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Long-term performance of 'Gala', Fuji' and 'Honeycrisp' apple trees grafted on Geneva® rootstocks and trained to four production systems under New York State climatic conditions
Abstract
In 2006, two 1-ha orchard trials were established at each of two sites (Dressel farm in Southeastern New York State and VandeWalle farm in Western New York State) to compare seven Geneva® rootstocks (‘CG.4210’, ‘G.11’, ‘G.16’, ‘G.41’, ‘G.30’, ‘G.210’, and ‘G.935’) with one Budagovsky (‘B.9’) and three Malling rootstocks (‘M.9T337’,
‘M.26EMLA’ and ‘M.7EMLA’) as controls. ‘Gala’ and ‘Fuji’ were used as scion cultivars at Dressel farm and ‘Gala’ and ‘Honeycrisp’ as the scion cultivars at VandeWalle farm. At each location trees were trained to four highdensity systems: Slender Pyramid (SP) (840 trees ha−1), Vertical Axis (VA) (1284 trees ha−1), Slender Axis (SA) (2244 trees ha−1), and Tall Spindle (TS) (3262 trees ha−1). Location, rootstock, and training system, interacted to affect growth, production and fruit quality of each scion cultivar. ‘Gala’ trees from VandeWalle farm were
smaller but more productive than those from Dressel farm. In general, the largest trees (in trunk cross sectional area: TCSA) were SP on ‘M.7’ rootstock and the smallest were TS on ‘B.9’ and ‘G.11’. Cumulatively, yield was lowest for trees on SP with ‘M.7’. However, the highest values were on TS with ‘G.11’ for ‘Fuji’, TS with ‘G.41’ for ‘Gala’, and TS with ‘G.16’ and ‘M.9’ for ‘Honeycrisp’. Independent of the cultivar, trees on SP with ‘M.7’ had the highest number of root suckers. When comparing systems which had the same rootstocks, TS trees were the least
vigorous ones, but much more productive although, fruit red color was slightly reduced compared to the lower density systems. When comparing dwarfing rootstocks common across several systems, generally, ‘G.16’ trees were the largest, however ‘G.11’, ‘G.41’ and ‘M.9’ were the most productive for ‘Fuji’, ‘Gala’ and ‘Honeycrisp’, respectively.
... In modern apple orchard production systems, particularly in high-density systems, appropriate rootstock selection is as critical as the choice of scion cultivar to ensure success and economic viability of the operation [2,3]. Rootstocks have been reported to have important effects on a number of horticultural attributes, including precocity, productivity, winter hardiness, tree vigor, pest and disease resistance, drought tolerance, nutrient uptake, cropping efficiency, as well as fruit maturity and quality [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. ...
... Rootstocks also play a crucial role in controlling tree size and yield. The size of the tree, and consequently tree vigor, is generally expressed as trunk cross-sectional area (TCA) [37,38], and there have been several studies reporting how TCA and yield can be influenced by rootstock genotype [4,10,11,[32][33][34]39,40]. The use of dwarfing rootstocks in apple orchards significantly reduces tree size and yield, allowing for an increased planting density, production efficiency, reduction in input costs and improved apple fruit quality [41,42]. ...
... These differences in rootstock performance can be explained by climatic variations between the arid conditions in Northern Mexico and the humid conditions in Western Maryland. On the other hand, in studies under New York climactic conditions, G.11 exhibited the smallest trees [11], and was classified as a dwarfing rootstock together with G.41, M.9T337, and B.10, coinciding with our observations [4]. B.10 has been described to have a tree size between M.9T337 and M.26 rootstocks [60], which supports our findings. ...
Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) is usually produced in the form of a rootstock grafted scion. Rootstocks have important effects on several horticultural attributes. However, the results are not consistent regarding sites and scion–rootstock combinations. The aim of this research was to characterize the horticultural performance of ‘Buckeye Gala’ apple scion grafted onto ten rootstocks grown in Western Maryland during two harvest seasons. Our results demonstrated that, on average, tree size and yield in G.935, M.26 and G.969 rootstocks were 5–40% higher, but weight per fruit was 2–15% lower than in all other rootstocks. Fruit maturity was significantly delayed with increasingly vigorous rootstocks. There were no crop load differences. Overall, the assessed rootstocks were discriminated into seven significantly distinct clusters characterized by marked differences in vigor, yield, and fruit maturity. Moreover, significant correlations were obtained amongst all assessed variables. Rootstock impact must be considered when making management decisions in ‘Buckeye Gala’ fruit grown under Western Maryland conditions as they are critical in modulating fruit maturity and quality.
... The main apple growing regions in the world have undergone major changes over the past few years. These major changes are related to the use of virus-free materials, dwarfing rootstocks, as well as more efficient training systems, enabling high density planting (PETRI et al., 2011), improving light interception and distribution for the purpose of optimizing fruit quality and yield (REIG et al., 2019). In Brazil, apple cultivation is mainly carried out in medium to high planting density systems (1000 to 4000 trees ha -1 ) (RUFATO et al., 2019). ...
... Rufato et al. characterized by shallow and stony soils (MACEDO et al., 2019) and 'M.9' in flat areas with deep soils. These rootstocks have several disadvantages, such as low yield efficiency, presence of burr knots, high formation of rootstock suckers and high labor costs when using Maruba, whereas 'M.9' has poor root development, low adaptability to shallow soils and it is sensitive to "replanting diseases", to woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum) and to crown gall disease (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) (REIG et al., 2019;DENARDI et al., 2015). ...
... Allied to the use of more efficient rootstocks, the use of training systems allows a better balance between vegetative growth and fruit production, mainly by increasing the light distribution into the canopy (ROBINSON, 2011;REIG et al., 2019). Central leader and its derivations, like Tall Spindle, are the most commonly training systems used to grow apple trees in Brazil, as well as in the United States. ...
The use of new rootstocks combined with different training systems have been studied to increase productivity, fruit quality,
and reduce costs. Another important factor is the validation of studies under replanting conditions, due to the growing limitation of new areas
for planting commercial apple orchards in Brazil. The present study aimed to evaluate the behavior of ‘Fuji Suprema’ and ‘Maxi Gala’ apple
trees in two training systems grafted on two rootstocks. The study occurred during the seasons 2016/17, 2017/18 and 2018/19, in an orchard
located in southern Brazil in an area previously cultivated with apple trees. A randomized block design consisting of a 2x2 factorial was used,
with Tall Spindle and Bi-Axis as the training system and ‘M.9’ and ‘G.213’ as rootstocks of Fuji Suprema and Maxi Gala cultivars. Variables
were evaluated to determine tree vigor, as well as yield and fruit quality characteristics. It was observed that ‘G.213’ promoted higher vigor
for both cultivars as well as the Bi-Axis training system in the Maxi Gala cultivar. The highest yield was observed in Tall Spindle as well as
the rootstock ‘G.213’ in both cultivars. The most significant changes on fruit quality occurred in the Bi-Axis training system, presenting higher
intensity of red color as well as ‘Maxi Gala’ grafted on ‘G.213’ rootstock.
... There is still much to be discovered on the existing genetic diversity of species applied as rootstocks from their original gene-centers (Hrotkó 2007). Every single seedling induces its unique growth pattern into the grafted scion, dictated by the responsible genes for vigour (Czynczyk and Jakubowski 2007;Autio et al. 2011Autio et al. , 2020Zhu et al. 2014;Foster et al. 2017;Reig et al. 2019) and the biosynthesized hormonal spectrum (Sorce et al. 2002;Webster 2004;Lordan et al. 2017). The genetic seed improvement for obtaining pure and genetically uniform seedling rootstocks require oriented and ordered priorities for the desired traits. ...
... However, location and year accounted for the greatest influence on all morphological characters. Furthermore, rootstock had a minor impact on morphological characters, while scion had a significant effect (Ferree et al. 2001;Tworkoski and Miller 2007;Haberman et al. 2016;Singh et al. 2016;Reig et al. 2019). ...
... Our results demonstrated that the F1 seedling rootstocks of 'Mor' positively affected N.Fr Tree-1 and Y Tree-1. Different S × R combinations can affect tree growth habits and fruit productivity (Tworkoski and Miller 2007;Vazifeshenas et al. 2009;Reig et al. 2019;Autio et al. 2020). Scions on 'Zin' and 'Mor' had lower TH, and on 'Zin', 'Mor', and 'GoK' had smaller ShA and were able to control scion's vigour. ...
A study was carried out to determine the influence of five pre-selected F1 half-sib seedling rootstocks, including ‘Morabbaei’ and ‘Zinati’ (the self-compatible crabs), ‘Azayesh’ (the self-incompatible crab), ‘Northern Spy’, and ‘Golden Karaj’, on commercial apple cultivars in 2017–2018. For this purpose, bloom phenology, ripening time, flowering intensity, fruit set, total fruit number and yield, tree height, and shading area were evaluated. Bloom end was postponed by the three crabs and ‘Northern Spy’ seed rootstocks. Overall, scions on ‘Zinati’ and ‘Morabbaei’ had higher inflorescence and on ‘Morabbaei’ seedlings managed to retain more fruits. In addition, the highest total fruit number and yield were achieved by ‘Morabbaei’ seed rootstocks. Through the lowest tree height and shading area, the cultivars’ highest vigour control was performed by ‘Morabbaei’ and ‘Zinati’. It was concluded that the self-compatible dwarf seedlings (‘Morabbaei’ and ‘Zinati’) elevated the trees’ uniformity and induced high yield and long blooming period.
... In addition to region, rootstock choice is one of the most critical elements of any apple orchard to provide sufficient growth control, enhanced precocity, higher yield, improved adaptability to environmental conditions, and better fruit quality [25]. In addition to effects on these traits, apple rootstocks have a diverse influence on the nutritional status of the tree canopy, are implicated in the physiology of BP and, therefore, can affect the occurrence of BP [26][27][28], as it is demonstrated in our results. ...
... We evaluated three of the most popular rootstocks used in high-density apple orchards in New York State: B.9, M.26 and M.9 clones [25]. Among them, fruits from 'Honeycrisp' grafted on M.26 were slightly more susceptible to BP than those from M.9 clones and much more susceptible than B.9. ...
