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Introduction
Chili peppers originated in Mexico after the Columbian Exchange,
many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used for both
food and traditional medicine.1 Pepper (Capsicum spp.) is one of the
oldest domesticated and utilized crops. Its use dates back to more than
7000 years in Mexico and is believed to have originated in tropical
America.2,3
Pepper belongs to the genus Capsicum which is a member of the
Solanaceae family. The genus Capsicum consists of approximately
31 species of which the ve domesticated species are C. annuum,
C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescen.4 Average
world production and cultivated area of dry and green peppers are
estimated at 3.9 and 34.5 million tons respectively; harvested from 1.8
and 1.9 million hectares for both dry and green peppers respectively.5
Despite their vast trait differences most pepper cultivars commercially
cultivated in the world belong to the species, C. annuum. However,
both C. frutescens and C. chinense, are currently widely grown.3
Pepper has been grown and used in Eritrea for very long time,
but the exact time when it was introduced is unknown,6 however,
Andrews2 mentioned it probably rich ed the port Masawa in 1520.
A recent molecular diversity study revealed that Eritrean pepper is
highly diversied and can provide genotypes for various uses.7 No
published data available for current chili pepper cultivated area and
production in Eritrea, however, Saleh8 found it to be 4132 ha and
15,118 tons respectively.
Pepper is the most widely used spice and condiment in the world
and is greatly priced for its pungency and adding special avor to
many cuisines throughout the world.2 Historically it was used mainly
for seasoning and as medicinal plant, but today its use extended to
fresh and processed vegetable, spice, dried forms, used as food dye,
bred as ornamental plant and production of extracts for various
pharmaceutical and cosmetics industry.9,10 In Eritrea it is an ingredient
in preparation for almost all Eritrean dishes. Average weekly household
consumption of dry pepper in Eritrea is estimated at 140grams. It is
consumed as powder prepared from dry pods called ‘berbere’ which
is added to dishes as a food dye and spice. The dry red pods are also
the main component for preparing ‘shiro’ powder, which is a popular
sauce in Eritrea. The green pods are eaten raw as a salad or appetizer
and cooked with various ingredients.6 Due to the local production of
dry pepper is lower compared to the demand the difference is usually
imported. The value of imported dry pepper in 2011 was estimated at
US $10million. Only small amount of the pepper consumed in Eritrea
is produced locally and is consumed as fresh pods, while the bulk of
dry pods are imported.6 Although exact gures for the current imports
are not available, however, Saleh7 indicated the value of dry pepper
imports for 2011 to be US $10million.
Traditional medicine including herbal medicine is still widely
practiced in most developing countries, while the use of complementary
and alternative medicine is rapidly increasing in developing countries.
In Eritrea the use of traditional medicine is similar to other countries
with rich traditional medicinal practices in various aspects.11 Pepper is
one of the most important plants that have been used as medicine for
long time in different countries and civilizations. In old civilizations
it was used by the Mayas for treating asthma, coughs, and sore and by
the Aztecs to relieve toothaches.3 In Eritrea pepper is part of the food
culture that is usually in daily consumption and generally Eritreans
believe that pepper has health benets, however, no information
regarding its medicinal use. Absence of pepper in the lists of medicinal
plants used in Eritrea, presented by Senai11 is an indicator for not using
it as medicinal plant or at least not widely used, specially majority of
the plants were collected from the highlands were pepper is part of the
food culture. According to WHO questions about the safety, efcacy,
quality, availability, preservation and further development of this type
of health care are still in place. An evidence based report by Arthritis
Research UK showed that around four out of 10 people in the UK use
complementary medicine (includes herbal medicine) at some point in
their lives and suggested the report may help people to select useful
treatment.12 Thus the objective of this review is to spotlight on the
nutritional value, health benets and medicinal properties and uses of
pepper to create awareness and encourage research works so that it is
properly used and potential risks avoided.
MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(4):325‒328. 325
©2018 Saleh et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and build upon your work non-commercially.
