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Cognitive Training Does Not Enhance General Cognition
Abstract
Due to potential theoretical and societal implications, cognitive training has been one of the most influential topics in psychology and neuroscience. The assumption behind cognitive training is that one’s general cognitive ability can be enhanced by practicing cognitive tasks or intellectually demanding activities. The hundreds of studies published so far have provided mixed findings and systematic reviews have reached inconsistent conclusions. To resolve these discrepancies, we carried out several meta-analytic reviews. The results are highly consistent across all the reviewed domains: minimal effect on domain-general cognitive skills. Crucially, the observed between-study variability is accounted for by design quality and statistical artefacts. The cognitive-training program of research has showed no appreciable benefits, and other more plausible practices to enhance cognitive performance should be pursued.
... Restorative techniques aim to alleviate the specific impaired cognitive function through massed training trials [10]. These interventions build on the rationale that specific exercises within specific cognitive domains lead to generalized effects to other tasks than those that are trained [11]. CogMed, Lumiosity and BrainHQ are well-known computerized training programs [11], consisting of variations of verbal and visuospatial memory span tasks [12]. ...
... These interventions build on the rationale that specific exercises within specific cognitive domains lead to generalized effects to other tasks than those that are trained [11]. CogMed, Lumiosity and BrainHQ are well-known computerized training programs [11], consisting of variations of verbal and visuospatial memory span tasks [12]. ...
Background
Acquired brain injury (ABI) often leads to persisting somatic, cognitive, and social impairments. Cognitive impairments of processing speed, sustained attention, and working memory are frequently reported and may negatively affect activities of daily living and quality of life. Rehabilitation efforts aiming to retrain these cognitive functions have often consisted of computerized training programs. However, few studies have demonstrated effects that transfer beyond the trained tasks. There is a growing optimism regarding the potential usefulness of virtual reality (VR) in cognitive rehabilitation. The research literature is sparse, and existing studies are characterized by considerable methodological weaknesses. There is also a lack of knowledge about the acceptance and tolerability of VR as an intervention method for people with ABI. The present study aims to investigate whether playing a commercially available VR game is effective in training cognitive functions after ABI and to explore if the possible effects transfer into everyday functioning.
Methods
One hundred participants (18–65 years), with a verified ABI, impairments of processing speed/attention, and/or working memory, and a minimum of 12 months post injury will be recruited. Participants with severe aphasia, apraxia, visual neglect, epilepsy, and severe mental illness will be excluded.
Participants will be randomized into two parallel groups: (1) an intervention group playing a commercial VR game taxing processing speed, working memory, and sustained attention; (2) an active control group receiving psychoeducation regarding compensatory strategies, and general cognitive training tasks such as crossword puzzles or sudoku. The intervention period is 5 weeks. The VR group will be asked to train at home for 30 min 5 days per week.
Each participant will be assessed at baseline with neuropsychological tests and questionnaires, after the end of the intervention (5 weeks), and 16 weeks after baseline. After the end of the intervention period, focus group interviews will be conducted with 10 of the participants in the intervention group, in order to investigate acceptance and tolerability of VR as a training method.
Discussion
This study will contribute to improve understanding of how VR is tolerated and experienced by the ABI population. If proven effective, the study can contribute to new rehabilitation methods that persons with ABI can utilize in a home setting, after the post-acute rehabilitation has ended.
... Further, research designs and practical tools on the relation of body, brain and mind are often created in isolation and without sufficient grounding in an advanced theory or model (Westlin et al., 2023). Together, this finally leads to a limited understanding of how physical, neural and mental states may be regulated (Greene et al., 2023) and often minimally effective training of neurocognitive performance traits (Sala & Gobet, 2019;Scharfen & Memmert, 2021a, 2021bSimons et al., 2016). Therefore, a model-first and theory-based integration of states and traits is necessary in the first place to identify valid and reliable measures and develop and apply effective state regulation and trait training techniques in the second place (Westlin et al., 2023). ...
... Moreover, a lot of different tools and techniques to regulate states and train traits have been developed but this has rarely been done on a model-first basis and rarely have they been applied in a systematic and theory-driven manner (Hofmann et al., 2012;Sala & Gobet, 2019). For the first time, the current article aims to provide a uniquely integrated, theory-based model and framework for research and practice on how physical, neural and mental states interact, how these states and traits can be measured and why, which, and how states may be regulated, and traits be trained for effective enhancement of neurocognitive high-performance. ...
The isolated approaching of physical, neural and mental states and the binary classification into stable traits and fluctuating states previously lead to a limited understanding concerning underlying processes and possibilities to explain, measure and regulate neural and mental performance along with the interaction of mental states and neurocognitive traits. In this article these states are integrated by i) differentiating the model of the brain as a complex, self-organizing system, ii) showing possibilities to measure this model, iii) offering a classification of mental states and iv) presenting a holistic operationalization of state regulations and trait trainings to enhance neural and mental high-performance on a macro-and micro scale. This model integrates current findings from the theory of constructed emotions, the theory of thousand brains and complex systems theory and yields several testable hypotheses to provide an integrated reference frame for future research and applied target points to regulate and enhance performance.
... Yet, findings to date have been mixed, particularly for performance optimisation which was the focus of the present work. Indeed, early promise (e.g., [6]) has given way to increasing questions about the breadth of real-world benefits and the experimental rigour of many studies [7][8][9][10]. A series of meta-analyses have suggested that generic cognitive training tasks have benefits for performance on other cognitive tests but return null effects for far transfer (i.e., to untrained tasks with demands that only partially overlap with training) [8,[11][12][13]. ...
... One reason for the lack of clear training effects could be the very stringent control group employed here. It has been observed that the more positive findings in cognitive training research have tended to originate from studies that have used weaker designs and less wellmatched control groups that don't equate input of time and effort or the expectation of a training benefit [9,10]. However, while a lack of well-matched active control groups is common in the cognitive training field, previous studies finding benefits of inhibition training have tended to use robust controls. ...
Despite early promise, cognitive training research has failed to deliver consistent real-world benefits and questions have been raised about the experimental rigour of many studies. Several meta-analyses have suggested that there is little to no evidence for transfer of training from computerised tasks to real-world skills. More targeted training approaches that aim to optimise performance on specific tasks have, however, shown more promising effects. In particular, the use of inhibition training for improving shoot/don’t-shoot decision-making has returned positive far transfer effects. In the present work, we tested whether an online inhibition training task could generate near and mid-transfer effects in the context of response inhibition tasks. As there has been relatively little testing of retention effects in the literature to date, we also examined whether any benefits would persist over a 1-month interval. In a pre-registered, randomised-controlled trial, participants ( n = 73) were allocated to either an inhibition training programme (six training sessions of a visual search task with singleton distractor) or a closely matched active control task (that omitted the distractor element). We assessed near transfer to a Flanker task, and mid-transfer to a computerised shoot/don’t-shoot task. There was evidence for a near transfer effect, but no evidence for mid-transfer. There was also no evidence that the magnitude of training improvement was related to transfer task performance. This finding adds to the growing body of literature questioning the effectiveness of cognitive training. Given previous positive findings, however, there may still be value in continuing to explore the extent to which cognitive training can capitalise on near or mid-transfer effects for performance optimisation.
... However, in some studies, the effectiveness of CT has been questioned, and evidence against being optimistic about it has been presented. For example, research has demonstrated that domainspecific training often fails to transfer to other cognitive functions (11) and has minimal impact on general cognition (12). Additionally, it has been suggested that the underlying mechanisms of CT suffer from a lack of clarity, and CT interventions may not necessarily target their intended objectives (13). ...
Cognitive training (CT) has emerged as a potential therapeutic approach for substance use disorders (SUD), aiming to restore cognitive impairments and potentially improve treatment outcomes. However, despite promising findings, the effectiveness of CT in real-life applications and its impact on SUD symptoms has remained unclear. This perspective article critically examines the existing evidence on CT for SUD and explores the challenges and gaps in implementing CT interventions. It emphasizes the need for clarity in expectations and decision-making from a public health standpoint, advocating for comprehensive studies that consider a broader range of SUD consequences and utilize measures that reflect patients’ actual experiences.
... However, other studies have found no benefits associated with cognitive training for older adults (Sala and Gobet, 2020;Sala et al., 2018), and a common critique centres on the lack of transferability from domain-specific training programs to general cognitive functioning (Owen et al., 2010;Sala and Gobet, 2019;Simons et al., 2016). Kane et al. (2017) reviewed 263 studies of interventions aimed at preventing or delaying age-related cognitive decline, MCI, and Alzheimer's-type dementia. ...
... Depending on the source, general cognition, also known as General Cognitive Ability (GCA) and defined as general mental ability, has been evaluated with valid and reliable instruments such as the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) (17). Meta-analytical evidence summarized in healthy older adults showed that studies implementing multicomponent interventions (i.e., protocols that included aerobic and strength exercises) were considered the most robust interventions for improving GCA ( Figure 1A) (12-16). ...
The advancement of public services, including the increased accessibility of health services, has led to a rise in life expectancy globally. As a result, aging populations are becoming more prevalent, raising concerns about cognitive decline. Fortunately, non-pharmacological methods, such as physical exercise, have been shown to mitigate the effects of aging on the brain. In this perspective article, we examined meta-analyses on the impact of physical exercise on cognition in older adults. The results indicate that combined exercise (i.e., aerobic plus strength training), has a significant positive effect on overall cognition and executive function. However, we found a lack of scientific studies on this topic in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Therefore, there is a pressing need for research to identify the feasibility of physical exercise interventions to improve cognitive skills in older adults from these regions.
... Children in the question-asking condition learned to ask more questions over the course of training. This nding is consistent with prior work showing that cognitive interventions lead to improvements on the practiced task (Mackey et al., 2011;Sala & Gobet, 2019;Shipstead et al., 2012). However, we did not nd condition effects on the question generation measure, which we initially conceptualized as a neartransfer measure. ...
Children who are more curious learn more in school, but little is known about how to promote curiosity-driven behaviors. In a preregistered experiment, 103 children (54 boys, 49 girls, ages 5-7-years) were randomly assigned to a condition in which they were encouraged to ask questions, or to listen carefully, during eight one-on-one science lessons over two weeks. Children in the question-asking condition valued new science information significantly more than children in the listening condition (Wilcoxon r = .23). Children with less background knowledge benefited more from question-asking. These results suggest that practice with question-asking can boost some aspects of curiosity and learning.
... No entanto, esses dois últimos efeitos são menos comuns em estudos de eficácia. Além disso, a probabilidade de ocorrência da transferência está associada à semelhança dos construtos, esperando-se maiores ganhos em domínios mais similares ao alvo (SALA; GOBET, 2019). Para crianças, os efeitos do treino tendem a não durar por muito tempo. ...
Cognitive training has been gaining increasing attention in the global scientific community. Despite its promise, the spontaneous use of strategies during working memory training in children is underexplored. There are few instruments designed to investigate the use of strategies. The aim of the present study was to present the judges' analysis and intelligibility studies with the target audience of the Survey of Strategies for Cognitive Training Questionnaire. In the judges' analysis study, the goal was to verify the relevance, clarity, and relevance of the items developed. Five female professionals with expertise in psychological assessment, human development, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and neuropsychology, averaging 12.2 years of experience, responded to an online form containing the items. In the second study, the aim was to verify the intelligibility of the questionnaire items with the target audience. The items were presented to 10 children aged 7 to 10 years. The results indicated adequate content validity coefficients for almost all items. The results of the second study suggest adequate comprehension of the items by the majority of the children. Therefore, the instrument shows initial satisfactory evidence of psychometric properties, although further studies are needed.