... In terms of horticultural parameters, region and rootstock had a significant effect on some of these traits, results that were somewhat expected. Other authors have also reported that region and rootstock can affect similar horticultural traits under Hudson Valley and Champlain Valley climatic conditions for 'Gala', 'Fuji' and 'Honeycrisp' [7,25,28]. In this study, the most vigorous rootstock, M.26, had higher leaf K/Ca, Mg/Ca and B/Ca ratios, leaf K, and peel B, but lower leaf Ca, Mn, and P values as compared to B.9 and M.9 clones. ...
There are still unknown factors at play in the causation of bitter pit in ‘Honeycrisp’ as well
as in other apple varieties. To investigate some of these factors, we conducted a survey of 34 ‘Honeycrisp’ orchard blocks distributed across two disparate production regions in eastern New York State, representing a variety of rootstocks, over three growing seasons. Weather, soil, horticultural traits, fruit quality traits, pick timing, leaf and peel minerals were evaluated for their impact on bitter pit (BP) incidence; factors were further evaluated for their interaction with region and rootstock. ‘Honeycrisp’ trees on B.9 rootstock were smaller but with comparable terminal shoot growth when compared to those on M.26 and M.9 rootstocks. B.9 fruits, which had similar fruit size to M.26 and M.9 and had good fruit quality at harvest and after storage, were much less likely to express bitter pit symptoms compared to M.9 and M.26 rootstocks. Not all traits evaluated individually correlated significatively with bitter pit incidence after a period in storage. Depending on rootstock and region, the correlation could be significant in one situation, with no correlation at
all in another. In this study, peel Mg/Ca ratio and peel Ca correlated with BP for all three rootstocks, with the strongest correlations associated with the M.9 clones. These same traits correlated with BP for both regions. Pick timing had a significant influence on BP incidence following storage, with later picks offering better bitter pit storage performance. While excessively large fruits, those in the 48 and 56 count size categories, were found to be highly susceptible to BP regardless of rootstock, B.9 BP fruit susceptibility for smaller sizes was found to be size neutral. A PLSR prediction model for each rootstock and each region showed that different variables correlated to BP depending on the situation. Thus, the results could suggest that in addition to the variables considered in this study, there are other less studied factors that can influence the expression of BP symptoms. We
strongly suggest that rootstock BP performance be considered a critical parameter when planning a commercial ‘Honeycrisp’ orchard and be evaluated in rootstock breeding and development programs prior to wide commercial release
... However, this was not the case in the 'Golden' experiment where CY/tree was significantly different in pairwise comparisons between 'M.9-T337' and the other rootstocks where 'M.9-T337' always had the lowest yields. In contrast, trees on 'G.935' had the highest CY/tree for all the cultivars and significantly higher than trees on 'M.9-T337', which corroborate results observed in trials in the United States, including NC-140 multisite trial featuring 'Gala', 'Honeycrisp', 'Fuji', and 'Golden Delicious' (Autio et al., 2011;Chavez-Gonzalez et al., 2011;Marini et al., 2009Marini et al., , 2014Reig et al., 2018Reig et al., , 2019aWallis et al., 2017). ...
... All these may explain why AFN per tree range was low in 'Gala' and 'Golden' for 'M.9-T.337' (Fig. 3). 'G.935' is well known to confer high precocity like M.9-T337 (Reig et al., 2019a) and in the nursery has shown higher potential for sylleptic branching than 'M.9' clones (Fazio and Robinson, 2008a). Yield efficiency. ...
... The 'Gala' and 'Golden' plantings showed similar CYE values with 'G.935' and 'M.9-T337', with 'M.116' always being the least efficient. These results confirm results from other trials where apple rootstock 'G.935' has been consistently identified as one of the most efficient rootstocks in several on-farm trials and in the NC-140 multistate rootstock trials with cultivars including 'Red Delicious', 'Golden Delicious', 'Gala', 'Honeycrisp', and 'Fuji' (Autio et al., 2005;Marini et al., 2009Marini et al., , 2014Reig et al., 2018Reig et al., , 2019aReig et al., , 2020Wallis et al., 2017). ...
In 2014, an intensive multileader apple rootstock orchard trial was established in Trento province, Northern Italy, using dwarf (‘M.9-T337’) and semidwarf rootstocks (‘G.935’, ‘G.969’, and ‘M.116’) and ‘Gala’, ‘Golden Delicious’, and ‘Fuji’ as the scion cultivars. Trees were trained to Biaxis (‘M.9-T337’) and Triaxis systems (‘G.935’, ‘G.969’, and ‘M.116’) with a tree density of 3175 trees and 2116 trees per hectare, respectively, and with a uniform axis (leader) density of 6348/ha. Comparisons across all training systems by cultivar system showed that after 6 years (2019), trees of ‘Fuji’ and ‘Golden Delicious’ on ‘M.116’ were the largest trees followed by ‘G.969’, ‘G.935’, and ‘M.9-T337’. With ‘Gala’, trees on ‘G.969’ were of similar size as trees on ‘M.116’ and ‘G.935’. Trees of ‘Fuji’ on ‘G.935’ produced the highest yield followed by ‘G.969’, ‘M.116’, and ‘M.9-T337’. For ‘Gala’, trees on ‘M.116’ produced similarly as the ‘M.9-T337’, whereas with ‘Golden Delicious’, ‘G.969’ and ‘G.935’ had higher yields than ‘M.9-T337’. When comparing production per ground surface area (hectare) ‘G935’ had higher yield than ‘M.9-T337’ for all the cultivars in this trial. In addition, yield efficiency of ‘Fuji’ trees on ‘G.935’ was similar or even higher than trees on ‘M.9-T337’. Rootstock did not affect fruit size with ‘Fuji’. For Gala, fruit from ‘G.969’ were significantly larger than those on ‘M.116’. ‘Golden Delicious’ on ‘G.969’ produced smaller fruit compared with those on ‘G.935’. Fruit from trees on ‘M.9-T337’ had the lowest percentage of red color with ‘Fuji’ and the highest with ‘Gala’. When yield and quality data were combined to produce marketable yield, rootstock had a dramatic effect on the cumulative gross crop value per hectare based on local farm gate values for each scion cultivar.
... Rootstock is one of the most critical elements of any apple orchard, particularly in high-density systems where the economic risks and potential returns are the highest (Autio et al., 2017). The choice of rootstock influences productivity, precocity, yield, environmental and edaphic adaptability, cold tolerance, light interception, and disease and pest resistance (Fallahi et al., 2002;Lordan et al., 2018a;Reig et al., 2018Reig et al., , 2019a. In addition, roots are essential for anchorage and nutrient and water acquisition, and they harbor large bacterial and fungal communities that mediate interactions between the plant and the surrounding ecosystem (Thompson et al., 2019). ...
... Because there are many different factors that affect orchard profitability (Badiu et al., 2015;Bradshaw et al., 2016;Lordan et al., 2017Lordan et al., , 2019aSojkov a and Adami ckov a, 2011;Weber, 2001), it is necessary to conduct long-term studies to find the best training system for each particular scion/rootstock combination, within the constraints imposed by local climate and economic conditions. However, there are few studies that offer direct long-term comparisons of different training systems with identical rootstocks, and successful commercial cultivars due to the expense and time commitment required (Lordan et al., 2018a;Reig et al., 2019aReig et al., , 2019b. This experiment is another in our series of trials to investigate the interaction of four of the most promising high-density systems (SS, TS, TAS, and VA) and six of the most promising Geneva Ò rootstocks ('G.11', 'G.16', 'G.210', 'G.30', 'G.41', and 'G.935'), along with 'B.118', 'M.9T337', 'M.26EMLA' and 'M.7EMLA' as controls using the lowvigor, spur-type cultivar 'Super Chief Delicious' under New York State climatic conditions. ...
... SS trees were 26%, 28%, and 30% smaller than TS, TAS, and VA trees, respectively, likely because the number of trees per ha in SS was more than 40% higher than the rest of the training systems. A reduction of overall tree size with increasing tree density has been reported previously (Hampson et al., 2004;Reig et al., 2019a;Robinson, 2007b).The pruning regimen, which involved the annual removal of large branches (>2 cm diameter), is a dwarfing process, and may have contributed to the smaller tree size of SS. In addition, greater root competition for water and nutrients at closer plant spacings may also have contributed (Reig et al., 2019a). ...
We conducted a large (0.8 ha) field experiment of system × rootstock, using Super Chief Delicious apple as cultivar at Yonder farm in Hudson, NY, between 2007 and 2017. In this study, we compared six Geneva ® rootstocks (‘G.11’, ‘G.16’, ‘G.210’, ‘G.30’, ‘G.41’, and ‘G.935’) with one Budagovsky (‘B.118’) and three Malling rootstocks (‘M.7EMLA’, ‘M.9T337’ and ‘M.26EMLA’). Trees on each rootstock were trained to four high-density systems: Super Spindle (SS) (5382 apple trees/ha), Tall Spindle (TS) (3262 apple trees/ha), Triple Axis Spindle (TAS) (2243 apple trees/ha), and Vertical Axis (VA) (1656 apple trees/ha). Rootstock and training system interacted to influence growth, production, and fruit quality. When comparing systems, SS trees were the least vigorous but much more productive on a per hectare basis. Among the rootstocks we evaluated, ‘B.118’ had the largest trunk cross-sectional area (TCSA), followed by ‘G.30’ and ‘M.7EMLA’, which were similar in size but they did not differ statistically from ‘G.935’. ‘M.9T337’ was the smallest and was significantly smaller than most of the other rootstocks but it did not differ statistically from ‘G.11’, ‘G.16’, ‘G.210’, ‘G.41’, and ‘M.26EMLA’. Although ‘B.118’ trees were the largest, they had low productivity, whereas the second largest rootstock ‘G.30’ was the most productive on a per hectare basis. ‘M.9’ was the smallest rootstock and failed to adequately fill the space in all systems except the SS, and had low cumulative yield. The highest values for cumulative yield efficiency (CYE) were with ‘G.210’ for all training systems except for VA, where ‘M.9T337’ had the highest value. The lowest values were for all training systems with ‘B.118’ and ‘M.7EMLA’. Regardless of the training system, ‘M.7EMLA’ trees had the highest number of root suckers. Some fruit quality traits were affected by training system, rootstock or system × rootstock combination.