Medicinal uses and health benets of chili pepper
(Capsicum spp.): a review
Volume 6 Issue 4 - 2018
Brhan Khiar Saleh,1 Abdella Omer,2 Belay
Teweldemedhin1
1Department of Horticulture, Hamelmalo Agricultural College,
Eritrea
2Department of Agronomy, Hamelmalo Agricultural College,
Eritrea
Correspondence: Brhan Khiar Saleh, Department of
Horticulture, Hamelmalo Agricultural College, PO Box, 1286,
Asmara, Eritrea, Tel +291-711-7725,
Email brhan200220@yahoo.co.uk
Received: May 29, 2018 | Published: July 05, 2018
Abstract
Pepper have been grown and used in Eritrea for long period of time and is part of the
Eritrean food culture. Eritrean pepper germplasm was found to be highly diversied that
can serve different uses and purposes. Globally pepper is known for its high nutritional
value, health benets and medicinal properties. It is reach (Rich) in vitamins and minerals,
has antimicrobial and anticancer properties. Chili pepper has preventive and therapeutic
properties for many ailments such as different types of cancer, rheumatism, stiff joints,
bronchitis and chest colds with cough and headache, arthritis, heart arrhythmias and many
other ailments. Despite traditional medicine including medicinal plants is widely practiced
in Eritrea, there is no evidence that pepper was used as medicinal plant. Thus the purpose
of this review was to spotlight on the medicinal uses and health benets of this well-known
and widely consumed plant for encouraging research works to address issues related to
safety, efcacy, quality, and development and avoid potential risks, especially those linked
to aatoxin contamination.
Keywords: chili pepper, capsaicin, medicinal use, health risks, aatoxin
MOJ Food Processing & Technology
Review Article Open Access
Medicinal uses and health benets of chili pepper (Capsicum spp.): a review 326
Copyright:
©2018 Saleh et al.
Citation: Saleh BK, Omer A, Teweldemedhin B. Medicinal uses and health benets of chili pepper (Capsicum spp.): a review. MOJ Food Process Technol.
2018;6(4):325‒328. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00183
Nutritional value
Chili peppers are rich in many minerals, vitamins and amino acids
essential for human health and growth. Pawar et al.,13 found chilies
to hold all the best properties to be considered as a food. Peppers
contain wide array of phytochemicals such as vitamins, phenolics
and avonoids that are important anti-oxidants which may reduce
degenerative diseases.14,15 Peppers are rich in vitamin C, vitamin A,
vitamin E most B vitamins and in particular vitamin B5.15,16 They
also are very high in potassium, magnesium, iron and rich in calcium
and phosphorus.13,14 Peppers include many species and hundreds of
varieties and types. They are consumed as fresh unripe fruits, ripened
red or other colors and dried forms. The different species, varieties
and consumption forms vary in their nutritional and anti-oxidant
contents.15
Capsaicin the active Ingredient
Capsaicin an alkaloid in chili peppers that makes them hot, is used
as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to
relieve pain.17 Fruit pungency which is probably the most important
avor trait of peppers is characteristic of the genus Capsicum and it is
due to an alkaloid compounds known as capsaicinoids that are unique
to Capsicum.4,18 The capsaicinoids are commonly called capsaicin
because it is the most prevalent among the seven capsaicinoids
followed dihydrocapsaicin. The rest ve compounds (norcapsaicin,
nordihydrocapsaicin, nornordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin
and homodihydrocapsaicin), are considered minor capsaicinoids.3
Capsaicin and its related compounds are the active ingredients in
pepper that are related to the anti-microbial and anti-carcinogenic and
other medicinal properties in pepper. Scoville organoleptic method
and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) are used
for measuring pungency.18,19 Pungency is dependent on the genetic
makeup of the pepper plant and other environmental factors.20 Among
the cultivated peppers C.annuum is the most variable in pungency and
both C.chinense and C.frutescens are the highest and C.baccatum the
lowest while C.pubescens is mild.18
Pungency in pepper is controlled by a single dominant gene located
at the Pun1 locus of the capsicum chromosome 2.21,22 The difference
between the pungent Pun1:Pun1 and the non-pungent pun1:pun1
genotypes is a large 2.5 kb deletion in the genomic sequence of the
non-pungent genotypes, while in the pungent genotypes the deletion
is absent.21 The deletion leads to change in biochemical pathway for
the production of capsaicinoids.22 Stewart et al.,21 identied SB2-66
as a candidate gene for pungency which was co-located with Pun1
locus in chromosome 2. Similarly, Rodrýguez-Maza et al.,18 designed
MAP1 marker this useful for marker assisted selection.