... The possibility of cognitive enhancement from gameplay found validation in early cross-sectional studies on avid action video game players (Green, 2018) and garnered attention as an intervention paradigm for training brain functions-improving attention, cognitive control, information processing, working memory, and reasoning skills (Sala & Gobet, 2019). Despite a plethora of subsequent studies supporting app-industry claims (Cognitive Training Data, 2019), meta-analytic reviews reveal a lack of strong evidence of cognitive benefits from playing games (Sala et al., 2018), specifically for the commercial brain-training genre (Kable et al., 2017;Simons et al., 2016). ...
This article investigates the role of games in cognitive training through multimethod deductions from user references to the phenomenon, a consideration absent in the current literature. The results of qualitative thematic and quantitative textual analyses on a corpus of commercial brain-training apps' reviews (N ¼ 30,000) paint a complicated picture of user perceptions of brain-training services, where recreation from gaming takes precedence over concerns of cognitive gains. While users remain uncertain about benefits in cognitive functions, positive perceptions suggest the affective utility of playing brain-training games and the self-regulatory benefits of using the apps. These findings suggest a link between brain-training and psychological variables associated with complex entertainment experiences from playing digital games. The critical role of entertainment from gameplay and associated psychological dimensions are discussed as they relate to our findings and emerging perspectives on the role of gaming in cognitive and affective functions.
... The possibility that cognitively active SB, or at least, specific forms of cognitively active SB, can benefit cognitive performance is partially supported by meta-analyses showing that in healthy older adults computerized cognitive training, which is typically conducted in a sitting position, improves cognitive performance in specific domains [107]. Nevertheless, the evidence on the effectiveness of cognitive training (e.g., on general cognition) is not universal and is debated [108]. Notably, the relationships between cognitively passive or active SB and aspects of brain health persist even after accounting for important covariates (e.g., level of regular PA operationalized by MET hours per week [92,104]), which supports the likelihood that cognitively passive SB may be an independent risk factor for the decline in cognitive performance and the risk to develop dementia. ...
Higher levels of physical activity are known to benefit aspects of brain health across the lifespan. However, the role of sedentary behavior (SB) is less well understood. In this review we summarize and discuss evidence on the role of SB on brain health (including cognitive performance, structural or functional brain measures, and dementia risk) for different age groups, critically compare assessment approaches to capture SB, and offer insights into emerging opportunities to assess SB via digital technologies. Across the lifespan, specific characteristics of SB (particularly whether they are cognitively active or cognitively passive) potentially act as moderators influencing the associations between SB and specific brain health outcomes. We outline challenges and opportunities for future research aiming to provide more robust empirical evidence on these observations.
... Cognitive functions, by enabling individuals to categorize and remember information; maintain attention for reasoning; adapt responses to changes in the environment, personal goals, etc.; represent foundational factors to learn and attain education [23,24]; reach a successful transition to adulthood [25]; and, most importantly, maintain good mental health [26,27]. While intelligence is generally considered to fall within the average range in TS [28], several studies point to minor neuropsychological deficits regarding inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory [29][30][31], while others conversely support the presence of enhanced cognitive abilities with respect to procedural learning [32] and inhibitory control [33,34]. ...
Background: Cognitive functions represent foundational factors for mental health and quality of life (QoL). In Tourette syndrome (TS), psychiatric comorbidities are common and have been inconsistently reported to affect the cognition and QoL of patients, while the role of tic disorder duration has not been yet explored. Methods: To examine how comorbidities and TS duration may influence cognition and QoL, N = 80 children with TS (6–16 years) were evaluated using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV). Standardized questionnaires were used to assess the presence and severity of TS main comorbidities and QoL. Data were interpreted using linear correlations, regression, and mediation analysis. Results: Depression and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms accounted for poorer cognitive performance. Anxiety oppositely predicted better cognitive performance, while no significant role for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) was observed. Disease duration was associated with lower total IQ, verbal reasoning, and working memory abilities. Depression, anxiety, and TS duration also deeply influenced QoL measures. Conclusions: TS common comorbidities have a differential impact on the cognitive abilities of children and adolescents, which translates into a complex influence on their perceived QoL. A longer clinical history of tics was related to worse cognitive outcomes, which prompts further consideration of disease duration in both clinical and research settings involving children and adolescents.
... Furthermore, some meta-analyses point to inconsistent conclusions in clinical trials supporting this view (Kassai et al., 2019;Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013;Nguyen et al., 2022;Sala & Gobet, 2020). In experiments where a positive effect seemed to occur, these could be attributed to poor quality design, publication bias, low heterogeneity, or statistical artifacts (Dovis et al., 2019;Nguyen et al., 2022;Sala & Gobet, 2019. Furthermore, to provide a robust demonstration of the existence of cognitive transfer, it must be assessed through multiple valid psychometric tools (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013). ...
Background: Chat generative retrained transformer (ChatGPT) represents a groundbreaking advancement in Artificial Intelligence (AI-chatbot) technology, utilizing transformer algorithms to enhance natural language processing and facilitating their use for addressing specific tasks. These AI chatbots can respond to questions by generating verbal instructions similar to those a person would provide during the problem-solving process. Aim: ChatGPT has become the fastest growing software in terms of user adoption in history, leading to an anticipated widespread use of this technology in the general population. Current literature is predominantly focused on the functional aspects of these technologies, but the field has not yet explored hypotheses on how these AI chatbots could impact the evolutionary aspects of human cognitive development. Thesis: The “neuronal recycling hypothesis” posits that the brain undergoes structural transformation by incorporating new cultural tools into “neural niches,” consequently altering individual cognition. In the case of technological tools, it has been established that they reduce the cognitive demand needed to solve tasks through a process called “cognitive offloading.” In this theoretical article, three hypotheses were proposed via forward inference about how algorithms such as ChatGPT and similar models may influence the cognitive processes and structures of upcoming generations. Conclusions: By forecasting the neurocognitive effects of these technologies, educational and political communities can anticipate future scenarios and formulate strategic plans to either mitigate or enhance the cognitive influence that these factors may have on the general population.
... The effectiveness of cognitive training is still a controversial subject. Many studies (e.g., Sala and Gobet, 2019) have reported that effects resulting from cognitive training may be short-term or training speci c, not translating into an improvement of general cognitive functioning in a given domain. However, some authors suggest that the lack of "far-transfer" effects may be due to a failure to broaden its concept as well as an almost exclusive reliance on primary outcomes (e.g., Brooks et al., 2020). ...
Substance abuse has undeniable effects on a number of cognitive dimensions, namely memory and executive functioning. In turn, deficits in these dimensions have been associated with poorer treatment outcomes for Substance Use Disorders (SUD). The main goal of this study was to validate VRainSUD, a cognitive training program composed of a virtual reality platform and a mobile follow-up application that proposes to reduce cognitive deficits in individuals with SUD.
The Delphi method was used to reach a consensus on each of the program’s characteristics (e.g., structure, cognitive training tasks). A panel of experts was invited to participate in the content validation by answering two rounds of questions (scale and free-text boxes) regarding the program. Changes were made between the rounds according to the results of the first round. The consensus was defined as at least 70% of the experts agreeing on the validity of a characteristic.
From 39 invited experts, 11 completed the first round, and 6 completed both rounds. The structure of the program reached a consensus on the first round, along with most tasks (with the exception of two mobile application tasks). Significant changes were made following the feedback received, namely turning the program personalizable, and adding positive feedback to the tasks in order to improve adherence and engagement.
The Delphi method was a valuable tool to improve VRainSUD. The experts’ opinions not only allowed for the validation of main features, but also informed important additional changes.
... In short, cognitive training is a successful mental activity [1]. The cognitive theory states that knowledge can be easily organized and recalled to the extent that it is understood, planned, and regulated [2]. Information configuration is mentioned in the new method, in contrast to the previous cognitive approach, which emphasizes learning through acquiring knowledge. ...
Brain-based skills are needed to perform any task from the simple to the most complex, one of which is in sports activities such as tennis. The characteristics of tennis include open skills, namely sports in which players accept to react in a dynamically changing, unpredictable, and externally moving environment. These skills require cognitive abilities to set game strategies to trick and kill the ball in the opponent's area. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of brain jogging on improving the cognitive abilities of beginner tennis players aged 10-11 years. This study used an experimental method with a pretest-posttest-one-group design. The research instrument used was a memory test using the IST subtest (Instructional structural test) and an attention test using the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST). The research sample was members of the junior tennis club in Tasikmalaya City, with a total model of 35 athletes. The results of this study prove that the brain jogging program can effectively improve athletes' cognitive abilities. This is because the brain jogging program presents games that require coordination, mental training, physical training, and visual training; this exercise can stimulate cells in the brain, directly affecting cognitive function. The limitation of this research lies in the media used in the training process that is not digital-based. So, as the following research develops, researchers try to apply the technology in the life kinetics training program.
... Drawing on Edelman and Ericsson's work, specificity has been emphasized in the intervention. There is solid evidence suggesting that competency in one area does not generalize, even within the same domain [25][26][27][28][29]. Thus, to enhance constructs such as Self-Efficacy [30], the intervention attempts to create a feeling of "I can", and preferably equip students with strategies allowing for the repetition of this feeling in upcoming situations, which will strengthen neuronal pathways related to Self-Efficacy [16]. ...
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in increasing motivational factors within the domain of psychology. Among these factors, Grit, Mindset, Self-Efficacy, and Well-Being (Flourishing) have been suggested to play an important role in individuals’ performance and Well-Being. Thus, cultivating these factors in the general population is important. Previous interventions have displayed substantial effects in certain areas. However, these interventions have primarily been Mindset oriented. This paper presents a novel intervention approach by also emphasizing the importance of brain development; the importance of stimuli for building a network in the brain; the importance of repetition for strengthening the network; and the importance of perseverance and deliberate practice for achievement. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of a 35–40 min online intervention to increase the beliefs of ‘I CAN’ for 38 university students in Norway. The mean age of the 38 participants was 22.55 (SD = 1.59) and they completed a pre-test assessment of the Grit-S Scale, Theories of Intelligence Scale (Mindset), General Self-Efficacy Scale, and Flourishing Scale (Well-Being). This was followed up by the novel intervention and finally a post-test of the scales eight weeks later. The results showed an increase in Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Well-Being. However, only Grit displayed a significant increase. We aimed at creating an intervention where the participants would “turn on the switch”, meaning that they develop stronger beliefs. These promising results warrant a further development of the intervention, and studies with a larger group.
... In contrast, a putative measure of underlying representations, the numerical distance effect has negligible correlations with math achievement [17]. Overall, training studies have rarely demonstrated far-transfer effects [85,86]. Nevertheless, a recent study reported that spatial training may enhance math [51]. ...
The biological, social, and individual-level foundations of mathematics development are typically studied in isolation. However, isolated study of these areas can only offer limited understanding. In order to facilitate a holistic, integrative view of the field, here, we review recent studies in several of the above domains, focusing on how individual-level cognitive, emotional, motivational, and self-concept-related variables interact within-and cross-domain.
... Training interventions are thought to mitigate multitasking costs by reducing representational overlap within frontoparietal-subcortical (FP-SC) brain regions that subserve the constituent tasks [8][9][10][11][12][13] . Transfer is a core aim of many brain training interventions in commercial settings 14,15 , but evidence for the generalisation of purely training-induced improvements to untrained tasks is mixed [16][17][18][19] . An approach that has shown promise in enhancing transfer involves combining noninvasive brain stimulation, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), with behavioural training interventions 20-22 . ...
