produce cosmetic
imperfections [41]. A typical list of anti-foaming agents is as follows: 2-ethyl
hexanol (EH), tributyl phosphate (TBP), poly (dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS) amides,
mineral oil, fatty acids, and their derivatives [42] (Figure ).
Figure 10.
Structure of anionic surfactants.
Figure 11.
Structure of cationic surfactants.
Figure 12.
Structure of nonionic surfactants.
Figure 13.
Structure of amphoteric surfactants.

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
Silicone-based anti-foaming agents consist of small polar groups and hydro-
phobic polymer chain. The hydrophobic polymer chain is typically a permethylated
siloxane. The PDMS chain gains its hydrophilic character by modification with
poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) and poly (propylene glycol) (PPG). PEG and PPG are
water-soluble polymers that allow materials to retain good water swellability [43].
A decrease in foaming occurs with an increase in the hydrophilicity of the co-poly-
mers. When the hydrophilicity of the copolymers increased, the micro foams were
removed more effectively. Kekevi etal. [43] demonstrate that the uniqueness of
these anti-foaming agents is caused by two properties—flexibility, which enhances
the acquired conformations that result in efficient packing at various interfaces and
lower cohesive energy, which is derived from the cross-sectional area of the siloxane
at the interface (Scheme ).
. Reducing agents
Beginning of the nineteenth century, sodium dithionate (Na2S2O4) was
introduced as a reducing agent for the vat dyeing process [8]. Effective sodium
dithionate, also called hydrose, provides an effective reduction in indigo dyes [44].
The amount of Na2S2O4 used in the reduction of indigo dyeing, formed a large
amount of by products and sulfite (SO32−) and sulfate (SO42−) ions- (Scheme ).
Figure 14.
Anti-foaming agents.
Scheme 6.
Silicone-based anti-foaming agents.
Scheme 7.
Oxidation-reduction of indigo.

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Stripping methods, mostly used in textile finishing, can remove dye from col-
ored fabric. The process is named as ‘back stripping’ or ‘destructive stripping’. The
depth of shade is changed by back stripping; on the other hand, dyes are chemically
altered by destructive stripping. Fono and Montclair [45] showed that dyes contain-
ing azo groups that can be chemically reduced to an almost colorless amine by using
chemical reducing agents. The mechanism of reductive stripping depends on the
structure of dyes and fibers and the chemical nature of reducing agents. Chavan
[46] explained that different chemical combinations of reducing agents and strip-
ping assistants, which are being used to strip the dye from fabric (Scheme ).
Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate (CH3NaO3S) (Rongalite C) and Rongalite FD
are also used as reducing agents in the dyeing industry (Scheme ).
As sodium dithionate is highly toxic, many researchers [47] have investigated
to replacing it with ecological reducing agents such as glucose, fructose, inverted
sugar, and molasses (Figure ).
Many studies have been devoted to catalysts that accelerate the reduction
of vat dyes when added to certain reducing agents. BASF-marketed a catalyst,
bis-(dimethylglyoximato-diamminocobaltinitrite) for use as a reducing agent.
. Softeners
A softener is a chemical used to make the touch of fabric more pleasing.
Softened fabrics are fluffier and have better drape ability. In addition to esthetics,
softeners improve abrasion resistance, improve tearing strength, and reduce needle
cutting when the garments are sewn. Softeners are divided into three major chemi-
cal categories: anionic, cationic, and nonionic. Anionic softeners have a negative
charge on the molecule, which comes from the carboxylate group (▬COO▬),
sulfate group (▬OSO3▬), or phosphate group (▬PO4−). Fatty alcohol sulfates are
made by the reaction of a hydrophobe with sulfuric acid [17] (Scheme ).
Scheme 8.
Stripping process of azo dyes.
Scheme 9.
Rongalite FD salts.
Figure 15.
Ecological reducing agents.

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
Fewer sulfate groups result in better softeners. Lightly sulfonated oils are sometimes
called self-emulsifying because they form turbid water solutions (Scheme ).
Cationic softeners have a positive charge on the large part of the molecule. The
amine becomes functionalized under a pH of 7. Quaternary ammonium salts are
activated at all pH levels. The ionic interaction causes complete exhaustion from
baths and orientation on the fiber surfaces, which cause good slipperiness and
reduction in the static charge on the fabric surface. There are several cationic soft-
eners that are usually used in the textile industry, such as fatty amines, fatty amino
esters, fatty amino amides, and quaternary ammonium salts (Scheme ).
The nonionic softener has three subcategories: ethylene oxide derivatives,
silicones, and hydrocarbon waxes based on paraffin or polyethylene. Polyethylene
emulsions are hard, waxy films, which serve to reduce the coefficient of fric-
tion. Silicones are polysiloxane polymers. Silicon resembles carbon in which it is
tetravalent and forms a covalent bond with other elements (Scheme ).
Scheme 10.
Fatty alcohol sulfates formation.
Scheme 11.
Formation of sulfated triglycerides.
Scheme 12.
Synthesis of quaternary ammonium salts.
Scheme 13.
Reaction of dimethylpolysiloxane.

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. Anti-creasing agents
Crease is formed in cotton fiber because of the intermolecular hydrogen bonding
of primary and secondary hydroxyl groups of the polymer chains. The amorphous
regions of the hydrogen bonds can easily break down by folding. In the folding
state, the broken hydrogen bonds stabilize. Different durable press finishes have
been used for many years for use in cotton fabric. N-methylol compounds such as
dihydroxyethylene urea react readily with the hydroxyl groups of cellulose chains
[48] (Figure ).
N-Hydroxyethyl acrylamide is also used as a cross-linking agent for cellulosic
fibers (Figure ).
Activated vinyl groups or divinyl sulfone and N, N-methylene-bis-acrylamide
are also used cross-linking agents. Divinyl sulfone precursors are used for the
cross-linking reaction with cellulose. Cross-linking reactions with epoxides such
as epichlorohydrin are mostly used on cellulosic fibers. In addition, aziridine
derivatives such as tetramethylene-bis-(N, N-ethylene urea) and trisaziridinyltri-
azine are effective cross-linking agents [49] (Figure ).
Figure 16.
Cross-linking agents based on N-hydroxyethyl and N-alkoxymethyl compounds.
Figure 17.
Cross-linking agents based on reactive monomers.
Figure 18.
Cross-linking agents based on aziridine derivatives.

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
© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
. Conclusion
Although considerable research has been conducted regarding dyeing auxilia-
ries, chemical and other related industries have faced many problems with respect
to environmental issues and cost effectiveness for consumers. Although thermo-
dynamic studies of dyeing can make useful contributions to the general theories of
intermolecular forces, diffusion processes, and the influence of different param-
eters such as dye concentration, temperature, dyeing time, and polymer structure
remain largely unexplained. When equilibrium studies are carried out and assessed
in conjunction with the growing amount of information on the structure of dyeing
chemicals and aqueous solutions, their relevance to the dyeing theory should not be
underestimated. Due to the lack of chemical knowledge of dyers, quality dyeing is
deteriorating with a significant effluent load. This study clearly shows that the dif-
ferent dyeing chemicals used in the dye houses also need investigation to determine
the procedures in which the chemicals are used to dye natural and synthetic textiles.
This may be a good first step in presenting different chemicals used in the color-
ation industry.
Author details
Shekh Md.Mamun Kabir1* and JoonseokKoh2
1Department of Wet Process Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
2Division of Chemical Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
*Address all correspondence to: mamunkabir.butex@gmail.com

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81438
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