... One of the main factors to be considered for correctly growing these high-density systems is the correct choice of the rootstock. The so-called dwarfing or semi-dwarfing rootstocks have been efficient for these systems, as they reduce plant growth (REIG et al., 2019). The M.9 rootstock has been widely used in high-density orchards in southern Brazil . ...
... A significant result was observed on productivity in Caxias do Sul in the 2020/2021 harvests averages, where all rootstocks exceeded 50 tons per hectare (Table 1). According to Reig et al. (2019), yield precocity and capital return, especially for high-density systems, are essential due to the high initial investment cost of these systems. Another crucial data observed in Caxias do Sul was the accumulated yield, where all the evaluated rootstocks reached above 120 tons in the three seasons studied in this experiment (Table 1). ...
The objective of this study was to evaluate the agronomic performance of the Geneva® series apple rootstocks G.202, G.213, G.210 and G.814. The rootstock G.202 and G.213 proved to be the less vigorous, being considered dwarfs. For replanting soil, ‘G.210’ was considered an efficient alternative. The ‘G.213’ was the most efficient, in a general point of view, demonstrating that it does not change its yield efficiency and stability characteristics, even under replanting conditions. All rootstocks reached the goal of 120 accumulated tons.ha-1 in Caxias do Sul-RS, highlighting the faster financial return to the growers. ‘G.213’ has higher soluble solids content, indicating the possibility of an earlier harvesting. It is concluded that the G.210 and G. 213 rootstocks are good options for the areas evaluated, under replanting conditions, mainly G.213 for more dense systems and G.210 for areas under extreme replanting conditions.
... Thus, combining traits, such as resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, has become significant (Reig et al., 2018). Besides, vigor control of the canopy cultivar and root system efficiency improves fruit quality (Fazio and Robinson, 2008;Reig et al., 2019;Reig et al., 2020). In this sense, the choice of scion cultivar, rootstock, and conduction system should meet the edaphoclimatic requirements of the producing region for an economic return (Reig et al., 2019). ...
... Besides, vigor control of the canopy cultivar and root system efficiency improves fruit quality (Fazio and Robinson, 2008;Reig et al., 2019;Reig et al., 2020). In this sense, the choice of scion cultivar, rootstock, and conduction system should meet the edaphoclimatic requirements of the producing region for an economic return (Reig et al., 2019). ...
Most commercial apple orchards are established on either Marubakaido (Malus prunifolia Borkh.) (high vigor), M-9 (Malus pumila) (low vigor), or a combination of both rootstocks through the intergrafting technique. The Geneva® Series rootstocks were developed as an alternative to orchards modernization. The vigor of rootstocks influences the anatomical xylem formation and, therefore, the canopy cultivar’s hydraulic conductivity. When affected by embolism, hydraulic conductivity harms plant metabolism, reducing crop yield and fruit quality. This study aimed to evaluate four Geneva® Series rootstocks with potential use in southern Brazil, in terms of hydraulic conductivity (K) and percentage loss of conductance (PLC), during the winter period in two different years. The G.213 rootstock presented the best performance for the variables analyzed; however, higher values of xylem functionality loss were observed in G.814.
Malus domestica Borkh; PLC; water content; hydraulic functioning; cavitation
... An electronic digital calliper was used to measure the fruit diameter (mm). The fruit firmness (kg) was measured using a fruit texture analyzer (Güs, GS 20, Strand, South Africa) equipped with an 11 mm tip, as described by Reig et al. (2019). The fruit starch breakdown percentage was determined using an iodine test and a starch conversion chart (Unifruco Research Services, Bellville, RSA). ...
... Data were analyzed by two-way analysis of variance using JMP version 12.0 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina, USA). Tukey's Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test with a p-value of 0.05 was used to determine mean comparison (Reig et al., 2019). The Tukey's HSD test is robust and widely recommended for a wide range of situations (Midway et al., 2020). ...
... Modern fruit growing has evolved into high density orchards to increase profitability through optimized relationships among production costs, return on invested capital, and productivity. The use of dwarfing rootstocks is one of the main factors allowing the adoption of high density orchards (Reig et al., 2019(Reig et al., , 2020. Brazil's high density apple orchards use almost exclusively the 'M.9' rootstock. ...
... It also provides greater yield efficiency than more vigorous rootstocks. Still, some peculiarities differ due to the cultivar, edaphoclimatic conditions, and tree management, as Reig et al. (2019) described. It is possible to verify a different 'Gala Select' behavior among the cultivation sites in our study. ...
New apple orchards often adopt increasing orchard densities and dwarf rootstocks, aiming to control the tree growth, increasing yields and the economic viability of the orchard. The objective of this work was to determine the vegetative and productive performance of different apple cultivars grafted on different Geneva series rootstocks grown in two different apple production regions in southern Brazil. In 2017, apple orchards were established in Santa Catarina (Fraiburgo) and Paraná (Palmas), with the cultivars 'Gala Select' and ‘Fuji Suprema’ grafted on the rootstocks ‘G.202’, ‘G.814’, ‘G.210’, ‘G.213’. The trees were trained in Tall Spindle system, with a spacing of 3.5 m between rows and 0.9 m between trees for the ‘Gala Select’ and 1.0 m between trees for ‘Fuji Suprema’. The experimental design was randomized blocks with four replications of five trees per plot. In both cultivars, the dwarf rootstocks ‘G.202’ and ‘G.213’ were more efficient in controlling tree vigor than ‘G.814’ and ‘G.210’. The cumulated yields until the fourth leaf ranged between 26 and 75 t ha‑1, with the higher values in trees grafted on ‘G.213’ and ‘G.210’, but with some differences due to the cultivar and the soil climatic conditions. The highest yield efficiency was obtained in trees grafted on ‘G.213’. These initial results demonstrate the productive potential of the Geneva® rootstocks sustained in compact trees, enabling more dense orchards with good yield and fruit quality under Brazilian conditions.
... The -1 larger tree size in lower densities might be due to the more availability of space for vegetative growth of the trees and lack of competition for the nutrients, water and light, while smaller tree size in higher densities may be due to the more competition for nutrients and water (Dhiman et al 2018). These results are in confirmatory with the studies of Robinson (2007), Lordan et al (2018) and Reig et al (2019), who reported maximum TCSA and crown volume per tree at wider spacing and minimum under close spacing in apple. Similarly, Dhiman et al (2018) recorded that the tree growth parameters like tree height spread, annual shoot growth, scion and stock girth, and tree volume was highest in low planting density of 2666 trees ha . ...
... The lesser vegetative growth in trees trained with tall spindle is due to bending of branches below horizontal and no heading back of branches and leader during dormant pruning, which reduced branch growth due to more accumulation of carbohydrates resulting in to small canopy (Robinson 2007). The present findings are similar to that observed by Robinson et al (2013) and Reig et al (2019), who reported that the tall spindle trained trees were least vigorous and TCSA was 25 per cent lower than vertical axis. ...
The experiment laid out in a randomized block design (factorial) had treatment combinations of three planting density, two training systems and fertigation doses of 100 and 75 per cent of AD (NPK). The results revealed that trees planted at a density of 2666 trees ha-1 registered highest annual shoot growth, increase in tree height, spread, scion girth, and volume. The lowest tree growth was recorded in high density planting of 5333 trees ha. The results showed a positive relationship between productivity and planting density. The productivity-1 increased with increasing density, while yield per trees decreased. Among the training systems, vertical axis trained trees reported the highest annual shoot growth, increase in tree height, spread, scion girth, and volume and the lowest tree growth was observed in vertical axis system. However, the maximum productivity was registered by the trees trained with Tall spindle system and the minimum was noted in vertical axis system. In case of fertigation, significantly highest tree growth parameters and productivity was registered by the trees subjected 100 % AD (NPK). Among three factors interaction, the highest tree growth parameters were recorded in trees planted at density of 2666 trees ha , trained-1 with vertical axis and subjected 100 % AD (NPK).
... These data agree with Fazio (2018) and Autio et al. (2020), who classified these rootstocks in the 'dwarfing' category. In a New York study comparing the performance of 'Honeycrisp' on several Geneva rootstocks with two orchard systems (Slender Axis, Tall Spindle), Reig et al. (2019) found that G.11 and G.41 were similar in TCA to M.9-T337 after 10 years. At all locations that tested B.10 (MI, NJ, NY, ON-S, VA, and WI), it was statistically similar in TCA, albeit variable in absolute values. ...
... In another study in the same region using McIntosh as the scion, V.1 was slightly smaller than M.26 EMLA (Autio et al., 2005). G.30 has shown high vigor in other studies including one in NY where it was 48-68% more vigorous than M.26 EMLA Reig et al., 2019) and in a NC-140 'Gala' rootstock trial where its size was either similar to or greater than M.26 EMLA (Marini et al., 2006b). In previous studies, G.890 was classified in the same size class as M.7 (Cummins et al., 2013b) as well as M.111 . ...