Difficulties in multitasking may be the price humans pay for our ability to generalise learning to new tasks. Mitigating these costs through training has been associated with reduced overlap of constituent task representations within a task-related brain network. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), which can modulate neural activity, has shown promise in generalising training gains. Whether tDCS influences the changes in task-associated representations to produce such training generalisation remains unexplored. Here, we paired prefrontal cortex tDCS with multitasking training, and collected functional magnetic resonance imaging data pre- and post- training. We found that 1mA tDCS enhanced visual search performance, and using machine learning to assess the overlap of brain activity related to the training, show that these generalised gains were predicted by changes in classification accuracy for patterns of frontal, parietal, and cerebellar activity in participants who received left prefrontal cortex stimulation. Thus, prefrontal cortex tDCS interacts with training related changes in task representations, potentially driving the generalisation of learning.
... Here, participants are typically trained on specific cognitive control tasks to promote the training of the putatively underlying control functions, aimed at improving people's ability for cognitive control (von Bastian et al., 2022), or even general wellbeing (e.g., Grol et al., 2018;Koster et al., 2017). Interestingly, however, several authors have shown and argued that such forms of cognitive training rarely transfer to related tasks or other domains (e.g., Aben et al., 2019;Kassai et al., 2019;Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016;Sala & Gobet, 2019;Simons et al., 2016). Indeed, context and task similarity have been considered two critical factors for successful transfer (for a review, see Klahr & Chen, 2011). ...
Cognitive flexibility refers to a mental state that allows efficient switching between tasks. While deciding to be flexible is often ascribed to a strategic resource-intensive executive process, people may also simply use their environment to trigger different states of cognitive flexibility. We developed a paradigm where participants were exposed to two environments with different task-switching probabilities, followed by a probe phase to test the impact of environmental cues. Our results show that people were more efficient at switching in a high-switch environment. Critically, we observe environment-specific triggering of cognitive flexibility after a 4-day training period (Experiment 2, N = 51), but not after a 1-day training period (Experiment 1, N = 52). Together, these findings suggest that people can associate the need for cognitive flexibility with their environment, providing an environmental triggering mechanism for cognitive control.
... Systematic approaches to training cognitive skills are often designed as lab interventions with arti cial tasks in arti cial settings. While bene ts of trained skills on strongly related domains, referred to as near transfer, are evident, clear evidence on far transfer, that is improvements in only weakly related domains, is still lacking [14] [15]. Hence, if and how skills related to executive functions, such as self-control and attention control, can be improved in ways that bene t people in their daily lives remains a massive open question [16]. ...
Distractions are omnipresent and can derail our attention, which is a precious and very limited resource. To achieve their goals in the face of distractions, people need to regulate their attention, thoughts, and behavior; this is known as self-regulation . How can self-regulation be supported or strengthened in ways that are relevant for everyday work and learning activities? To address this question, we introduce and evaluate a desktop application that helps people stay focused on their work and train self-regulation at the same time. Our application lets the user set a goal for what they want to do during a defined period of focused work at their computer, then gives negative feedback when they get distracted, and positive feedback when they reorient their attention towards their goal. After this so-called focus session, the user receives overall feedback on how well they focused on their goal relative to previous sessions. While existing approaches to attention training often use artificial tasks, our approach transforms real-life challenges into opportunities for building strong attention control skills. Our results indicate that optimal attentional feedback can generate large increases in behavioral focus, task motivation, and self-control – benefitting users to successfully achieve their long-term goals.
... However, not all results reveal beneficial outcomes of cognitive training. Cognitive training that included cognitive leisure activities that were similar to, but not identical to HALA activities have not been found to be generalizable to cognitive performance outcomes, and to only pertain to their specific task (e.g., spatial planning strengths in sculpting is limited to sculpting and is not generalizable to spatial planning abilities broadly; Lövdén et al., 2020;Sala & Gobet, 2019). ...
Objective
Older individuals face a higher likelihood of developing dementia. The rate of cognitive decline resulting from dementia is not equivalent for all, as some patients with dementia are able to function independently longer than others, despite having similar disease burden. The cognitive reserve (CR) theory provides one explanation for the differing rate of decline. CR suggests that there are factors-most notably, educational attainment and occupational attainment-that can protect against the cognitive decline. Although the beneficial effects of these notable CR factors are clear, not all are easily modifiable. Participation in leisure activities may represent a more easily modifiable factor. Some research hints at beneficial effects of leisure activities, although specific leisure activities have not been well examined. The present study examined the relations between handicraft art leisure activities (HALAs) and multiple cognitive domains. Method
Archival WAIS-IV and demographic data for 50 California retirement community residents were examined. ResultsHALA participation accounted for statistically significant variance in working memory performance (R2 = .40, β = .24%) over and above the established CR factors of age, depression, educational attainment, and occupational attainment. In addition, HALA participation was related to a better ability to perform abstract visual information tasks (Block Design subtest, r = .28, p = .05) and non-verbal reasoning tasks (Visual Puzzles subtest, r = .38, p = .008). ConclusionsHALA participation among older adults could contribute to the retention of cognitive function, supporting the role of HALA participation as a CR factor.
In this chapter, the focus is on 11 short essays where we present constructs with a focus on the theories presented in Chaps. 1 and 2. The main aim is to provide examples of the link between the theory and practice.
Cognitive control is required to organize thoughts and actions and is critical for the pursuit of long-term goals. Childhood cognitive control relates to other domains of cognitive functioning and predicts later-life success and well-being. In this study, we used a randomized controlled trial to test whether cognitive control can be improved through a pre-registered 8-week intervention in 235 children aged 6–13 years targeting response inhibition and whether this leads to changes in multiple behavioral and neural outcomes compared to a response speed training. We show long-lasting improvements of closely related measures of cognitive control at the 1-year follow-up; however, training had no impact on any behavioral outcomes (decision-making, academic achievement, mental health, fluid reasoning and creativity) or neural outcomes (task-dependent and intrinsic brain function and gray and white matter structure). Bayesian analyses provide strong evidence of absent training effects. We conclude that targeted training of response inhibition does little to change children’s brains or their behavior.
Introduction
Employment is recognized as a fundamental human right, which correlates with better physical and mental health. Importantly, well-designed work, which considers the physical, social, and psychological impacts of work, can serve to enhance the cognitive abilities of workers. Although often overlooked, work for individuals with disabilities, including cognitive impairments, is equally important for their physical and mental well-being. What has not been established, however, is whether well-designed work can also enhance the cognitive abilities of individuals with cognitive impairments.
Methods
Using a longitudinal study design, we investigated the impact of well-designed work on the cognitive abilities of 60 participants (operators) at the AMIPI Foundation factories, which employ individuals with cognitive impairments to produce electrical cables and harnesses for the automobile industry. The same operators were assessed at three different time points: upon hiring (n = 60), and after working in the factory for 1 year (n = 41, since 19 left the factory) and 2 years (n = 28, since 13 more left the factory). We used five cognitive tests evaluating: (1) finger and manual dexterity, bimanual dexterity, and procedural memory using the Purdue Pegboard; (2) sustained and selective attention using the Symbol Cancellation Task; (3) short- and long-term declarative verbal memory and long-term verbal recognition memory using Rey's Audio-Verbal Learning Test; (4) short- and long-term visual recognition memory using the Continuous Visual Memory Test; and (5) abstract reasoning using Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices.
Results
We observed improvements in procedural memory, sustained and selective attention, and short- and long-term visual recognition memory after working in the factory for 1 or 2 years. We did not observe improvements in finger or manual dexterity or bimanual dexterity, nor short- or long-term declarative verbal memory or verbal recognition memory, nor abstract reasoning.
Discussion
We conclude that, in addition to improving physical and mental well-being, well-designed manufacturing work can serve as a training intervention improving some types of cognitive functioning in individuals with cognitive impairments.
A recent hypothesis characterizes difficulties in multitasking as being the price humans pay for our ability to generalize learning across tasks. The mitigation of these costs through training has been associated with reduced overlap of constituent task representations within frontal, parietal, and subcortical regions. Transcranial direct current stimulation, which can modulate functional brain activity, has shown promise in generalizing performance gains when combined with multitasking training. However, the relationship between combined transcranial direct current stimulation and training protocols with task-associated representational overlap in the brain remains unexplored. Here, we paired prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation with multitasking training in 178 individuals and collected functional magnetic resonance imaging data pre- and post-training. We found that 1 mA transcranial direct current stimulation applied to the prefrontal cortex paired with multitasking training enhanced training transfer to spatial attention, as assessed via a visual search task. Using machine learning to assess the overlap of neural activity related to the training task in task-relevant brain regions, we found that visual search gains were predicted by changes in classification accuracy in frontal, parietal, and cerebellar regions for participants that received left prefrontal cortex stimulation. These findings demonstrate that prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation may interact with training-related changes to task representations, facilitating the generalization of learning.
Cognitive control is a hallmark of human cognition. A large number of studies have focused on the plasticity of cognitive control and examined how repeated task experience leads to the improvement of cognitive control in novel task environments. However, it has been demonstrated that training-induced changes are very selective and that transfer occurs within one task paradigm but not across different task paradigms. The current study tested the possibility that cross-paradigm transfer would occur if a common cognitive control strategy is employed across different task paradigms. Specifically, we examined whether prior experience of using reactive control in one task paradigm (i.e., either the cued task-switching paradigm or the AX-CPT) makes adults (N = 137) and 9- to 10-year-olds (N = 126) respond in a reactive way in a subsequent condition of another task paradigm in which proactive control could have been engaged. Bayesian generalized mixed-effects models revealed clear evidence of an absence of cross-paradigm transfer of reactive control in both adults and school-aged children. Based on these findings, we discuss to what extent learned control could be transferred across different task contexts and the task-specificity of proactive/reactive control strategies.
The aim of this chapter is to interrogate issues of mental health and well-being of female students and faculty after the devastating effects of COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter further explores strategies that can be used to enhance the mental health and well-being of female students and faculty in order to enhance their optimal functioning. There has been growing global interest in mental health, with increasing concern over mental health difficulties among female students and faculty in colleges and universities. Academic pressure, social isolation, disruption in education, demands posed by online learning and other uncertainties acted as challenges that impacted students' mental health. Female students and faculty may experience heightened psychological distress resulting in PTSD, anxiety, and depression due to poor mental health and wellbeing. To have quality mental health and well-being, female students and lecturers should take steps to protect and support their mental health throughout life.
Meta-analyses often present flexibility regarding their inclusion criteria, outcomes of interest, statistical analyses, and assessments of the primary studies. For this reason, it is necessary to transparently report all the information that could impact the results. In this meta-review, we aimed to assess the transparency of meta-analyses that examined the benefits of cognitive training, given the ongoing controversy that exists in this field. Ninety-seven meta-analytic reviews were included, which examined a wide range of populations with different clinical conditions and ages. Regarding the reporting, information about the search of the studies, screening procedure, or data collection was detailed by most reviews. However, authors usually failed to report other aspects such as the specific meta-analytic parameters, the formula used to compute the effect sizes, or the data from primary studies that were used to compute the effect sizes. Although some of these practices have improved over the years, others remained the same. Moreover, examining the eligibility criteria of the reviews revealed a great heterogeneity in aspects such as the training duration, age cut-offs, or study designs that were considered. Preregistered meta-analyses often specified poorly how they would deal with the multiplicity of data or assess publication bias in their protocols, and some contained non-disclosed deviations in their eligibility criteria or outcomes of interests. The findings shown here, although they do not question the benefits of cognitive training, illustrate important aspects that future reviews must consider.