A preliminary survey conducted in 2011 by the Department
of Horticulture of Hamelmalo Agriculture College to investigate
pepper consumer preference showed that majority of the respondents
preferred medium level pungency and avoided extremely high
levels.13 To date no data available regarding analysis of pungency of
the Eritrean pepper germplasm. However, referring to the Ethiopian
variety Marecofana which is widely consumed in Eritrea, the pungency
preferred by the Eritrean consumer could be in the range 6,700-18,800
SHU. This range for Marekofana was reported for samples of this
variety collected from different pepper growing regions of Ethiopia.23
Health benets
Reduction in mortality rate
Wikipedia (2016) mentioned that a study published by the British
Medical Journal found some indications that humans who consume
spicy foods, especially fresh chili peppers, were less likely to die of
cancer or diabetes. Reported results of population based cohort study
in china and showed inverse correlation between spice consumption
(mainly chili pepper) and both total and cause specic mortality rate.
They found consumption of spicy food 6 to 7days cause 14% relative
risk reduction in total mortality.
Since fresh and dried peppers differ in their nutritional and active
ingredients content14 it is expected to have different effects. Found the
inverse associations of daily spicy food consumption with death due
to cancer, ischemic heart diseases, and diabetes to be stronger when
fresh chili consumed compared to non- fresh chili.
Therapeutic properties
A vanilloid receptor known as VR1 which was later found to
be member of the family TRP and was called TRPV1 (transient
receptor potential vanilloid subtype 1) is the receptor for capsaicin
and is universally distributed in the brain, sensory nerves, dorsal root
ganglia, bladder, gut, and blood vessels.24–27 Capsaicin is activate and
then desensitize or block VR1 and was found to be powerful drug
in animal models of human disease.25 Capsaicin plays a potential
role in cardiometabolic protection through the activation of TRPV1
in different target organs or tissues, which suggests that TRPV1
may be a promising target for the management of cardiometabolic
diseases such as obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes and
atherosclerosis.26,27 However, association between the dosage of
dietary capsaicin and the effect on cardiometabolic protection need to
be claried for determining the daily usage or intake of capsaicin or
its derivatives.27 The activation of VR1 by capsaicin make it possible
to be involved in various human disease states ranging from genetic
pain insensitivity to chronic pain syndromes. In addition to that VR1
has much broader clinical benets than mere pain case.25
Chili pepper has preventive and therapeutic properties for many
ailments such as different types of cancer, rheumatism, stiff joints,
bronchitis and chest colds with cough and headache, arthritis, heart
arrhythmias and used as stomachic.13 Chili preparations for treating
ailments can be standard capsaicin, pharmaceutically prepared
gels, creams and plasters, essential oils distilled from pods, powder
prepared by crashing pods and extracts by soaking pods in water or
ethanol.12–14
Report of the Arthritis Research UK found capsaicin effective
for treating osteoarthritis and fbromyalgia compared to placebo and
can be used safely.12 The ability of capsaicin to be used for treating
pains and aches is due to it has the capacity of depleting nerves of
their supply of subsistence P which is a neuropeptide responsible of
sending signals of pain to the brain thereby preventing transmission
of pain feeling.2,12
Pepper has antimicrobial properties that are important for human
health. However, the results of experiments were variable. Abdul
Salam14 tested the antimicrobial property of pepper and found ethanol
extracted pepper was more effective than aqueous extracted, but both
were less effective compared to standard capsaicin. While Omolo
et al.,28 tested crud pepper extract and found capsaicin was less
inhibitor compared to other pepper compounds and suggested various
reasons may contribute in the differences between results, including
inconsistency between analyzed plant materials.
Dietary antioxidants has protective role against many diseases
such as cancer, diabetics, cardiovascular and anemia. Vitamins E, C
and β-carotene are important as protective antioxidant and peppers are
Medicinal uses and health benets of chili pepper (Capsicum spp.): a review 327
Copyright:
©2018 Saleh et al.
Citation: Saleh BK, Omer A, Teweldemedhin B. Medicinal uses and health benets of chili pepper (Capsicum spp.): a review. MOJ Food Process Technol.
2018;6(4):325‒328. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00183
rich in vitamins C and E as well as carotenoids and xanthophylls.29,30
Antioxidant levels and responses in paper varies according to variety,
growing stage and environmental conditions. Perucka & Materska29
found extracts from hot peppers were higher in vitamin E and
β-carotene, however, extracts from sweet varieties were higher in
antioxidant content and phenolic compounds. Similarly, Mateos et
al.,30 reported fruits of the same type or cultivar responded similar in
antioxidant activities in response to variable temperature levels. On
the other hand31 found pepper fruits at ripe red stage were higher in
antioxidant activity compared to fruits at green mature stage.