In 2014, a multi-year orchard experiment of apple Malus domestica (Borkh) was established at 14 locations in Canada, Mexico, and the United States using 'Honeycrisp' as the scion. Seventeen dwarf and semi-dwarf rootstock genotypes were tested, specifically: Budagovsky.10 (B. Malling rootstocks M.7, MM.106, and the Vineland rootstocks V.1, V.5, V.6, and V.7. The industry standard Malling rootstocks M.26 EMLA and M.9-T337 were included for comparison purposes. Tree mortality, trunk cross-sectional area, tree canopy size, amount of rootstock suckering, yield, and fruit number were measured annually. All measured parameters were influenced by location and rootstock, and the interaction of these two factors was significant. Overall, after five years and averaged over all locations, G.11 and G.41 were 6% smaller and 5% larger, respectively, than M.9-T337. G.935 and B.10 were 9% and 5% smaller, respectively, than M.26 EMLA, whereas G.214 and G.969 were 3% and 10% larger, respectively. V.1 and G.30 were 52% and 60% larger, respectively, than M.26 EMLA, whereas V.7, G.890, V.6, and V.5 were the largest genotypes in the trial, ranging from 77-95% larger than M.26 EMLA. G.202 performance was unusual and therefore was omitted from data analysis. Generally, cumulative yields per tree were greater on trees with the highest vigor. On average, 10 of the 16 rootstocks produced higher yields than M.9-T337 and M.26 EMLA; the newer rootstocks B.10, V.5, V.6, V.7 and all of the Geneva series rootstocks, with the exception of G.41, had cumulative yields that exceeded M.9-T337 and M.26 EMLA. Averaged over all locations, cumulative yield efficiency was greatest for G.935, G.214, M.9-T337, G.11, G.890, and G.969. Overall, the strong rootstock by location interaction on cumulative yield observed in this trial illustrates the importance of testing rootstocks at a regional level. These results are only reflective of the orchard establishment years; additional research must be completed before apple producers can make more informed decisions concerning rootstock selection for their orchard training systems and planting locations.
... These pathways interact with each other and converge on integrating factors, inducing gene expression in oral meristem tissues, ultimately leading to plant owering (Srikanth et al. 2011;Bouche et al. 2016;Cho et al. 2017) Considering the challenge of Fuji apple trees in producing owers, ultiple agronomic practices have been carry out to to tackle the problem. These include implementing pruning and thinning to enhance ower bud formation by optimizing light exposure (Reig et al. 2019). In the Loess Plateau region, thinning is a crucial method to boost light exposure, encourage owering, and improve fruit quality (Khalil et al. 2023). ...
Fuji, a major cultivar group of apple ( Malus domestica ), is extensively grown in China, Japan, and the USA. However, it has been experiencing prolonged differentiation of flower buds. and the potential mechanisms are largely unknown. Thus, for better comprehend the differentiation of apple flower buds, we performed a comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analysis between the closed (CK) and well-ventilated apple orchards (T) of 15-year-old ‘Nagano Fuji No.2’. In total, 12,211 and 8,290 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 473 and 534 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified in the CK group and T group, respectively. In both the expressional and translational levels, 14 up- and 156 down-regulated members were found in samples after flowering compared to pre-flowering in the CK group, respectively. In contrast, 31 up- and 131 down-regulated members were found in the T group. These members were mainly enriched in several Gene Ontology (GO) terms, such as "glycolytic process," "glucan biosynthetic process," and "response to water." These pathways were involved in the differentiation of flower buds regulated by light. Several genes, including MD13G1093200 , MD06G1122100 , MD15G1253900 , MD13G1161400 , MD07G1279200 , MD15G1253900 , and MD10G1289200 , exhibited differential expression patterns between the CK and T groups, making them potential key candidates for additional functional analysis. Our findings provide a foundation for further research on the molecular mechanisms of light in flower bud differentiation.
... ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ The formation and subsequent pruning of tree crowns ensure the creation of a specific crown architecture that facilitates its care and maximizes the absorption of solar energy by all its parts. Therefore, according to Reig et al. (2019), the choice of crown shape is crucial for increasing yields and, as a result, the profitability of the orchard. By properly selecting the shape of the crown, it is possible to obtain annual and even fruit yield throughout the crown (de Wit 2008;Melnyk 2012;Melnyk & Melekhova 2012). ...
The apple tree is the most common fruit crop in the temperate climate zone. Modern intensive fruit cultivation involves the use of new, highly productive cultivars and cultivation technologies, thanks to the creation of small crown shapes with an increased number of trees per hectare. Reducing planting patterns and creating more dense plantation systems can significantly improve their yields. However, the limiting factor that can reduce tree productivity and deteriorate fruit quality is the degree of crown illumination. Ensuring even access of sunlight to all parts of the crown is the main task in the formation and pruning trees. The study aimed to determine the effect of crown pruning at BBCH 0 (winter) and BBCH 74 (early summer) and various types of crown formation on the growth activity and productivity of ‘Fuji’ and ‘Honeycrisp’ apple trees. A significant decrease (20%) in the number of newly formed shoots in the form of the French axis crown compared to the ballerina and slender spindle crowns was found. However, their length and total growth were significantly higher. The formation of the ballerina crown (with the removal of overgrown wood in the 25 cm zone on the central conductor above the lower tier of semi-cross-branched branches) contributed to a decrease in shoot length and total growth. The introduction of crown pruning in the summer also improved crown illumination – shoot length decreased by 17% and total growth by 12%. Specific productivity per bole cross-section and total shoot length was the highest in ballerina crown trees, followed by trees with a slender spindle crown, and trees pruned in winter and summer.
... Trials employed the G.11 apple rootstock which reportedly exhibits tolerance to ARD [24]. ...
Currently, there are no standard management practices to counteract the adverse effects of fumigation on the soil microbiome. In this study, a variety of pre-plant soil amendments were examined for their ability to recruit and maintain apple rhizosphere microbiomes that are suppressive to pathogen re-infestation of fumigated orchard soils. The capacity of these amendments to improve other characteristics of soil productivity was also evaluated. Results suggest that composted chicken manure and liquid chitin are likely to be detrimental to plant and soil health when used as a post-fumigation soil amendment. In comparison, insect frass (IF) resulted in a significant increase in tree trunk diameter relative to the fumigated control. Following pathogen re-infestation of fumigated soil, however, IF induced a significant increase in Pythium ultimum in the rhizosphere. Therefore, IF can benefit the growth of young apple trees in fumigated soil but may stimulate pathogen activity upon re-infestation. To date, the possibility of using soil amendments to suppress pathogen re-infestation of fumigated soils has not been tested. Results from this study ground support the use of soil amendments as an intervention strategy for “steering” the soil and rhizosphere microbiome in more beneficial and/or prophylactic directions following fumigation.
... and the number of shoots (r=0.66±0. 19). ...
The apple tree is a leading fruit crop in Ukraine in terms of production volumes and planting areas and is a valuable food product with a high content of vitamins. In new modern plantings, fruit producers prefer intensive cultivation technologies that ensure the maximum amount of high-quality fruit yield per unit area. The main criterion for solving this problem is the design of plantings: a narrow-row scheme for planting trees and a low-volume crown shape. The purpose of the study was to establish the influence of the pruning period of different types of crown formations on the growth and productivity of apple trees of two varieties: Fuji and Honey Crisp. The study was conducted in the conditions of the central Forest-Steppe of Ukraine (Uman National University of Horticulture). The scheme of planting was 4x1 m, M.9 rootstock, chernozem sod-podzolic soil, drip irrigation. Field, statistical, and computational-analytical methods were used in the course of the study. It was identified that the growth pattern of the examined varieties differed substantially, and crown volume, projection area, and development of the feeding area prevailed in Honey Crisp trees. However, in terms of productivity, the plantings of the Fuji variety substantially exceeded the values of the Honey Crisp variety. Forming a ballerina crown with the removal of overgrown wood in a 25 cm zone on the central trunk above the lower tier of semi-cellular branches provided an increase in the growth activity of the examined trees by 3-5%. A substantial decrease in the values of crown parameters was provided by the formation of the French axis crown – there was a decrease in the crown diameter by 44%, the crown volume – by 67%, and the crown projection area and the development of the feeding area – by 69%. Performing additional summer pruning of trees also helped to reduce growth activity by 6-11%. However, the specific productivity of plantings doubled in plantings with the formation of the French axis and by 45-50% with the introduction of double pruning of trees. It is recommended that agricultural producers investigate the terms of pruning low-volume crown forms, considering varietal characteristics, to create compacted apple stands and increase the intensification of production
... Meanwhile, in one of the 'Royal Gala' orchards, the plant density was 3570 plants ha −1 and evaluations started five years after installation. The higher productivity with densification of apple plants is evidenced in other studies [37][38][39][40]. Tree density can cause lower plant vigor, productivity, and lower number and size of fruits per plant even though, in the present study, the trunk diameter of both cultivars and orchards had no difference and was approximately 16 cm (see Table S3). ...
Nitrogen (N) effect on crop yield depends on several factors such as soil type, climatic characteristics and orchard management, including plant density and N fertilization. These variables can be used to develop yield prediction models, which are scarce in the horticulture sector. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of nitrogen fertilization, orchards and cultivars and to predict the yields of ‘Royal Gala’ and ‘Fuji Suprema’ apples cultivated in a subtropical climate under different soil N availabilities. During the four seasons, nitrogen fertilization was applied a rates of 0, 25, 50, 100 and 150 kg N ha−1 year−1 for ‘Royal Gala’ and ‘Fuji Suprema’ apples located in southern Brazil. Yield, average fruit weight and leaf and fruit pulp N concentration were evaluated. Yield prediction models were developed based on the following variables: concentration of N in leaves and fruits, air temperature, chilling units, relative humidity and rainfall. “Cultivar” was the variable responsible for the greatest variation of yield, followed by “years/season”, and then the “orchard management. The N rates applied in the four seasons did not predict crop yield. In the model, “orchard” was the greatest determinant for leaf N concentration, and “season” was the main determinant for fruit-pulp N concentration. Mathematical model (3), based on leaf and fruit pulp N concentration, and certain climatic variables (minimum air temperature, annual rainfall and chilling hours < 7.2 °C) had the greatest potential for predicting yield in orchards of ‘Royal Gala’ and ‘Fuji Suprema’.
... In this system, plants will be trained in the assigned space, facilitating numerous practices such as harvesting, scouting, and spraying [26]. Additionally, high tree densities, in combination with adapted varieties, enable high-efficiency production techniques in many fruits [10,[27][28][29]. ...