Learning-guided control refers to adjustments of cognitive control settings based on learned associations between predictive cues and the likelihood of conflict. In three preregistered experiments, we examined transfer of item-specific control settings beyond conditions under which they were learned. In Experiment 1, an item-specific proportion congruence (ISPC) manipulation was applied in a training phase in which target color in a Flanker task was biased (mostly congruent or mostly incongruent). In a subsequent transfer phase, participants performed a color-word Stroop task in which the same target colors were unbiased (50% congruent). The same design was implemented in Experiment 2, but training and transfer tasks were intermixed within blocks. Between-task transfer was evidenced in both experiments, suggesting learned control settings associated with the predictive cues were retrieved when encountering unbiased transfer items. In Experiment 3, we investigated a farther version of between-task transfer by using training (color-word Stroop) and transfer (picture-word Stroop) tasks that did not share the relevant (to-be-named) dimension or response sets. Despite the stronger, between-task boundary, we observed an ISPC effect for the transfer items, but it did not emerge until the second half of the experiment. The results provided converging evidence for the flexibility and automaticity of item-specific control.
Experience with instances that vary in their surface features helps individuals to form abstract task knowledge, leading to transfer of that knowledge to novel contexts. The current study sought to examine the role of this variability effect in how adults and school-aged children learn to engage cognitive control. We focused on the engagement of cognitive control in advance (proactive control) and in response to conflicts (reactive control) in a cued task-switching paradigm, and conducted four preregistered online experiments with adults (Experiment 1A: N = 100, Experiment 1B: N = 105) and 9- to 10-year-olds (Experiment 2A: N = 98, Experiment 2B: N = 97). It was shown that prior task experience of engaging reactive control makes both adults and 9- to 10-year-olds respond more slowly in a subsequent similar-structured condition with different stimuli in which proactive control could have been engaged. 9- to 10-year-olds (Experiment 2B) exhibited more negative transfer of a reactive control mode when uninformative cue and pre-target stimuli, which do not convey task-relevant information, were changed in each block, compared with when they were fixed. Furthermore, adults showed suggestive evidence of the variability effect both when cue and target stimuli were varied (Experiment 1A) and when uninformative cue and pre-target stimuli were varied (Experiment 1B). The collective findings of these experiments provide important insights into the contribution of stimulus variability to the engagement of cognitive control.
Methods of cognitive enhancement for humans are most impactful when they generalize across tasks. However, the extent to which such “transfer” is possible via interventions is widely debated. In addition, the contribution of excitatory and inhibitory processes to such transfer is unknown. Here, in a large-scale neuroimaging individual differences study with humans (both sexes), we paired multitasking training and noninvasive brain stimulation (transcranial direct current stimulation, tDCS) over multiple days and assessed performance across a range of paradigms. In addition, we varied tDCS dosage (1.0 and 2.0 mA), electrode montage (left or right prefrontal regions), and training task (multitasking vs a control task) and assessed GABA and glutamate concentrations via ultrahigh field 7T magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Generalized benefits were observed in spatial attention, indexed by visual search performance, when multitasking training was combined with 1.0 mA stimulation targeting either the left or right prefrontal cortex (PFC). This transfer effect persisted for ∼30 d post intervention. Critically, the transferred benefits associated with right prefrontal tDCS were predicted by pretraining concentrations of glutamate in the PFC. Thus, the effects of this combined stimulation and training protocol appear to be linked predominantly to excitatory brain processes.
Understanding mechanisms and extent of training transfer to untrained tasks is one of central inquiries in cognitive training research. Since the reach of transfer remains open to debate, we aimed to investigate both near and far transfer effects resulting from updating training utilizing an n-back task. Healthy adults (N = 45, aged 49–65 years) were randomly assigned to either the training or the active control group. The study design included three measurement points (pretest, posttest, and follow-up after 6 months) and 20 training sessions distributed over 10 weeks. The comprehensive test battery included a criterion task, near-transfer tasks (one task structurally similar and one task structurally different from the trained task), and far-transfer tasks (inhibition, switching, and fluid reasoning). Training gains were observed on the trained and untrained n-back tasks only, indicating that updating training primarily improves the specific skills required to complete the trained task rather than it enhances the overall updating ability or related abilities. In line with a growing body of evidence our findings highlight the limited generalizability of updating training, indicating that future studies should focus more on identifying near-transfer mechanisms underlying the gains in process-based training.
Distractions are omnipresent and can derail our attention, which is a precious and very limited resource. To achieve their goals in the face of distractions, people need to regulate their attention, thoughts, and behavior; this is known as self-regulation. How can self-regulation be supported or strengthened in ways that are relevant for everyday work and learning activities? To address this question, we introduce and evaluate a desktop application that helps people stay focused on their work and train self-regulation at the same time. Our application lets the user set a goal for what they want to do during a defined period of focused work at their computer, then gives negative feedback when they get distracted, and positive feedback when they reorient their attention towards their goal. After this so-called focus session, the user receives overall feedback on how well they focused on their goal relative to previous sessions. While existing approaches to attention training often use artificial tasks, our approach transforms real-life challenges into opportunities for building strong attention control skills. Our results indicate that optimal attentional feedback can generate large increases in behavioral focus, task motivation, and self-control—benefitting users to successfully achieve their long-term goals.
Cognitive impairments, common sequelae of acquired brain injury (ABI), significantly affect rehabilitation and quality of life. Currently, there is no solid evidence‐base for pharmacotherapy to improve cognitive functioning after ABI, nevertheless off‐label use is widely applied in clinical practice. This meta‐analysis and meta‐regression aims to quantitatively aggregate the available evidence for the effects of pharmacological agents used in the treatment of cognitive impairments following ABI. We conducted a comprehensive search of Embase, Medline Ovid, and Cochrane Controlled Trials Register databases for randomized controlled and crossover trials. Meta‐analytic effects were calculated for each pharmaceutical agent and targeted neuromodulator system. Cognitive outcome measures were aggregated across cognitive domains. Of 8,216 articles, 41 studies (4,434 patients) were included. The noradrenergic agent methylphenidate showed a small, significant positive effect on cognitive functioning in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI; k = 14, d = 0.34, 95% confidence interval: 0.12–0.56, P = 0.003). Specifically, methylphenidate was found to improve cognitive functions related to executive memory, baseline speed, inhibitory control, and variability in responding. The cholinergic drug donepezil demonstrated a large effect size, albeit based on a limited number of studies ( k = 3, d = 1.68, P = 0.03). No significant effects were observed for other agents. Additionally, meta‐regression analysis did not identify significant sources of heterogeneity in treatment response. Our meta‐analysis supports the use of methylphenidate for enhancing cognitive functioning in patients with TBI. Although donepezil shows potential, it warrants further research. These results could guide clinical decision making, inform practice guidelines, and direct future pharmacotherapeutic research in ABI.
A pervasive limitation in cognition is reflected by the performance costs we experience when attempting to undertake two tasks simultaneously. While training can overcome these multitasking costs, the more elusive objective of training interventions is to induce persistent gains that transfer across tasks. Combined brain stimulation and cognitive training protocols have been employed to improve a range of psychological processes and facilitate such transfer, with consistent gains demonstrated in multitasking and decision-making. Neural activity in frontal, parietal, and subcortical regions has been implicated in multitasking training gains, but how the brain supports training transfer is poorly understood. To investigate this, we combined transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex and multitasking training, with functional magnetic resonance imaging in 178 participants. We observed transfer to a visual search task, following 1 mA left or right prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation and multitasking training. These gains persisted for 1-month post-training. Notably, improvements in visual search performance for the right hemisphere stimulation group were associated with activity changes in the right hemisphere dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, intraparietal sulcus, and cerebellum. Thus, functional dynamics in these task-general regions determine how individuals respond to paired stimulation and training, resulting in enhanced performance on an untrained task.
Zusammenfassung: Hintergrund: Exekutive Funktionen werden üblicherweise in die Bereiche Arbeitsgedächtnis, Inhibition und kognitive Flexibilität unterteilt. Kognitive Trainingsprogramme für Kinder zielen darauf ab, diese Bereiche isoliert zu trainieren, um positive Transfereffekte auf andere Fähigkeiten wie Lesen, Rechnen und schlussfolgerndes Denken zu erzielen. In diesem Beitrag werden jedoch empirische Befunde dargelegt, die Zweifel an der Wirksamkeit solcher Förderansätze aufkommen lassen. Diskussion: Stattdessen wird herausgearbeitet, dass eine erfolgreiche Förderung der Exekutiven Funktionen darin bestehen kann, diese im Hinblick auf ein konkretes Ziel im alltäglichen Kontext umzusetzen, auf dem Vorwissen aufzubauen, das dynamische Zusammenspiel zwischen Exekutiven Funktionen und Lernleistungen zu berücksichtigen und mit expliziter Instruktion Strategien zu vermitteln, welche die Exekutiven Funktionen unterstützen und entlasten.
Both effortful and effortless training have been shown to be effective in enhancing individuals' executive functions. Effortful training improves domain-specific EFs, while effortless training improves domain-general EFs. Furthermore, effortful training has significantly higher training effects on EFs than effortless training. The neural mechanism underlying these different effects remained unclear. The present study conducted meta-analysis on neuroimaging studies to explore the changes of brain activations induced by effortful and effortless training. The results showed that effortful training induced greater activation in superior frontal gyrus, while effortless training induced greater activation in middle frontal gyrus, precuneus and cuneus. The brain regions of MD system enhanced by effortful training were more associated with core cognitive functions underlying EFs, while those enhanced by effortless training were more correlated with language functions. In addition, the significant clusters induced by effortful training had more overlaps with the MD system than effortless training. These results provided us with possibility to discuss the different behavioral results brought by effortful and effortless training.
Attention training programs have demonstrated potential for improving select cognitive skills and behaviors in children, but reported benefits are inconsistent. It is unclear whether variability in training benefits can be attributed to differences in children’s learning trajectories on training tasks over the intervention period. This study examined the functional form of learning trajectories on adaptive attention training tasks in primary school children, and potential associations between these learning trajectories and (a) pre-training child characteristics (general cognitive ability, hyperactivity, inattention, age) and (b) outcomes on untrained tasks from pre- to post-training (attention, hyperactivity, inattention). A total of 38 children (5–9 years) completed a 5-week attention training program in class. The training sessions involved four tasks targeting selective attention, sustained attention, inhibition, or interference control. Assessments were conducted pre- and immediately post-training. Based on non-linear mixed-effects models, the learning trajectories were best described by asymptotic regression, where the largest rate of improvement occurred initially, followed by gradual flattening out as task difficulty approached the asymptote. For the sustained attention training task, lower asymptotes predicted larger reductions in hyperactive behaviour from pre- to post-training. For the sustained and selective attention training tasks, age was associated with the asymptotes of the learning trajectories. Collectively, these findings suggest that learning trajectories on certain attention training tasks are associated with select child characteristics and training outcomes. It is of interest for future cognitive training studies to examine the learning trajectories of tasks targeting different skills to contribute understanding of the processes associated with cognitive training outcomes.