Health risks of pepper
Although most studies show that pepper and its compounds
are safe, some reports indicated it may be related to some cancer
risks. Hwang et al.,32 reported capsaicin may be linked to skin
cancer. In Bolivia, Peru and Chile, high gallbladder cancer (GBC)
incidence rates were found to be related with high red chili pepper
consumption.33,34 Szllasi & Blumberg35 reviewed mutagenic effects
of capsaicin on bacteria and mammals and found conicting results.
However, they concluded capsaicin is not a mutagenic or it is a weak
mutagenic. Reports of experiments on animals also showed pepper
consumption could have carcinogenic or cocarcinogenic effect.35
However, since these experiments used extremely high volume of
pepper or concentrations of capsaicin which are extremely far above
the normal human consumption, it may be difcult to be considered as
risky carcinogenic for humans. In addition to that no conrmation the
carcinogenic effect is due to capsaicin or other compounds in pepper.
Similarly, SCF36 stated that high consumption of chilies in Mexico
and India (25–200mg/day) was reported to be associated with cancer
of the upper digestive tract. In contrast, the maximum daily intake
from mild chilies and paprika in Europe was roughly estimated to be
1.5mg/day and this low intake of chili had no effect on incidence of
gastric cancer. On the other hand the risks could be due to aatoxin
contamination not the capsaicin effect. Tsuchiya et al.,34 compared the
effect of pure capsaicin and red chili as mutagens and found capsaicin
caused no mutagenesis. Since the red chilies were contaminated with
aatoxin they concluded that the mutagenesis cause was possibly due
to the aatoxin contamination and not the chili compounds.
Aatoxin is a naturally occurring highly carcinogenic toxic
sub-stance, produced in minute quantities. Chronic exposure to
aatoxins affects humans and livestock in a number of ways. It
causes immunodeciency and immunosuppression, stunting and
kwashiorkor, which interferes with the metabolism of micronutrients
in children, liver cancer, especially in people with hepatitis B or C
and liver disease.37 Dry peppers were reported in many countries to be
subject to aatoxin contamination. In Nigeria Makun found 50% of
tested samples had aatoxin levels higher than the acceptable levels.
In Pakistan Khan et al.,6 found the level of aatoxin in 70 samples
collected from different farms ranged 6.62 to 148µg/kg.38
Pepper is a highly consumed crop in Eritrea. It is part of the daily
diet of most Eritreans. Thus contamination with aatoxin above the
acceptable limit will have undesirable effect on the health of people.
Aatoxin contamination could be due to poor farming, harvesting and
post harvest practices. Factors affecting aatoxin contamination levels
are moisture, temperature, packaging and storage.6 Drying vegetables
under sun, selling in open, high humidity and temperature could be
favorable for mycotoxins. In Eritrea levels of aatoxin contamination
is not reported. However, harvesting, drying, packing, storage,
retailing practices indicate to possibility of high level contamination.
Results of Interviewing 102 farmers regarding pepper drying methods
showed that sun drying, shade drying and a mixture of them which
indicates to possibility of contamination are the most common among
pepper growers in Eritrea.6 In addition to that spraying water on dry
pepper for increasing weight was observed to be a common practice
among small retailers who sell in open markets of Asmara. Similarly
storage facilities in small shops and whole sale stores are also inviting
condition for contamination with the fungus. Thus it is important to
determine the level of aatoxin contamination at farm level, retail
markets and whole sale stores for creating awareness and proper
design of controlling strategies so that associated health risks avoided.
Several methods were suggested to reduce aatoxin contamination in
chili at farm level and in marketing chain. Saleh et al.,6 found sorting
of discolored and viscera opened pods could reduce contamination
level. Similarly, Saleh et al.,6 found physical sorting regarding shape,
size and color of to be effective in reducing aatoxin contamination.
Chili pods dried on concrete ground or in string were found to less
contaminated compared to those dried on soil or Asphalt. Controlling
moisture and temperature, packing, storage, etc., can reduce aatoxin
contamination in chilies and chilies products.6
Conclusion
In Eritrea pepper cultivation and use has long history, but no
evidence of its use as medicinal plant. Medicinal uses and health
benets of pepper are globally well documented. However issues
related to safety, efcacy, quality, and development and potential
risks, especially those linked to aatoxin contamination need to be
researched. On the other hand farmers can contribute reducing in
aatoxin contamination at farm level by removing discolored fruits
and improving drying method.
Acknowledgements
None.
Conict of interest
Author declares that there is no conict.
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