Dwarfing is an important agricultural trait for intensive cultivation and effective orchard management in modern fruit orchards. Commercial citrus production relies on grafting with rootstocks that reduce tree vigor to control plant height. Citrus growers all over the world have been attracted to dwarfing trees because of their potential for higher planting density, increased productivity, easy harvest, pruning, and efficient spraying. Dwarfing rootstocks can be used to achieve high density. As a result, the use and development of dwarfing rootstocks are important. Breeding programs in several countries have led to the production of citrus dwarf rootstocks. For example, the dwarfing rootstocks 'Flying Dragon', 'FA 517', 'HTR-051', 'US-897', and 'Red tangerine' cultivated in various regions allow the design of dense orchards. Additionally, dwarf or short-stature trees were obtained using interstocks, citrus dwarfing viroid (CDVd) and various chemical applications. This review summarizes what is known about dwarf citrus rootstocks and the mechanisms underlying rootstock-scion interactions. Despite advances in recent decades, many questions regarding rootstock-induced scion development remain unanswered. Citrus rootstocks with dwarfing potential have been investigated regarding physiological aspects, hormonal communication, mineral uptake capacity, and horticultural performance. This study lays the foundation for future research into the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying citrus dwarfing.
... At the orchard level, the fruit represents the actual economic target of production, and the yield and yield efficiency are the maximum expressions of orchard profitability for apple [45,46], peach [8], pear [47] and almond orchards [27]. Hernandez-Santana et al. [14] have suggested that certain agronomic traits, such as vigor and yield parameters, and even some quality attributes, are a consequence of differences in either the root system architecture or the hydraulic properties of a given rootstock. ...
Two trials were conducted under Mediterranean conditions to monitor several physiological indicators before harvest (leaf chlorophyll concentration, quantum yield of photosystem II electron transport, stem water potential, and stomatal conductance) and some agronomic performance parameters before and at harvest (vigor, fruit growth, fruit size, fruit weight, and yield), of ‘Vairo’ almond and ‘Big Top’ nectarine cultivars grafted onto eight Prunus rootstocks, six of which are common in both cultivars. For both ‘Vairo’ almond and ‘Big Top’ nectarine cultivars, factors including rootstock, date, and the interaction between rootstock and date, from fruit set to harvest were evaluated. Significantly affected were certain physiological and agronomical traits which were evaluated before harvest, with stem water potential being the parameter affected by interaction in both cultivars. In fact, the stem water potential presented low levels in Rootpac-20 and high levels in Rootpac-40 for both cultivars. With regard to the other physiological traits evaluated during the growing period, changes in stomatal conductance were observed in ‘Vairo’, but not in ‘Big Top’. Comparing rootstocks throughout the season, Rootpac-40 and IRTA-1 exhibited the highest stomatal conductance values, whereas the lowest was observed in Rootpac-R; Rootpac-20 and Ishtara also presented low values. Regarding agronomical traits at harvest, GF-677 and IRTA-1 produced high yields for ‘Vairo’ almond cultivar, whereas Rootpac-40 and Ishtara performed better with ‘Big Top’ nectarine cultivar.
... Plant tissues and the rhizosphere recruit complex fungal and bacterial communities, and their composition is affected by host traits such as genotype, tissue type, tissue age, and environmental conditions [25,26]. Rootstocks are widely-used in commercial apple orchards to obtain a range of economically beneficial cultural traits [5,26,27]. Despite the importance of the rhizosphere and endophytic root microbial community as reservoirs of plant microorganisms, little is known about the impact of different apple rootstock genotypes on the composition of their associated microbial communities. ...
The endophytic microbiome of plants is believed to have a significant impact on its physiology and disease resistance, however, the role of host genotype in determining the composition of the endophytic microbiome of apple root systems remains an open question that has important implications for defining breeding objectives. In the current study, the bacterial and fungal microbiota associated with four different apple rootstocks planted in April, 2018 in the same soil environment and harvested in May, 2019 were evaluated to determine the role of genotype on the composition of both the bacterial and fungal communities. Results demonstrated a clear impact of genotype and root size on microbial composition and diversity. The fungal community was more affected by plant genotype whereas the bacterial community was shaped by root size. Fungal and bacterial abundance was equal between different-sized roots however, significantly higher microbial counts were detected in rhizosphere samples compared to root endosphere samples. This study provides information that can be used to develop a comprehensive and readily applicable understanding of the impact of genotype and environmental factors on the establishment of plant microbiome, as well as its potential function and impact on host physiology.
... compared to previous studies (e.g.Robinson 2008; Kviklys et al. 2013;Reig et al. 2019). On the other hand, in this study, the high yield of 'Wilton's Red Jonaprince' in 2015(Table 6) ...
Little information is available on vegetative and generative performance of apple cultivars during the early growth of trees in orchards. The aim of this five-year study was to evaluate 2 vegetative (trunk cross sectional area (TCSA) and tree height (TH)) and 7 generative parameters (tree yield (TY), fruit number per tree (FNT), crop load (CL), fruit diameter (FD), shape index (SI), fruit surface color (FSC) and fruit color intensity (FCI)) and their inter-correlations (Pearson correlation, regression analyses and PCA) for young apple trees, on 9 apple cultivars (‘Jugala’, ‘Galaval’, ‘Gala Venus Fengal’, ‘Gala Decarli-Fendeca’, ‘Gala Schnitzer (S) Schniga’, ‘Fuji September Wonder’, ‘Crimson Crisp (Co-op 39)’, ‘Jeromine’, and ‘Red Idared’) in a slender spindle training system (2597 trees ha ⁻¹ ) and on 4 apple cultivars (‘Wilton’s Red Jonaprince’, ‘Red Cap Valtod (S)’, ‘Early Red One’, and ‘Red Topaz’) in a super spindle training system (5194 trees ha ⁻¹ ) in Eastern Hungary. The strongest vegetative growth was observed in ‘Red Idared’, while the weakest was in ‘Early Red One’. Most ‘Gala’ mutants showed high yields in all years, except for ‘Galaval’. On the 6 year-old trees, the lowest tree yield was found in ‘Fuji September Wonder’ (8.2 kg tree ⁻¹ ), while the highest was found in ‘Gala Venus Fengal’ (35.8 kg tree ⁻¹ ). The lowest fruit number per tree (15 fruit tree ⁻¹ ) was found in ‘Jeromine’, while the highest (222 fruit tree ⁻¹ ) was in ‘Gala Venus Fengal’. The highest crop load was found in ‘Gala Venus Fengal’ (12.72 fruit per cm ² TCSA), while the lowest was in ‘Jeromine’ (2.13 fruit per cm ² TCSA). The smallest fruit diameter (66.3 mm) was recorded in ‘Gala Schnitzer (S) Schniga’, while highest (93.6 mm) was in ‘Red Idared’. The lowest shape index (0.73) was found in ‘Red Topaz’, while the highest (0.92) was in ‘Red Idared’. The majority of the cultivars reached very good fruit surface color (80–100%). The lowest fruit surface color (40%) was observed in ‘Gala Schnitzer (S) Schniga’, while the highest (100%) was in ‘Jeromine’ and ‘Early Red One’. The highest fruit color intensity was observed in most cultivars with the exception of ‘Jeromine’, ‘Gala Schnitzer (S) Schniga’ and’Fuji September Wonder’. In addition, correlation and regression analyses revealed strong and significant ( p = 0.05) relationships between TH vs TCSA, TY vs TCSA, TH vs TY, TY vs FNT, and FCI vs FSC. PCA explained 87% of the total variance and PC1, PC2, PC3, and PC4 accounted for 33, 21, 20, and 13% of the variance, respectively, and correlated with TSCA, TH, TY and FNT; with FNT, CL and FS; with FSC and FCI; and with TH and SI, respectively. In conclusion, our study provides useful tree property data on prospective mutants/cultivars for growers/advisors in order to select the most suitable cultivars for establishing new orchards under climate conditions similar to central Europe.
... In the last two decades, the transition from three-dimensional trees to simplified twodimensional structures with dwarfing rootstocks has increased sunburn risk (Hampson et al., 2002). These changes coupled with a recent history of elevated summer temperatures has led to the presence of sunburn in regions that traditionally have not had issues with this disorder (Reig et al., 2019). It will be important that new cultivars developed are less susceptible to sunburn. ...
Climate change negatively influences many human activities and one of the most affected is agriculture. In the
apple industry, water availability, elevated temperatures and altered phenology will transform fruit production
in traditional growing regions. Extended periods of intense solar radiation and high temperatures during the
growing season cause problems in fruit quality increasing losses and reducing sustainability and profitability.
Photooxidative and heat stress stimulate sunburn development on apple fruit in the field growing under increasingly stressful conditions. In particular, apples growing in semi-arid conditions are frequently exposed to
high solar irradiance and elevated temperature during the growing season that promote the development of sunrelated skin disorders. Furthermore, regions that have traditionally not faced sunburn pressure may begin to
experience losses in this area. Apple cultivars differ in their susceptibility to sun damage, which is evidenced, in
part, by the timing of symptom development and severity. Some studies attribute genotypic variation to physiological and morphological differences while others do to antioxidant-related metabolic differences between
them. Here, we discuss the physiological and molecular progress and gaps in knowledge of sunburn damage and
the development of sunburn resistance in apple fruit. This information will help develop stronger sunburn mitigation strategies and enhance breeding efforts to address challenges associated with sunburn in apple production.
... Commercial plantings are found in all apple producing regions of the United States and Canada, as well as New Zealand, and Europe (licensed as the 'Honeycrunch'). 'Honeycrisp' is now in the top 10 of all varieties produced and sold in the United States (Reig et al., 2019), a remarkable performance for a variety commercially introduced less than three decades ago, with a total production of 449 t in 2018 in the United States. (usapple.org). ...
Sunburn is a serious economic problem in practically all apple-
growing regions of the world. Losses of apple fruit due to sunburn can range from 10% as high as 50%. Several years ago, this problem started to be a concern in Eastern New York State, especially in the Hudson Valley region with the cultivar
‘Honeycrisp’. The study was conducted in three ‘Honeycrisp’
apple tree orchards in the Hudson Valley region (Southeast, New York State) during the 2015 and 2016 growing seasons. Four sunburn mitigation strategies were tested (evaporative cooling, 20% crystal net, the sunscreen Raynox Plus® and the
particle film ScreenDuo®) at a variety of timings throughout each growing season. Yield, sunburn incidence/severity, quality, and economic returns were evaluated. Treatments did not affect horticulture performance and fruit quality, but they did reduce sunburn damage to varying degrees. The greatest sunburn mitigation was achieved with the use of netting, followed by spray applications of Raynox Plus® and ScreenDuo®. Apples with sunburn damage had higher flesh firmness, soluble solids content and titratable acidity. Treatment differences in sun-
burn mitigation did not result in higher net returns to the grower.