Some complex cognitive activities impacted by aging (future thinking, problem-solving, creative thinking) have been shown to rely on episodic retrieval, suggesting that cognitive interventions aiming to improve retrieval have the potential to induce transfer effects to these activities. Prior studies have shown that a brief one-session technique called Episodic Specificity Induction (ESI) can transiently improve episodic retrieval and induce transfer effects to complex tasks that rely on episodic retrieval in older adults. In the present proof-of-concept study, we assessed whether a training program consisting of repeated practice of the ESI technique can improve episodic retrieval and transfer to complex tasks. Fifteen healthy older adults completed a six-session intervention where they received repeated ESI practice. Before and after the intervention, nearest transfer effects were assessed using free recall, near transfer effects using recognition and associative recognition, and far-transfer effects using mean-ends problem-solving and divergent creative thinking. Before the intervention, typical ESI effects were observed (better performance after an ESI than after a control task), indicating that the ESI operated as expected in our sample. When examining the intervention effects, performance was increased after the intervention on free recall and recognition (nearest- and near-transfer) as well as problem-solving and divergent creative thinking (far transfer). These results indicate that an intervention relying on the ESI technique can produce both near and far transfer. These findings support the use of the ESI in the design of interventions that could improve retrieval and have a broad impact on a range of complex tasks.
We sympathize with many of the points Burt makes in challenging the value of genetics to advance our understanding of social science. Here, we discuss how recent reflections on epistemic validity in the behavioral sciences can further contribute to a reappraisal of the role of sociogenomics to explain and predict human traits, aptitudes, and achievement.
Children diagnosed with ADHD show pronounced impairments in both “cold” executive and “hot” motivational control. Importantly, recent cognitive training studies suggested that practice in shifting between competing tasks in alternating runs can promote executive control functioning in ADHD children and may especially in a motivationally enriched training setting, such as by adding video game elements. The aim of the present study was to examine how a game-based training environment influences motivational variables, such as training willingness (i.e., voluntary motivation) and behavioral inappropriateness (i.e., involuntary drive), as well as executive control during a cognitive training invention (a task-shifting training) in children with ADHD. Therefore, children diagnosed with the ADHD combined subtype were trained in either a low-(LowMot) or a high-motivational (HighMot) training setting. Results revealed that the HighMot-setting compared to the LowMot-setting (1) led to higher voluntary motivational control, but also to more behavioral inappropriateness and (2) did in turn not enable larger performance improvements in task shifting. The lacking incremental benefit from a HighMot training setting on cognitive performance will be discussed in the light of notions on an adequate arousal-performance relationship. Based on these findings, directions for future training interventions in ADHD children will be discussed.
Richard Schmidt and I titled our article “New Conceptualizations of Practice: Common Principles in Three Paradigms Suggest New Concepts for Training” to reflect our view that prevailing ideas about how to optimize teaching, learning, and practicing were, in our words, “at best incomplete, and at worst incorrect.” We argued that teachers and trainers were susceptible to being misled by two commonsense assumptions—namely, that procedures that enhance performance during training are the procedures of choice and that the context of training needs to match in detail the posttraining context that is the target of training. A variety of then-recent experimental findings challenged both assumptions and demonstrated, in particular, that procedures posing certain difficulties and appearing to slow the rate of learning often enhanced long-term retention and transfer of to-be-learned skills and knowledge. Given the parallel nature of such findings for both motor and verbal learning, we concluded that principles of considerable generality could be deduced to upgrade teaching and training.
As a result of considerable potential scientific and societal implications, the possibility of enhancing
cognitive ability by training has been one of the most influential topics of cognitive psychology in the
last two decades. However, substantial research into the psychology of expertise and a recent series of
meta-analytic reviews have suggested that various types of cognitive training (e.g., working memory
training) benefit performance only in the trained tasks. The lack of skill generalization from one domain
to different ones—that is, far transfer— has been documented in various fields of research such as
working memory training, music, brain training, and chess. Video game training is another activity that
has been claimed by many researchers to foster a broad range of cognitive abilities such as visual
processing, attention, spatial ability, and cognitive control. We tested these claims with three randomeffects
meta-analytic models. The first meta-analysis (k � 310) examined the correlation between video
game skill and cognitive ability. The second meta-analysis (k � 315) dealt with the differences between
video game players and nonplayers in cognitive ability. The third meta-analysis (k � 359) investigated
the effects of video game training on participants’ cognitive ability. Small or null overall effect sizes were
found in all three models. These outcomes show that overall cognitive ability and video game skill are
only weakly related. Importantly, we found no evidence of a causal relationship between playing video
games and enhanced cognitive ability. Video game training thus represents no exception to the general
difficulty of obtaining far transfer.
The ubiquity of video games in today’s society has led to significant interest in their impact on the brain and behavior and in the possibility of harnessing games for good. The present meta-analyses focus on one specific game genre that has been of particular interest to the scientific community—action video games, and cover the period 2000–2015. To assess the long-lasting impact of action video game play on various domains of cognition, we first consider cross-sectional studies that inform us about the cognitive profile of habitual action video game players, and document a positive average effect of about half a standard deviation (g = 0.55). We then turn to long-term intervention studies that inform us about the possibility of causally inducing changes in cognition via playing action video games, and show a smaller average effect of a third of a standard deviation (g = 0.34). Because only intervention studies using other commercially available video game genres as controls were included, this latter result highlights the fact that not all games equally impact cognition. Moderator analyses indicated that action video game play robustly enhances the domains of top-down attention and spatial cognition, with encouraging signs for perception. Publication bias remains, however, a threat with average effects in the published literature estimated to be 30% larger than in the full literature. As a result, we encourage the field to conduct larger cohort studies and more intervention studies, especially those with more than 30 hours of training.
Researchers have explored a variety of interventions to improve cognition among older adults. One of which is computerized cognitive training programs. The number of commercially available, cognitive training programs has increased greatly, but scientists debate their value. The purposes of this systematic literature review and meta-analysis were to (1) evaluate the efficacy of commercially available, computerized cognitive training programs to improve cognition in older adults and (2) examine far transfer of training to untrained tasks relevant to everyday functioning. Articles were reviewed if the study (a) included a sample of adults aged 55 and older, (b) used a commercially available, computerized cognitive training program, (c) was a randomized controlled trial, (d) measured cognition as an outcome, and (e) included a sample that was free from health conditions affecting cognitive function (e.g., cancer, stroke, psychiatric conditions, or traumatic brain injury). Effect sizes were calculated using random effect models to determine cognitive training effects for various cognitive domains and far transfer tasks. There were significant small to medium training effects for the cognitive domains of attention (d = 0.651, p < .001), processing speed (d = 0.294, p = .002), and visuospatial memory (d = 0.252, p = 0.016). There was also evidence of far transfer to self-reported measures of everyday function (d = 0.277, p < 0.001). Commercially available computerized cognitive training programs may improve certain cognitive abilities among older adults, who also report improvement on tasks relevant to their everyday lives.
As aging is associated with cognitive decline, particularly in the executive functions, it is essential to effectively improve cognition in older adults. Online cognitive training is currently a popular, though controversial method. Although some changes seem possible in older adults through training, far transfer, and longitudinal maintenance are rarely seen. Based on previous literature we created a unique, state-of-the-art intervention study by incorporating frequent sessions and flexible, novel, adaptive training tasks, along with an active control group. We created a program called TAPASS (Training Project Amsterdam Seniors and Stroke), a randomized controlled trial. Healthy older adults (60–80 y.o.) were assigned to a frequent- (FS) or infrequent switching (IS) experimental condition or to the active control group and performed 58 half-hour sessions over the course of 12 weeks. Effects on executive functioning, processing- and psychomotor speed, planning, verbal long term memory, verbal fluency, and reasoning were measured on four time points before, during and after the training. Additionally, we examined the explorative question which individual aspects added to training benefit. Besides improvements on the training, we found significant time effects on multiple transfer tasks in all three groups that likely reflected retest effects. No training-specific improvements were detected, and we did not find evidence of additional benefits of individual characteristics. Judging from these results, the therapeutic value of using commercially available training games to train the aging brain is modest, though any apparent effects should be ascribed more to expectancy and motivation than to the elements in our training protocol. Our results emphasize the importance of using parallel tests as outcome measures for transfer and including both active and passive control conditions. Further investigation into different training methods is advised, including stimulating social interaction and the use of more variable, novel, group-based yet individual-adjusted exercises.
Background
Several studies have found that musicians perform better than nonmusicians in memory tasks, but this is not always the case, and the strength of this apparent advantage is unknown. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis with the aim of clarifying whether musicians perform better than nonmusicians in memory tasks.
Methods
Education Source; PEP (WEB)—Psychoanalytic Electronic Publishing; Psychology and Behavioral Science (EBSCO); PsycINFO (Ovid); PubMed; ScienceDirect—AllBooks Content (Elsevier API); SCOPUS (Elsevier API); SocINDEX with Full Text (EBSCO) and Google Scholar were searched for eligible studies. The selected studies involved two groups of participants: young adult musicians and nonmusicians. All the studies included memory tasks (loading long-term, short-term or working memory) that contained tonal, verbal or visuospatial stimuli. Three meta-analyses were run separately for long-term memory, short-term memory and working memory.
Results
We collected 29 studies, including 53 memory tasks. The results showed that musicians performed better than nonmusicians in terms of long-term memory, g = .29, 95% CI (.08–.51), short-term memory, g = .57, 95% CI (.41–.73), and working memory, g = .56, 95% CI (.33–.80). To further explore the data, we included a moderator (the type of stimulus presented, i.e., tonal, verbal or visuospatial), which was found to influence the effect size for short-term and working memory, but not for long-term memory. In terms of short-term and working memory, the musicians’ advantage was large with tonal stimuli, moderate with verbal stimuli, and small or null with visuospatial stimuli.
Conclusions
The three meta-analyses revealed a small effect size for long-term memory, and a medium effect size for short-term and working memory, suggesting that musicians perform better than nonmusicians in memory tasks. Moreover, the effect of the moderator suggested that, the type of stimuli influences this advantage.
An enduring aim of research in the psychological and brain sciences is to understand the nature of individual differences in human intelligence, examining the stunning breadth and diversity of intellectual abilities and the remarkable neurobiological mechanisms from which they arise. In this Opinion article, we survey recent neuroscience evidence to elucidate how general intelligence (g) emerges from individual differences in the network architecture of the human brain. The reviewed findings motivate new insights about how network topology and dynamics account for individual differences in g, represented by the Network Neuroscience Theory. According to this framework, g emerges from the small-world topology of brain networks and the dynamic reorganization of its community structure in the service of system-wide flexibility and adaptation.
The question of whether working memory training leads to generalized improvements in
untrained cognitive abilities is a longstanding and heatedly debated one. Previous research provides mostly ambiguous evidence regarding the presence or absence of transfer effects in older adults. Thus, to draw decisive conclusions regarding the effectiveness of working memory training interventions, methodologically sound studies with larger sample sizes are needed. In this study, we investigated whether or not a computer-based working memory training intervention induced near and far transfer in a large sample of 142 healthy older adults (65-80 years). Therefore, we randomly assigned participants to either the experimental group, which completed 25 sessions of adaptive, process-based working memory training, or to the active, adaptive visual search control group. Bayesian linear mixed-effects models were used to estimate performance improvements on the level of abilities, using multiple indicator tasks for near (working memory) and far transfer (fluid intelligence, shifting, and inhibition). Our data provided consistent evidence supporting the absence of near transfer to untrained working memory tasks and the absence of far transfer effects to all of the assessed abilities. Our results suggest that working memory training is not an effective way to improve general cognitive functioning in old age.