... In the case of bench-grafted trees, this trend was only observed in 'Honeycrisp'. M.9T337 was similar in tree size to G.16 with feathered 'Gala' trees from both locations, which is in agreement with Reig et al. (2019). G.16 tree size was previously reported to be similar to M.9T337 size with 'Jonagold', but slightly more vigorous with 'Gala' (Robinson et al., 2003). ...
In 2006, two 0.3 ha orchard trials were established at two sites (Dressel farm in Southeastern New York State and VandeWalle farm in Western New York State) to compare two tree types (feathered trees and bench grafts) on five rootstocks [three Geneva® rootstocks (G.11, G.16, G.41) with one Budagovsky rootstock (B.9) and one
Malling rootstock (M.9T337)] as controls. ‘Gala’ and ‘Fuji’ were used as scion cultivars at Dressel farm and ‘Gala’ and ‘Honeycrisp’ as the scions cultivars at VandeWalle farm. At each location, trees were planted at 3262 trees ha−1and trained to a Tall Spindle (TS) system. Location, tree type and rootstock interacted to affect tree growth,
production and fruit quality of each scion cultivar. ‘Gala’ trees from VandeWalle (Western NY State) were more
productive (33% more production) than those from Dressel Farm (Southern NY State), because they produced more fruits per cm−2 and fruit size was bigger. When comparing the two tree types (feathered and bench-grafted) at both locations and across all rootstocks (B.9, G.11, G.16, G.41, and M.9T337), feathered trees were similar in tree size after 11 seasons as bench-grafted ones, except for ‘Fuji’ at Dressel farm where bench-grafted trees were 27% smaller than feathered trees. The bench-grafted trees had lower cumulative yield per hectare, cumulative yield efficiency, and cumulative crop load than the fully feathered trees. Finally, when comparing all 10 tree type x rootstock combinations, for ‘Fuji’, feathered trees with G.11, for ‘Gala’, feathered trees with G.41, and
for ‘Honeycrisp’, feathered trees with G.16 were the combinations with the highest cumulative yield, high yield efficiency and crop loads, low biennial bearing, and with slightly significant larger fruits.
An economic analysis of profitability using Net Present Value (NPV) was conducted using data from two long-term training system × rootstock field trials conducted in New York State from 2006 to 2016 (Dressel Farm in southeastern New York State and VandeWalle Farm in Western, New York State). We used trial data for the first 11 years and estimated values for years 12–20 using average data from the last 4 years of field data. The field trials compared four training systems with different planting densities (Slender Pyramid, 840 trees ha−1; Vertical Axis, 1282 trees ha−1; Slender Axis, 2244 trees ha−1; and Tall Spindle, 3262 trees ha−1) each evaluated with several rootstocks in an incomplete factorial treatment list and with two cultivars at each location. By the end of the trial (11 years) all combinations of planting density, rootstock and cultivar were profitable (NPV positive) at the VandeWalle site but at the Dressel site seven combinations of rootstock and planting density with ‘Fuji’ and two combinations with ‘Gala’ were not profitable. Projected profitability over 20 years using estimated yields and fruit quality for years 12–20 showed that all combinations would be profitable by year 20. Estimated 20-year NPV was greatest with the Tall Spindle system with the highest planting density compared to the other lower density systems. Economic performance was mostly driven by planting density, regardless of the rootstock selection. Among cultivars, ‘Honeycrisp’ had significantly higher profitability largely due to high fruit price). ‘Gala’ had intermediate profitability due to high yields and medium fruit price while ‘Fuji’ which had low fruit price had significantly lower profitability than ‘Gala’. Among rootstocks, there was a significant interaction with training system and cultivar, so the same rootstock was not the most profitable with every cultivar and system. With ‘Fuji’ the most profitable combination was on G.16 rootstock planted at the highest density, however, it was not significantly better than with G.11 or M.9. With ‘Gala’ at Dressel farm the most profitable combination was on G.11 in the Tall Spindle system (planted at the highest density) but it was not significantly better than with G.16, G.41, M.9 or B.9. With ‘Gala’ at VandeWalle farm the most profitable combination was on G.41 planted at the highest density but it was not significantly better than on G.11, G.16, M.9 or B.9. With ‘Honeycrisp’ the most profitable combination was on M.9 planted at the highest density but it was not significantly better than G.11, G.16, G.41 or B.9. A sensitivity analysis showed that among economic parameters affecting the long-term profitability of an orchard, fruit price and yield were vastly more important than other factors. Of intermediate importance were the discount rate and labor costs while of much lesser importance were tree costs and land costs.
The aim of the research was to determine the influence and justification of the
choice of crown shape and pruning time of apple trees of Fuji and Honey Crisp
varieties grafted on dwarf rootstock M.9 in the conditions of the Right-Bank ForestSteppe of Ukraine.
Methods. Field, statistical.
Results. Studies have revealed uneven formation of the number of flowers and
ovaries by years and the prevalence of these indicators in Fuji trees by 17% and
18%, respectively, compared to Honey Crisp plantations. As a result of crown
formation, the French axis and significant removal of the amount of overgrown wood
as a result of pruning leads to a significantly lower formation of the number of
flowers and ovaries. However, as a result of the formation of the ballerina crown and
the removal of part of the fouling wood above the semi-glazed branches, which
improves their lighting level and ensures additional formation of generative buds, it
contributes to an increase in the number of flowers and ovaries. In particular, in the
Fuji plantation, the formation of the ballerina crown in winter and summer
contributed to an increase in the number of flowers by 14% and by 15% in Honeoye
Crisp trees compared to the control variant of the experiment. A positive effect on the
increase in the values of the indicator was caused by the introduction of an
additional summer term of crown pruning by 8-10% compared to winter pruning.
The value of the level of useful ovary differed among the variants of the
experiment with the predominance of the value of the indicator as a result of the
formation of the French axis crown (influence of the factor 6%), but no statistically
significant difference within the indicator was found. Also, a significant influence of
13.8% on the change in the values of the indicator of the level of useful ovary was
found by the joint action of the factors "year of research" and "crown shape".
Production of high-quality tree fruit requires management of tree health and vigor during orchard establishment, especially with regard to soil-borne pathogens. Available strategies for the mitigation of soil-borne diseases include chemical fumigants, Brassicaceous seed meal (SM) soil treatments, and the use of disease-tolerant rootstock genotypes. It has been documented that superior disease suppression can be achieved using specific combinations of rootstock genotype and soil treatment that, in part, alter the soil microbiome. However, regardless of soil treatment strategy or rootstock genetics, sublethal levels of phytotoxic compounds are known to have negative effects on the reproductive output of plants. Yet the effects of SM amendments and the resultant restructuring of the soil microbiome on fruit quality are not well studied. Thus, our objective was to explore the effects of pathogen suppression strategies on at-harvest and postharvest fruit quality of ‘Gala’ apples ( Malus domestica ) by observing effects of both rootstock genetics [‘Malling 26’ (‘M.26’) vs. ‘Geneva 41’ (‘G.41’)] and soil treatment strategy (fumigation vs. SM). We observed that rootstock genotype generally appeared to have a stronger effect than soil treatment strategy on at-harvest fruit quality and postharvest outcomes. Further, although we did observe some fruit quality differences in each year of the study, there was no discernible pattern from year to year. We therefore conclude that, in our study, soil treatment does not have a consistent, significant influence on ‘Gala’ apple fruit quality, and importantly, efficacious ARD control using SM is without an apparent downside regarding fruit quality.
High-density production has been increasing for numerous perennial crops in different parts of the world. Recent work suggests that high-density systems improve yields, fruit quality, and harvest efficiency. Yet, despite the increasing amount of acreage in high-density production, there has been surprisingly little comparative research on pest and disease patterns in such systems compared to conventional systems. Given the significantly different structure of high-density plantings compared to conventional orchards, pest abundance, disease prevalence, and appropriate management strategies are likely to differ. Here we describe the characteristics of high-density plantings and how their management and infrastructure are likely to have direct and indirect effects on pest abundance and disease prevalence. We also describe how high-density structure, management, infrastructure, fruit abundance, and microclimate present challenges and opportunities for pest and disease management strategies. For example, the compact structure of high-density plantings may mean smaller quantities of inputs are required while, at the same time, the high foliage density may reduce penetration of pesticide sprays and other inputs. Finally, we propose critical areas for future research including 1) patterns of pest and disease prevalence among rootstocks and varieties, 2) how infrastructure and timing of high-density management affect pest and disease prevalence, 3) how microclimate and fruit abundance vary across canopy levels, with associated impacts on pest and disease prevalence, and 4) types of pest and disease management that are likely to be effective in high-density systems.
The rise in the productivity of sweet orange in Brazil has been related to the use of superior rootstocks and higher tree density, among other factors. In order to investigate whether the cropping system and the land use efficiency would benefit from more intensive cultivation, the performance of Valencia sweet orange was evaluated over nine years on four rootstocks, which induced contrasting vigor, at 513, 696 and 1000 trees·ha−1. Agronomic Institute of Campinas (IAC) 1697 and IAC 1710 citrandarins, and diploid and allotetraploid (4×) Swingle citrumelos were classified as semi-dwarfing, super-standard, standard, and dwarfing rootstocks, respectively. The fruit yield per tree was decreased at higher tree densities, notably for more vigorous rootstocks. Conversely, the cumulative productivity was increased over the evaluation period by 27% at 1000 trees·ha−1, irrespective of the rootstock, and the most vigorous rootstock resulted in 2.5 times higher production than the dwarfing one on average. Most fruit quality parameters were seldom influenced by the tree density, while the rootstock was a decisive factor in improving the quality and the soluble solids content. Dwarfing rootstocks allowed for harvesting 17% more fruit per minute by manual pickers. Because the tree row volume per area is lower with such rootstocks, even at higher tree density, spray volume can be reduced, although appropriate equipment should be developed for better spray coverage on smaller trees. Nine years after planting under strict vector control, the cumulative incidence of huanglongbing-symptomatic trees on IAC 1710 was double that on Swingle 4×. Taken together, the results suggested that the land use efficiency in the citrus industry can be further improved by planting vigorous rootstocks at moderate to high tree densities. Nevertheless, obtaining highly productive semi-dwarfing and dwarfing rootstocks is the sine qua non for making high-density pedestrian sweet orange orchards more profitable.
Growth (annual increase in total dry mass) and productivity of agricultural cropping systems depend on the fractional interception of total seasonal light energy. With single-row hedgerow intensive apple orchard systems the reported maximum light utilisation is ∼60% fractional interception. This limitation is determined by row layout and hedgerow tree architecture, constraining apple orchard productivity to maxima of 100–120 t ha⁻¹. We hypothesised that reducing the orchard system between-row spacing to 1.5 m to 2.0 m would increase light interception and productivity, using two-dimensional, narrow planar hedgerow trees to maintain within-canopy irradiance. Trees comprised 10 vertical fruiting stems, equally spaced along 3 m of horizontal cordon (the planar cordon tree), requiring 2222 and 1667 trees per ha. By the seventh year the maximum fractional light interception (LI) was 77% in 1.5 m row plots and 66% in 2.0 m row plots, averaged across four cultivars (‘Gala’, ‘Scifresh’, ‘Scilate’, ‘Fuji’). The LAI-light interception response relationship of 6- and 7-year-old plots indicated a potential maximum light interception above 80% at a LAI of 3.5–5.0. Annual yields increased in proportion to increasing annual maximum fractional light interception from year two onwards and described an exponential response: Yield = 5.085e0.0483LI, (R² = 0.88). The yield response to maximum fractional light interception exceeded the hypothesised 169 t ha⁻¹ at 90% light interception in spindle systems proposed by Palmer et al. (2002). The yield–light utilisation behaviour of planar cordon systems indicate the productivity potential of apple as a crop has been under-estimated; a theoretical maximum annual yield of market-quality apples at ∼90% light utilisation (≥ 2000 MJ m⁻² light energy per season) is estimated to be in a range of 250–315 t ha⁻¹. Productivity amongst cultivars and regions will be influenced by the cultivar genetics for fruit size, relative maturation dates and production microclimates, because these orchard systems will function at the upper limit of light utilisation.
Dwarfing rootstocks in apple have existed for more than a century, and their use revolutionized apple production worldwide. The most notable dwarfing rootstocks, ‘M9’ and ‘M27’, contain three quantitative trait loci (QTLs), Dw1 Dw2 and Dw3, which are the major genetic regulators for rootstock induced dwarfing in apples. Although genetically controlled, the dwarfing physiological mechanisms are still not fully understood, nor is there one main hypothesis. Several rootstock-scion relationships contribute to the dwarfing effect in apple rootstocks. These include modifications in: flowering genes, scion/rootstock vascular tissue anatomy and morphology, carbohydrate allocation, nutrient/water distribution, and hormonal regulation. Cumulatively, these genetic and physiological factors influence the architecture and mechanisms within the tree to facilitate optimal orchard designs and training systems to promote enhanced fruit quality. The history of dwarfing rootstocks in apple and the main hypotheses for the dwarfing mechanism are discussed herein. Future research will require a lot of coordinated effort to fully understand the dwarfing mechanism in apple and seek to control confounding variables in rootstock studies, such as nutrition and the crop load of the tree.
Modern almond growing travels on the tracks of super-high density (SHD). Born in 2010, it has already reached 6700 ha planted all over the world. This new cultivation system needs to define efficient agronomic techniques in order to identify it as a “Super-Efficient System”. Among these, the choice of cultivar is a crucial technique and a key factor for sustainability. The purpose of this study was to compare different cultivars in terms of vegetative, productive, and efficiencies parameters in order to gain applicable relevant knowledge about the SHD almond cultivation technique. For this, 3 years of research was carried out during 2017–2019, on a young almond grove made in 2014 with row spacing of 3.80 m × 1.20 m (2190 trees/ha), to evaluate the agronomic behavior of the two most planted cultivars in Italy, Guara-Tuono and Lauranne® Avijor, grafted on the Rootpac®20 dwarfing rootstock. The main biometric, productive, yield, mechanical harvesting efficiencies, and almond quality parameters were evaluated. Cv Lauranne® showed greater vigor, greater fruit yield, and damaged axes by mechanical harvesting, while higher values of yield efficiencies were observed for cv Tuono. Harvesting efficiency was related to canopy size and tree age. On the contrary, almonds quality parameters were strongly related to the cultivar, confirming the good performance of Tuono as varietal characters. Then, this cultivar seems to be the most suitable for an efficient SHD planting system, in line with the objectives of modern sustainable fruit growing. The better performance of cv Tuono could be related to the positive influence of the terroir as well.
The purpose of this work was to evaluate development, quality, and productivity of Maxi Gala apple fruit grafted on rootstocks G.213, M.9 and Marubakaido with M.9 inter-graft on virgin soil and replanting area conditions, in Vacaria-RS, Brazil. The planting effect was evaluated separately for each set of rootstocks. The experimental areas were prepared in the winter of 2011, spacing of 1.0 × 4.0 m and density of 2500 plants per hectare, with Fuji Suprema as pollinator in 1:4 proportion. The plants were conducted in Tall Spindle system and the evaluations were managed for nine years. We observed that M.9 rootstock has low vigor, high productive efficiency, but low productivity, in both planting soils. The semi-vigorous rootstocks MB/M.9–30 and MB/M.9–20 were characterized by high vigor, high productivity (reduced in replanting area) and low productive efficiency. The G.213 rootstock was characterized by low vigor, high productivity, and high productive efficiency. Except G.213, all rootstocks had high production alternation values, especially when in replanting. In both experiments the rootstocks G.213 and M.9 were efficient in vigor controll, however the rootstock G.213 is more productive and stable over the years, providing greater productive efficiency in Maxi Gala than M.9. It was observed that the fruit quality of Maxi Gala cultivar measured by firmness, ºBrix, diameter and weight are not influenced by the rootstocks evaluated.
High-density cultivation using dwarfing rootstocks is widely practiced worldwide. The root is an essential organ for apple rootstocks, especially for dwarfing rootstocks. However, few studies about the root traits of apple rootstocks have been published. In this study, the root growth characteristics of the 'Red Fuji' apple cultivar scions grafted onto Shao series no. 40 (RF/SH.40) and Baleng Crab (RF/BC) rootstocks, which have apparent size-controlling differences, were investigated. Subsequently, the tree morphological and leaf photosynthetic parameters were measured, and the correlation between the roots and branches was studied. Thus, the root system of RF/BC was more widely distributed than that of RF/SH.40, with higher volume, projected area, surface area, root number, and length of the root system. Multiple comparisons revealed that the number of roots might be the critical factor contributing to differences in the two root systems. Furthermore, RF/BC had higher leaf photosynthetic rates, water use efficiency, and branch numbers and length than RF/SH.40. RF/BC had a wider branch distribution in a vertical orientation; however, a wider branch distribution in a horizontal orientation and a higher rate of branches shorter than 15 cm was observed for RF/SH.40. The above-ground tree architecture and below-ground root traits tend to be positively correlated. The parameters that primarily affected the correlation between above- and below-ground were branch volume, branch number, total projected, and total surface area of the root system.
Regular cropping is important for improving fruit quality and profitability of the apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) orchards. To identify a thinning target that makes the rate of flower-bud formation constant every year, we investigated the relationship between crop load (CL) and the rate of flower-bud formation (RF) and developed a model to predict the change of the RF according to the CL. Because a Gompertz curve fitted well to the relationship between the RF of following year and the current year in both biennial and annual bearing cultivars, we developed a prediction model based on an equation of the Gompertz curve. The prediction model can clarify varietal differences in the ease of getting flower buds. When trees are 10 years old, the RF of the following year in ‘Morinokagayaki’ would be 0.9 or more, even though the CL is adjusted to 8 fruits per cm² trunk cross-sectional area (TCA). On the other hand, trees of ‘Fuji’ and columnar selections are predicted to display a biennial bearing cycle under the same CL. When the CL is adjusted to 2 fruits per flower cluster at 30 days after bloom every year, the yield of ‘Morinokagayaki’ is predicted to be maintained at around 200 fruits per tree after 7 years. In the case of ‘Fuji’ and columnar selection, it would be necessary to restrict the CL to around 0.5 fruits per cluster every year to obtain a stable yield. The model can estimate the parameters by which the probability of biennial bearing can be compared between cultivars and predict the fluctuation of the RF depending on the thinning management. Therefore, the model would be very useful for growers to strategize for crop load management.
The study was conducted in order to assess the leaf properties of different sweet cherry varieties grafted onto MaxMa 14 rootstock. The experiment was arranged in a randomized plot desing with three replicates of five plants per replication. The soil analyses showed that the soil properties of experiment site were found as moderate alkaline, low amount of organic material, N, P, Zn and Mn. The soil characteristics may be sub-optimum for cherry growing. According to our results, Kordia had the highest SPAD value (37.86) among the cultivars. Samba, Regina, Kordia and 0900 Ziraat cultivars had the highest anthocyanin contents. The highest stomatal conductance was in 0900 Ziraat cv followed by Sweetheart. Samba had greater leaf area (53.25 cm2) compared to other cultivars. The highest LRWC was obtained with Lorry Bloom. Epicuticular was content of Regina leaves was higher among the cultivars. The results of the present study provide useful informations about how the cherry scions grafted onto MaxMa 14 response to environmental challenges in nature. The identified leaf properties are valuable targets for physiological studies related with environmental stresses.