This article explores an important credibility problem in the research literature beyond the issue of questionable data analysis methods: the problem of omission of relevant previous research in published research articles. This article focuses on this problem in 2 areas: (a) studies purporting to demonstrate the effects of people’s experiences on their later life outcomes while failing to discuss or mention the probable causal role of genetic inheritance in producing these effects, despite the strong evidence for this connection from behavior genetics research; and (b) studies of specific aptitudes (specific abilities) such as verbal, spatial, or reasoning that fail to acknowledge or mention that such aptitudes are indicator variables for general mental ability (GMA; or intelligence) and that after proper control for GMA the residuals in these aptitudes make essentially no contribution to prediction of real world academic, occupational, or job performance. It is only the GMA component in such aptitudes that produces the ability to predict. As is well known today, the issue of the credibility of research conclusions is prominent (Ioannidis, 2005). In both the areas examined in this article, these deficiencies create serious and unnecessary credibility problems, and the doubts they inspire about credibility could unfortunately be generalized to other research areas in which these problems do not exist.
A cross-lagged panel analysis of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) intelligence test scores and reading and math achievement test scores of 337 students twice assessed for special education eligibility across a test-retest interval of 2.85 years was conducted. General intelligence (g) was loaded by the four WISC-IV factor index scores whereas reading and math were composite scores. After confirming measurement invariance, it was found that g, reading, and math were stable across time and synchronously correlated. The cross-lagged paths from g at time 1 to reading and math at time 2 (0.26 and 0.39, respectively) were both significantly greater than zero whereas the paths from reading and math at time 1 to g at time 2 (0.03 and 0.23, respectively) were not statistically significant. Given this pattern of relationships and extant research on the correlates of general intelligence, it was tentatively inferred that general intelligence was the temporal precursor to reading and math achievement.
The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between reading and working
memory (WM) in the context of three major theories: the domain-specificity theory
(debate) of WM, the intrinsic cognitive load theory, and the dual process theory. A
meta-analysis of 197 studies with 2026 effect sizes found a significant moderate
correlation between reading and WM, r = .29, 95% CI [.27, .31]. Moderation analyses
indicated that after controlling for publication type, bilingual status, domains of WM,
and grade level, the relation between WM and reading was not affected by types of
reading. The effects of WM domains were associated with grade level: before 4th
grade, different domains of WM were related to reading to a similar degree, whereas
verbal WM showed the strongest relations with reading at or beyond 4th grade.
Further, the effect of WM on reading comprehension was partialled out when decoding
and vocabulary were controlled for. Taken together, the findings are generally
compatible with aspects of the domain-specificity theory of WM and the dual process
theory, but, importantly, add a developmental component that is not currently reflected
in models of the relation between reading and WM. The findings suggest that the
domain-general central executive of WM is implicated in early reading acquisition, and
verbal WM is more strongly implicated in later reading performance as readers gain
more experience with reading. The implications of these findings for reading instruction
and WM training are also discussed.
It has been proposed that playing chess enables children to improve their ability in mathematics. These claims have been recently evaluated in a meta-analysis (Sala & Gobet, 2016, Educational Research Review, 18, 46–57), which indicated a significant effect in favor of the groups playing chess. However, the meta-analysis also showed that most of the reviewed studies used a poor experimental design (in particular, they lacked an active control group). We ran two experiments that used a three-group design including both an active and a passive control group, with a focus on mathematical ability. In the first experiment (N = 233), a group of third and fourth graders was taught chess for 25 hours and tested on mathematical problem-solving tasks. Participants also filled in a questionnaire assessing their meta-cognitive ability for mathematics problems. The group playing chess was compared to an active control group (playing checkers) and a passive control group. The three groups showed no statistically significant difference in mathematical problem-solving or metacognitive abilities in the posttest. The second experiment (N = 52) broadly used the same design, but the Oriental game of Go replaced checkers in the active control group. While the chess-treated group and the passive control group slightly outperformed the active control group with mathematical problem solving, the differences were not statistically significant. No differences were found with respect to metacognitive ability. These results suggest that the effects (if any) of chess instruction, when rigorously tested, are modest and that such interventions should not replace the traditional curriculum in mathematics.
Several studies investigating the relationship between physical activity and cognition showed that exercise interventions might have beneficial effects on working memory, executive functions as well as motor fitness in old adults. Recently, movement based video games (exergames) have been introduced to have the capability to improve cognitive function in older adults. Healthy aging is associated with a loss of cognitive, as well as sensorimotor functions. During exergaming, participants are required to perform physical activities while being simultaneously surrounded by a cognitively challenging environment. However, only little is known about the impact of exergame training interventions on a broad range of motor, sensory, and cognitive skills. Therefore, the present study aims at investigating the effects of an exergame training over 6 weeks on cognitive, motor, and sensory functions in healthy old participants. For this purpose, 30 neurologically healthy older adults were randomly assigned to either an experimental (ETG, n = 15, 1 h training, twice a week) or a control group (NTG, n = 15, no training). Several cognitive tests were performed before and after exergaming in order to capture potential training-induced effects on processing speed as well as on executive functions. To measure the impact of exergaming on sensorimotor performance, a test battery consisting of pinch and grip force of the hand, tactile acuity, eye-hand coordination, flexibility, reaction time, coordination, and static balance were additionally performed. While we observed significant improvements in the trained exergame (mainly in tasks that required a high load of coordinative abilities), these gains did not result in differential performance improvements when comparing ETG and NTG. The only exergaming-induced difference was a superior behavioral gain in fine motor skills of the left hand in ETG compared to NTG. In an exploratory analysis, within-group comparison revealed improvements in sensorimotor and cognitive tasks (ETG) while NTG only showed an improvement in a static balance test. Taken together, the present study indicates that even though exergames might improve gaming performance, our behavioral assessment was probably not sensitive enough to capture exergaming-induced improvements. Hence, we suggest to use more tailored outcome measures in future studies to assess potential exergaming-induced changes.
Several studies investigating the relationship between physical activity and cognition showed that exercise interventions might have beneficial effects on working memory, executive functions as well as motor fitness in old adults. Recently, movement based video games (exergames) have been introduced to have the capability to improve cognitive function in older adults. Healthy aging is associated with a loss of cognitive, as well as sensorimotor functions. During exergaming, participants are required to perform physical activities while being simultaneously surrounded by a cognitively challenging environment. However, only little is known about the impact of exergame training interventions on a broad range of motor, sensory, and cognitive skills. Therefore, the present study aims at investigating the effects of an exergame training over 6 weeks on cognitive, motor, and sensory functions in healthy old participants. For this purpose, 30 neurologically healthy older adults were randomly assigned to either an experimental (ETG, n = 15, 1 h training, twice a week) or a control group (NTG, n = 15, no training). Several cognitive tests were performed before and after exergaming in order to capture potential training-induced effects on processing speed as well as on executive functions. To measure the impact of exergaming on sensorimotor performance, a test battery consisting of pinch and grip force of the hand, tactile acuity, eye-hand coordination, flexibility, reaction time, coordination, and static balance were additionally performed. While we observed significant improvements in the trained exergame (mainly in tasks that required a high load of coordinative abilities), these gains did not result in differential performance improvements when comparing ETG and NTG. The only exergaming-induced difference was a superior behavioral gain in fine motor skills of the left hand in ETG compared to NTG. In an exploratory analysis, within-group comparison revealed improvements in sensorimotor and cognitive tasks (ETG) while NTG only showed an improvement in a static balance test. Taken together, the present study indicates that Ordnung et al. Exergaming Improves Motor Performance even though exergames might improve gaming performance, our behavioral assessment was probably not sensitive enough to capture exergaming-induced improvements. Hence, we suggest to use more tailored outcome measures in future studies to assess potential exergaming-induced changes.
Recent aging studies on training in task switching found that older adults showed larger improvements to an untrained switching task as younger adults do. However, less clear is what type of cognitive control processes can explain these training gains as participants were trained with a particular type of switching task including bivalent stimuli, requiring high inhibition demands, and no task cues helping them keeping track of the task sequence, and by this, requiring high working-memory (WM) demands. The aims of this study were first to specify whether inhibition, WM, or switching demands are critical for the occurrence of transfer and whether this transfer depends on the degree of overlap between training and transfer situation; and second to assess whether practiced-induced gains in task switching can be maintained over a longer period of time. To this end, we created five training conditions that varied in switching (switching vs. single task training), inhibition (switching training with bivalent or univalent stimuli), and WM demands (switching training with or without task cues). We investigated 81 younger adults and 82 older adults with a pretest-training-posttest design and a follow-up measurement after 6 months. Results indicated that all training and age groups showed improvements in task switching and a differential effect of training condition on improvements to an untrained switching task in younger and older adults. For younger adults, we found larger improvements in task switching for the switching groups than the single-task training group independently of inhibition and WM demands, suggesting that practice in switching is most critical. However, these benefits disappeared after 6 months. In contrast, for older adults training groups practicing task switching under high inhibition demands showed larger improvements to untrained switching tasks than the other groups. Moreover, these benefits were maintained over time. We also found that the transfer of benefits in task switching was larger with greater overlap between training and transfer situation. However, results revealed no evidence for transfer to other untrained cognitive task. Overall, the findings suggest that training in resolving interference while switching between two tasks is most critical for the occurrence of transfer in the elderly.
Substantial research in the psychology of expertise has shown that experts in several fields (e.g., science, mathematics) perform better than non-experts on standardized tests of intelligence. This evidence suggests that intelligence plays an important role in the acquisition of expertise. However, a counter argument is that the difference between experts and non-experts is not due to individuals' traits but to academic selection processes. For instance, in science, high scores on standardized tests (e.g., SAT and then GRE) are needed to be admitted to a university program for training. Thus, the “academic selection process” hypothesis is that expert vs. non-expert differences in cognitive ability reflect ability-related differences in access to training opportunities. To test this hypothesis, we focused on a domain in which there are no selection processes based on test scores: chess. This meta-analysis revealed that chess players outperformed non-chess players in intelligence-related skills ( = 0.49). Therefore, this outcome does not corroborate the academic selection process argument, and consequently, supports the idea that access to training alone cannot explain expert performance.
Music training has been recently claimed to enhance children and young adolescents' cognitive and academic skills. However, substantive research on transfer of skills suggests that far-transfer - i.e., the transfer of skills between two areas only loosely related to each other - occurs rarely. In this meta-analysis, we examined the available experimental evidence regarding the impact of music training on children and young adolescents' cognitive and academic skills. The results of the random-effects models showed (a) a small overall effect size ; (b) slightly greater effect sizes with regard to intelligence and memory-related outcomes ; and (c) an inverse relation between the size of the effects and the methodological quality of the study design. These results suggest that music training does not reliably enhance children and young adolescents' cognitive or academic skills, and that previous positive findings were probably due to confounding variables.
The putative effectiveness of working memory (WM) training at enhancing cognitive and academic skills is still ardently debated. Several researchers have claimed that WM training fosters not only skills such as visuospatial WM and short-term memory (STM), but also abilities outside the domain of WM, such as fluid intelligence and mathematics. Other researchers, while acknowledging the positive effect of WM training on WM-related cognitive skills, are much more pessimistic about the ability of WM training to improve other cognitive and academic skills. In other words, the idea that far-transfer – i.e., the generalization of a set of skills across two domains only loosely related to each other – may take place in WM training is still controversial.
In this meta-analysis, we focused on the effects of WM training on cognitive and academic skills (e.g., fluid intelligence, attention/inhibition, mathematics, and literacy) in typically developing (TD) children (aged three to 16). While WM training exerted a significant effect on cognitive skills related to WM training (g ̅ = 0.46), little evidence was found regarding far-transfer effects (g ̅ = 0.12). Moreover, the size of the effects was inversely related to the quality of the design (i.e., random allocation to the groups and presence of an active control group).
The results suggest that WM training is ineffective at enhancing TD children’s cognitive or academic skills and that, when positive effects are observed, they are modest at best. Thus, in line with other types of training, far-transfer rarely occurs and its effects are minimal.
Experts’ remarkable ability to recall meaningful
domain-specific material is a classic result in cognitive psychology.
Influential explanations for this ability have focused on the
acquisition of high-level structures (e.g., schemata) or experts’
capability to process information holistically. However, research
on chess players suggests that experts maintain some reliable
memory advantage over novices when random stimuli (e.g.,
shuffled chess positions) are presented. This skill effect cannot
be explained by theories emphasizing high-level memory structures
or holistic processing of stimuli, because random material
does not contain large structures nor wholes. By contrast, theories
hypothesizing the presence of small memory structures—such as
chunks—predict this outcome, because some chunks still occur
by chance in the stimuli, even after randomization. The current
meta-analysis assessed the correlation between level of expertise
and recall of random material in diverse domains. The overall
correlation was moderate but statistically significant
(r = .41; p < .001 ), and the effect was observed in nearly
every study. This outcome suggests that experts partly base their
superiority on a vaster amount of small memory structures, in
addition to high-level structures or holistic processing.
In 2014, two groups of scientists published open letters on the efficacy of brain-training interventions, or “brain games,” for improving cognition. The first letter, a consensus statement from an international group of more than 70 scientists, claimed that brain games do not provide a scientifically grounded way to improve cognitive functioning or to stave off cognitive decline. Several months later, an international group of 133 scientists and practitioners countered that the literature is replete with demonstrations of the benefits of brain training for a wide variety of cognitive and everyday activities. How could two teams of scientists examine the same literature and come to conflicting “consensus” views about the effectiveness of brain training?
In part, the disagreement might result from different standards used when evaluating the evidence. To date, the field has lacked a comprehensive review of the brain-training literature, one that examines both the quantity and the quality of the evidence according to a well-defined set of best practices. This article provides such a review, focusing exclusively on the use of cognitive tasks or games as a means to enhance performance on other tasks. We specify and justify a set of best practices for such brain-training interventions and then use those standards to evaluate all of the published peer-reviewed intervention studies cited on the websites of leading brain-training companies listed on Cognitive Training Data ( www.cognitivetrainingdata.org ), the site hosting the open letter from brain-training proponents. These citations presumably represent the evidence that best supports the claims of effectiveness.
Based on this examination, we find extensive evidence that brain-training interventions improve performance on the trained tasks, less evidence that such interventions improve performance on closely related tasks, and little evidence that training enhances performance on distantly related tasks or that training improves everyday cognitive performance. We also find that many of the published intervention studies had major shortcomings in design or analysis that preclude definitive conclusions about the efficacy of training, and that none of the cited studies conformed to all of the best practices we identify as essential to drawing clear conclusions about the benefits of brain training for everyday activities. We conclude with detailed recommendations for scientists, funding agencies, and policymakers that, if adopted, would lead to better evidence regarding the efficacy of brain-training interventions.
We review and evaluate selection methods, a prominent class of techniques first proposed by Hedges (1984) that assess and adjust for publication bias in meta-analysis, via an extensive simulation study. Our simulation covers both restrictive settings as well as more realistic settings and proceeds across multiple metrics that assess different aspects of model performance. This evaluation is timely in light of two recently proposed approaches, the so-called p-curve and p-uniform approaches, that can be viewed as alternative implementations of the original Hedges selection method approach. We find that the p-curve and p-uniform approaches perform reasonably well but not as well as the original Hedges approach in the restrictive setting for which all three were designed. We also find they perform poorly in more realistic settings, whereas variants of the Hedges approach perform well. We conclude by urging caution in the application of selection methods: Given the idealistic model assumptions underlying selection methods and the sensitivity of population average effect size estimates to them, we advocate that selection methods should be used less for obtaining a single estimate that purports to adjust for publication bias ex post and more for sensitivity analysis—that is, exploring the range of estimates that result from assuming different forms of and severity of publication bias.
It has been claimed that working memory training programs produce diverse beneficial effects. This article presents a meta-analysis of working memory training studies (with a pretest-posttest design and a control group) that have examined transfer to other measures (nonverbal ability, verbal ability, word decoding, reading comprehension, or arithmetic; 87 publications with 145 experimental comparisons). Immediately following training there were reliable improvements on measures of intermediate transfer (verbal and visuospatial working memory). For measures of far transfer (nonverbal ability, verbal ability, word decoding, reading comprehension, arithmetic) there was no convincing evidence of any reliable improvements when working memory training was compared with a treated control condition. Furthermore, mediation analyses indicated that across studies, the degree of improvement on working memory measures was not related to the magnitude of far-transfer effects found. Finally, analysis of publication bias shows that there is no evidential value from the studies of working memory training using treated controls. The authors conclude that working memory training programs appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not generalize to measures of “real-world” cognitive skills. These results seriously question the practical and theoretical importance of current computerized working memory programs as methods of training working memory skills.
Action video game (AVG) has attracted increasing attention from both the public and from researchers. More and more studies found video game training improved a variety of cognitive functions. However, it remains controversial whether healthy adults can benefit from AVG training, and whether young and older adults benefit similarly from AVG training. In the present study, we aimed to quantitatively assess the AVG training effect on the cognitive ability of adults and to compare the training effects on young and older adults by conducting a meta-analysis on previous findings. We systematically searched video game training studies published between January 1986 and July 2015. Twenty studies were included in the present meta-analysis, for a total of 313 participants included in the training group and 323 participants in the control group. The results demonstrate that healthy adults achieve moderate benefit from AVG training in overall cognitive ability and moderate to small benefit in specific cognitive domains. In contrast, young adults gain more benefits from AVG training than older adults in both overall cognition and specific cognitive domains. Age, education, and some methodological factors, such as the session duration, session number, total training duration, and control group type, modulated the training effects. These meta-analytic findings provide evidence that AVG training may serve as an efficient way to improve the cognitive performance of healthy adults. We also discussed several directions for future AVG training studies.
There have been frequent expressions of concern over the supposed failure of researchers to conduct replication studies. But the large number of meta-analyses in our literatures shows that replication studies are in fact being conducted in most areas of research. Many who argue for replication as the “gold standard” consider a nonsignificant replication attempt to be strong evidence against the initial study, an interpretation that ignores statistical power, typically low in behavioral research. Many researchers also hold that there is no need to replicate a nonsignificant finding, believing it will always replicate perfectly, an erroneous belief. These beliefs lead to a widely accepted sequential model of the research process that is deficient because it assumes that a single study can answer a research question, a belief that meta-analysis has shown to be false. Meta-analysis can provide the solution to these problems if the problems of publication bias and questionable research practices are successfully addressed. The real problem is not a lack of replication; it is the distortion of our research literatures caused by publication bias and questionable research practices.
Background Improvements on balance, gait and cognition are some of the benefits of exergames. Few studies have investigated the cognitive effects of exergames in institutionalized older persons. AimsTo assess the acute effect of a single session of exergames on cognition of institutionalized older persons. Methods
Nineteen institutionalized older persons were randomly allocated to Wii (WG, n = 10, 86 ± 7 year, two males) or control groups (CG, n = 9, 86 ± 5 year, one male). The WG performed six exercises with virtual reality, whereas CG performed six exercises without virtual reality. Verbal fluency test (VFT), digit span forward and digit span backward were used to evaluate semantic memory/executive function, short-term memory and work memory, respectively, before and after exergames and Δ post- to pre-session (absolute) and Δ % (relative) were calculated. Parametric (t independent test) and nonparametric (Mann–Whitney test) statistics and effect size were applied to tests for efficacy. ResultsVFT was statistically significant within WG (−3.07, df = 9, p = 0.013). We found no statistically significant differences between the two groups (p > 0.05). Effect size between groups of Δ % (median = 21 %) showed moderate effect for WG (0.63). DiscussionOur data show moderate improvement of semantic memory/executive function due to exergames session. It is possible that cognitive brain areas are activated during exergames, increasing clinical response. ConclusionA single session of exergames showed no significant improvement in short-term memory, working memory and semantic memory/executive function. The effect size for verbal fluency was promising, and future studies on this issue should be developed. Protocol number of Brazilian Registry of Clinical TrialsRBR-6rytw2.
Are there differential benefits of training sequential number knowledge versus spatial skills for children's numerical and spatial performance? Three- to five-year-old children (N = 84) participated in 1 session of either sequential training (e.g., what comes before and after the number 5?) or non-numerical spatial training (i.e., decomposition of shapes). Children who received sequential training showed near transfer to a number ordering task and far transfer to a number line task. Furthermore, these children showed more improvement on the version of the number line task where a midpoint reference was presented (i.e., at 5) than on the version without a midpoint. Before the training, the midpoint reference did not enhance performance. In contrast, although children who received non-numerical spatial training showed near transfer to a 2-D mental transformation task, they did not show transfer to number ordering or number line tasks, even though spatial skills were correlated with performance on these tasks. These results support the view that knowledge of sequential relations among successive numbers is an important aspect of children's early numeracy knowledge in tasks that require ordinal understanding of numbers from 1 to 10 and support the educational importance of developing numerical activities that enhance children's understanding of these relations. (PsycINFO Database Record
Several studies comparing adult musicians and non-musicians have shown that music training is associated with functional and anatomical brain differences. It is unknown, however, whether those differences result from lengthy musical training, from pre-existing biological traits, or from social factors favoring musicality. As part of an ongoing 5-year longitudinal study, we investigated the effects of a music training program on the auditory development of children, over the course of two years, beginning at age 6-7. The training was group-based and inspired by El-Sistema. We compared the children in the music group with two groups of “control” children of the same socio-economic background, one involved in sports training, another not involved in any systematic training. Prior to participating, children who began training in music did not differ from those in the control groups relative to cognitive, motor, musical, or brain measures. After two years, we now observe that children in the music group, but not in the two control groups, show an enhanced ability to detect changes in tonal environment and an accelerated maturity of auditory processing as measured by cortical auditory evoked potentials. Our results suggest that music training may result in stimuli specific brain changes in school aged children.
In recent years, pupils' poor achievement in mathematics has been a concern in many Western countries. Chess instruction has been proposed as one way to remedy this state of affairs, as well as improving other academic topics such as reading and general cognitive abilities such as intelligence. The aim of this paper is to quantitatively evaluate the available empirical evidence that skills acquired during chess instruction in schools positively transfer to mathematics, reading and general cognitive skills. The selection criteria were satisfied by 24 studies (40 effect sizes), with 2,788 young people in the chess condition and 2,433 in the control groups. The results show (a) a moderate overall effect size (g = 0.338); (b) a tendency for a stronger effect on mathematical (g = 0.382) than reading skill (g = 0.248), and (c) a significant and positive effect of duration of treatment (Q(1) = 3.89, b = 0.0038, p < .05). However, no study used an "ideal design" including pre- and post-test, full random allocation of participants to conditions and, most importantly, both a do-nothing control group and an active control group - a problem common in education research. Directions for further research are discussed.
What makes an expert? What strategies do they use? If you are an expert in one domain, are you more likely to become an expert in a second?
This book provides a comprehensive overview of the field of expertise. With a discussion of research from psychology, neuroscience, sociology, philosophy, education, law and artificial intelligence, this is the definitive guide to the subject.
It considers expertise on a number of levels, ranging from the neural to the psychological and the social. It critically evaluates current theories and approaches, and addresses issues of key importance for society.
Intelligence test scores and educational duration are positively correlated. This correlation could be interpreted in two ways: Students with greater propensity for intelligence go on to complete more education, or a longer education increases intelligence. We meta-analyzed three categories of quasiexperimental studies of educational effects on intelligence: those estimating education-intelligence associations after controlling for earlier intelligence, those using compulsory schooling policy changes as instrumental variables, and those using regression-discontinuity designs on school-entry age cutoffs. Across 142 effect sizes from 42 data sets involving over 600,000 participants, we found consistent evidence for beneficial effects of education on cognitive abilities of approximately 1 to 5 IQ points for an additional year of education. Moderator analyses indicated that the effects persisted across the life span and were present on all broad categories of cognitive ability studied. Education appears to be the most consistent, robust, and durable method yet to be identified for raising intelligence.
This book brings together a cutting edge international team of contributors to critically review the current knowledge regarding the effectiveness of training interventions designed to improve cognitive functions in different target populations. There is substantial evidence that cognitive and physical training can improve cognitive performance, but these benefits seem to vary as a function of the type and the intensity of interventions and the way training-induced gains are measured and analyzed. This book further fulfills the need for clarification of the mechanisms underlying cognitive and neural changes occurring after training.
This book offers a comprehensive overview of empirical findings and methodological approaches of cognitive training research in different cognitive domains (memory, executive functions, etc.), types of training (working memory training, video game training, physical training, etc.), age groups (from children to young and older adults), target populations (children with developmental disorders, aging workers, MCI patients etc.), settings (laboratory-based studies, applied studies in clinical and educational settings), and methodological approaches (behavioral studies, neuroscientific studies). Chapters feature theoretical models that describe the mechanisms underlying training-induced cognitive and neural changes.
Cognitive Training: An Overview of Features and Applications will be of interest to researchers, practitioners, students, and professors in the fields of psychology and neuroscience.
Journals tend to publish only statistically significant evidence, creating a scientific record that markedly overstates the size of effects. We provide a new tool that corrects for this bias without requiring access to nonsignificant results. It capitalizes on the fact that the distribution of significant p values, p-curve, is a function of the true underlying effect. Researchers armed only with sample sizes and test results of the published findings can correct for publication bias. We validate the technique with simulations and by reanalyzing data from the Many-Labs Replication project. We demonstrate that p-curve can arrive at conclusions opposite that of existing tools by reanalyzing the meta-analysis of the “choice overload” literature.
Improving fluid intelligence is an enduring research aim in the psychological and brain sciences that has motivated public interest and scientific scrutiny. At issue is the efficacy of prominent interventions—including fitness training, computer-based cognitive training, and mindfulness meditation—to improve performance on untrained tests of intellectual ability. To investigate this issue, we conducted a comprehensive 4-month randomized controlled trial in which 424 healthy adults (age 18-43 years) were enrolled in one of four conditions: (1) Fitness training; (2) Fitness training and computer-based cognitive training; (3) Fitness, cognitive training, and mindfulness meditation; or (4) Active control. Intervention effects were evaluated within a structural equation modeling framework that included repeated-testing gains, as well as novel tests of fluid intelligence that were administered only at post-intervention. The combination of fitness and cognitive training produced gains in visuospatial reasoning that were greater than in the Active Control, but not in performance on novel tests administered only at post-intervention. Individuals more variably responded to multi-modal training that additionally incorporated mindfulness meditation (and less time spent on cognitive training), and those who demonstrated repeated-testing gains in visuospatial reasoning also performed better on novel tests of fluid intelligence at post-intervention. In contrast to the multi-modal interventions, fitness only training did not produce Active Control-adjusted gains in task performance. Because fluid intelligence test scores predict real-world outcomes across the lifespan, boosting intelligence ability via multi-modal intervention that is effective even in young, healthy adults is a promising avenue to improve reasoning and decision making in daily life.
The promise of transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) as a modulator of cognition has appealed to researchers, media, and the general public. Researchers have suggested that tDCS may increase effects of cognitive training. In this study of 123 older adults, we examined the interactive effects of 20 sessions of anodal tDCS over the left prefrontal cortex (vs. sham tDCS) and simultaneous working memory training (vs. control training) on change in cognitive abilities. Stimulation did not modulate gains from pre- to posttest on latent factors of either trained or untrained tasks in a statistically significant manner. A supporting meta-analysis ( n = 266), including younger as well as older individuals, showed that, when combined with training, tDCS was not much more effective than sham tDCS at changing working memory performance ( g = 0.07, 95% confidence interval, or CI = [-0.21, 0.34]) and global cognition performance ( g = -0.01, 95% CI = [-0.29, 0.26]) assessed in the absence of stimulation. These results question the general usefulness of current tDCS protocols for enhancing the effects of cognitive training on cognitive ability.
Physically-active video games (‘exergames’) have recently gained popularity for leisure and entertainment purposes. Using exergames to combine physical activity and cognitively-demanding tasks may offer a novel strategy to improve cognitive functioning. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis was performed to establish effects of exergames on overall cognition and specific cognitive domains in clinical and non-clinical populations. We identified 17 eligible RCTs with cognitive outcome data for 926 participants. Random-effects meta-analyses found exergames significantly improved global cognition (g = 0.436, 95% CI = 0.18 to 0.69, p = 0.001). Significant effects still existed when excluding waitlist-only controlled studies, and when comparing to physical activity interventions. Furthermore, benefits of exergames where observed for both healthy older adults and clinical populations with conditions associated with neurocognitive impairments (all p < 0.05). Domain-specific analyses found exergames improved executive functions, attentional processing and visuospatial skills. The findings present the first meta-analytic evidence for effects of exergames on cognition. Future research must establish which patient/treatment factors influence efficacy of exergames, and explore neurobiological mechanisms of action.
Green et al. (2017) raise two broad concerns with our two studies (Unsworth et al., 2015) showing little association between self-reported video-game experience and cognitive abilities: (a) Our analyses assumed linear gaming-cognition relationships and ignored possible confounding associations among different video-game genres, and (b) the video-game experience questionnaires were problematic and misapplied. We rebut these critiques in this Commentary.
In a recent report, Unsworth and his colleagues (2015)
suggested that no relation exists between playing video
games and cognitive skills. In this Commentary, we
briefly summarize the substantial issues with their study—
in particular, with the statistical approach and overall
research methodology—that together cast serious doubt
on their conclusions.
We examined whether the link between intelligence and musical expertise is better explained by formal music lessons or music aptitude. Musically trained and untrained adults completed tests of nonverbal intelligence (Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices) and music aptitude (Musical Ear Test). They also provided information about their history of music lessons and socioeconomic status (SES). Duration of music training was associated positively with SES (mother’s education), nonverbal intelligence, melody aptitude, and rhythm aptitude. Intelligence and music aptitude were also positively associated. The association between music training and intelligence remained evident after controlling for SES, but it disappeared after controlling for music aptitude. By contrast, music aptitude had a strong correlation with intelligence even after accounting for music training and SES. Thus, the association between music training and intelligence may arise because high-functioning individuals are more likely than other individuals to have good aptitude for music and to take music lessons.
A novel meta-regression method, precision-effect test and precision-effect estimate with standard errors (PET-PEESE), predicts and explains recent high-profile failures to replicate in psychology. The central purpose of this article is to identify the limitations of PET-PEESE for application to social/personality psychology. Using typical conditions found in social/personality research, our simulations identify three areas of concern. PET-PEESE performs poorly in research areas where there are only a few studies, all studies use small samples, and where there is very high heterogeneity of results from study to study. Nonetheless, the statistical properties of conventional meta-analysis approaches are much worse than PET-PEESE under these same conditions. Our simulations suggest alterations to conventional research practice and ways to moderate PET-PEESE weaknesses.
The efficacy of working memory (WM) training has been a controversial and hotly debated issue during the past years. Despite a large number of training studies and several meta-analyses, the matter has not yet been solved. We conducted a multi-level meta-analysis on the cognitive transfer effects in healthy adults who have been administered WM updating training with n-back tasks, the most common experimental WM training paradigm. Thanks to this methodological approach that has not been employed in previous meta-analyses in this field, we were able to include effect sizes from all relevant tasks used in the original studies. Altogether 203 effect sizes were derived from 33 published, randomized, controlled trials. In contrast to earlier meta-analyses, we separated task-specific transfer (here untrained n-back tasks) from other WM transfer tasks. Two additional cognitive domains of transfer that we analyzed consisted of fluid intelligence (Gf) and cognitive control tasks. A medium-sized transfer effect was observed to untrained n-back tasks. For other WM tasks, Gf, and cognitive control, the effect sizes were of similar size and very small. Moderator analyses showed no effects of age, training dose, training type (single vs. dual), or WM and Gf transfer task contents (verbal vs. visuospatial). We conclude that a substantial part of transfer following WM training with the n-back task is task-specific and discuss the implications of the results to WM training research.
Education has not changed from the beginning of recorded history. The problem is that focus has been on schools and teachers and not students. Here is a simple thought experiment with two conditions: 1) 50 teachers are assigned by their teaching quality to randomly composed classes of 20 students, 2) 50 classes of 20 each are composed by selecting the most able students to fill each class in order and teachers are assigned randomly to classes. In condition 1, teaching ability of each teacher and in condition 2, mean ability level of students in each class is correlated with average gain over the course of instruction. Educational gain will be best predicted by student abilities (up to r = 0.95) and much less by teachers’ skill (up to r = 0.32). I argue that seemingly immutable education will not change until we fully understand students and particularly human intelligence. Over the last 50 years in developed countries, evidence has accumulated that only about 10% of school achievement can be attributed to schools and teachers while the remaining 90% is due to characteristics associated with students. Teachers account for from 1% to 7% of total variance at every level of education. For students, intelligence accounts for much of the 90% of variance associated with learning gains. This evidence is reviewed.
The area of cognitive training is a dynamically and fast-growing research area that is increasingly incorporated into scientific teaching and education. The present chapter provides an introduction into this research field and illustrates the framework of our book Cognitive Training: An Overview of Features and Applications. In this book, the sections provide comprehensive overviews of state-of-the-art research in cognitive training. They address students and researchers of all academic levels as well as in applied contexts by outlining empirical findings and methodological approaches of cognitive training research in different populations, age groups, and cognitive domains.
We investigated if learning relational reasoning in mathematics generalizes to other domains and general intelligence, including speed, attention control, and working memory. A total of 118 10-year olds were involved, allocated to an experimental and a control group. The experimental group was involved in 12 learning sessions addressed to various aspects of relational reasoning. Various analyses, including Rasch scaling, growth modeling and structured means analysis, showed significant but not sustainable learning gains in the ability trained. However, learning transferred to similar processes in analogical reasoning and also to attention control and working memory, indicating sustainable effects on mechanisms underlying general intelligence. An upper developmental constraint to learning was found. Implications for psychometric and developmental theories of intelligence and for education are discussed.