In 2010, an orchard trial of apple rootstocks was established at 13 locations in the United States, Canada, and Mexico using 'Honeycrisp' as the scion cultivar. Rootstocks included two named clones from the Budagovsky series (B.9, B.10), seven unreleased named clone from the Pill-nitz series (Supp.3), two unreleased Pillnitz clones (PiAu 9-90 and PiAu 51-11), and three Malling clones as controls (M.9 NAKBT337, M.9 Pajam 2, and M.26 EMLA). All trees were trained as Tall Spindles. After 5 years, the greatest mortality was for trees on CG.4814 (15%), with trees on all other rootstocks averaging 10% or less mortality. Tree size after 5 years allowed for a preliminary partitioning of these rootstocks in to size classes from sub-dwarf to semi-standard. B.70-20-20 was semi-standard, and B.7-20-21 and B.64-194 were large semi-dwarfs. B.7-3-150, B.67-5-32, B.70-6-8, G.202N, CG.4004, and PiAu 9-90 were moderate semi-dwarfs. CG.3001, CG.4814, CG.5087, CG.5222, and PiAu 51-11 were small semi-dwarfs. G.202TC (TC = liners from tissue culture), G.935N (N = liners from stool beds), G.935TC, CG.4013, CG.4214, M.9 Pajam 2, and M.26 EMLA were large dwarfs. B.10, G.11, G.41N, G.41TC, Supp.3, and M.9 NAKBT337 were moderate dwarfs, and B.9, CG.2034, and CG.4003 were small dwarfs. B.71-7-22 was sub-dwarf. B.70-20-20, B.7-20-21, and B.64-194were too vigorous for a high-density system, and conversely, B.71-7-22 was not vigorous enough. Among the six moderate semi-dwarf rootstocks, CG.4004 and G.202N performed best, using cumulative (2011-14) yield efficiency as the primary determinant of performance. Among the five small semi-dwarf rootstocks, CG.5087, CG.4814, and CG.3001 performed best. Of the seven rootstocks characterized as large dwarfs, G.935, CG.4214, and G.202TC resulted in the greatest cumulative yield efficiency. Of the six rootstocks in the moderate dwarf class, G.11, M.9 NAKBT337, and G.41N performed best, and CG.4003 and B.9 resulted in the greatest cumulative yield efficiency among the three small dwarf rootstocks.
Training systems are key to manage the tree canopy to take advantage of the tree productivity potential. Assessment of yearly cropping, labor requirements, fruit quality, and orchard profitability were studied. The experiment was organized in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Five different training systems on Quince EMC rootstock and ‘Conference’ as the scion cultivar were compared. The results of this study show that the use of preformed highly feathered trees is an improvement for both, early cropping and profitability. Planting cost, trellis, and labor requirements had a large impact on the economic viability of each system. Tatura produced high yields, but the strong initial investment that needs to be done at planting makes this system a risky investment. Axis 2 seems to be the most suitable system for early cropping while maintaining intermediate plantation costs and an appropriate level of production efficiency.
The effects of five training systems on tree growth, yield, and some fruit characteristics were assessed for ‘Fuji’ apple grafted on M.9 rootstock for the first five years in Tokat, Turkey. The trees were trained in one of five ways: Slender Spindle (SS, 4762 trees ha⁻¹), Vertical Axis (VA, 2857 trees ha⁻¹), HyTec (HT, 1904 trees ha⁻¹) and two different tree densities of super spindle (L-Sup S with 5,000 trees ha⁻¹; H-Sup S with 10.000 trees ha⁻¹). Trunk Cross-sectional Area (TCA), canopy diameter and canopy volume were higher in low tree density systems (HT and VA) than in high tree density systems (SS, L-Sup S and H-Sup S). Annual and cumulative yields per tree over the first cropping years were higher in VA and HT than in SS, L-Sup S or H-Sup S. Yield per unit area was the highest in H-Sup S in every year due to the higher number of trees per hectare. Yield efficiency (yield cm⁻² TCA) was higher in VA and HT than in SS, L Sup S or H-Sup S in every year. HT produced the largest fruit among the training systems in every year. VA had the second largest fruit in 2008, 2010, and 2011.
There is not a uniform accepted view in the world on the choice of a universal apple tree training system, because the vegetative and reproductive habits of the separate cultivars depend on the soil and climatic conditions of the countries where they are grown.The aim of the experiment was to study the effect of the training systems Slender spindle, Solen and Vertical axis on the growth and fruiting habits of the apple cultivar ‘Braeburn’ grafted on M9 rootstock and grown under the conditions in Bulgaria.The experimental plantation was established on the territory of the Fruit-Growing Institute in Plovdiv with geographical coordinates of 42°9′ N latitude, 24°45′ E longitude and 160 meters altitude.The study was carried out during the period 2013–2015, i.e.third-fifth vegetation of the trees, covering the first three fruiting seasons.The results obtained show that the largest average and cumulative yields per ha were harvested when Vertical Axis training system was used, which was due to the better reproductive habits of the trees in that variant and the larger number of trees per ha.Under the conditions of our country, tree training to Vertical Axis system is recommended for ‘Braeburn’ apple cultivar grafted on M9 rootstocks. © 2016, National Centre for Agrarian Sciences.All rights reserved.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of Geneva® apple rootstocks for ‘Gala’. The experiment was set in a complete randomized block design with four replications of tree plants per plot. It was used ten Geneva® rootstocks and M.9EMLA and M.7EMLA as controls. It was evaluated plant vigor, annual yield, cumulative yield, cumulative yield efficiency and fruit weight. For ‘Gala’ vigor control, G.10 and G.757 were more efficient than M.9EMLA; CG.2022 was equivalent and the other rootstocks were less efficient. ‘G.24’, ‘G.969’, ‘G.30’ and ‘G.210’ presented vigor equivalent to ‘M.7EMLA’. ‘G.896’ was the most vigorous. Among dwarfing rootstocks, G.213 and G.757 were the most efficient on cumulative yield, the last showing the highest cumulative yield efficiency. Among semi-dwarfing, G.210 showed the highest cumulative yield and the highest cumulative yield efficiency. ‘G.896’ induced higher cumulative yield than ‘M.7EMLA’. The greatest ‘Gala’ fruit weight was on ‘G.213’ and ‘CG.2022’.
In 2002, an orchard trial of apple rootstocks was established at six locations in Canada, Mexico, and the United States using 'Buckeye Gala' as the scion cultivar. Rootstocks included B.9 (North American strain), B.9 (European strain), M.26 NAKB, M.26 EMLA, M.9 Burgmer 756, M.9 Nic 29, M.9 NAKBT337, P.14, and Supporter 4. After 10 years, the greatest mortality was for trees on Supporter 4 (35%), and the lowest was for trees on M.26 NAKB (10%) and B.9 Europe (7%). P.14 resulted in the largest trees based on trunk cross-sectional area (TCA). Smallest trees were on the two B.9 strains. Largest trees in the intermediate group were on M.9 Burgmer 756, followed by those on Supporter 4, and M.26 NAKB, M.26 EMLA, M.9 NAKBT337, and M.9 Nic 29. Burr knot severity was highest on M.26 NAKB and lowest on B.9 North America, M.9 Burgmer 756, and M.9 Nic 29. Root suckering was greatest from trees on M.9 Nic 29, more than all other rootstocks. 8.9 Europe produced significantly more root suckers than did 8.9 North America. Trees on P.14, M.9 Burgmer 756, M.26 NAKB, and M.9 NAKBT337 yielded more (cumulatively, 2004-11) than did those on either strain of B.9. The most yield efficient trees (cumulatively, 2004-11) were on the two 8.9 strains, and the least efficient trees were on P.14. On average over the first 8 years of fruiting, the M.9 strains resulted in larger fruit than did the B.9 strains. B.9 North America resulted in significantly larger fruit than did 8.9 Europe. Additional rootstocks tested at a small number of sites each and included in this report were CG.3007, G.41, G.935, G.11, JM.1, JM.2, JM.7, PiAu 36-2, PiAu 51-11, PiAu 51-4, and PiAu 56-83.
Continuous elimination of the acreage of orchards in Slovakia has a negative impact on the overall fruit production. Improvement of the conditions could be achieved by introducing new technological systems into orchards and supporting the measures motivating farmers. Three investment strategies for planting apple orchards are presented in the paper: slim spindle, high density and extended orchards. Economic efficiency of the systems is evaluated through the return of investment, net current value and inner profit percentage. Within the assumption of the objective evaluation of input parameters, we can expect an acceptable economic efficiency of the investment only in the "slim spindle" technological system. The simplified deterministic evaluation of economic efficiency is further deepened with the identification of the relevant risk factors, followed by its quantification by the simulation processes. Taking the risk into account leads to a significant decrease of the economic attractiveness of investments.
An experiment designed specifically to evaluate the influence of rootstock on average fruit weight of 'Golden Delicious' apple [Malus x sylvestris (L.) var. domestic(Borkh.) Mansf] was established at 12 locations in North America. Trees on three dwarfing rootstocks (G.16, M.26 EMLA and M.9 NAKBT337) were allowed to fruit for the first time in the third growing season. Over a 5-year period whenever initial fruit set was adequate, trees were hand-thinned to one of five crop densities (CD) ranging from 2 to 14 fruit per cm(2) of trunk cross-sectional area (TCA). Yield and number of fruit harvested per tree were used to calculate average fruit weight. Analysis of covariance was used to evaluate the effects of rootstock on fruit weight when CD was added to the linear model as a covariate. The interaction for site, rootstock, year, and crop density was significant, so data were analyzed by site. At 8 of the 12 sites, CD interacted with year and/or rootstock, so an unequal slopes model was fitted to those data. Where the CD x rootstock interaction was significant, least squares means for fruit weight were estimated at three levels of CD for each rootstock within each year and slopes for each rootstock were compared. In general, the slopes were most negative for trees on M.26 EM LA and least negative for trees on M.9 NAKBT337, indicating that fruit weight was most affected by CD for trees on M.26 EMLA. Fruit weight, regardless of CD, was generally lowest for trees on G.16 and highest for trees on M.9 NAKBT337. These results substantiate previous reports that rootstock can influence fruit weight, independent of CD, and that trees on M.9 NAKBT337 produce relatively large fruit.
The tree-growing sector is considered to be an important supplier of food and raw material for industry worldwide. Increasingly competitive decisions regarding international investment in orchards depend on business analysis. This study compares three apple orchards situated in Cluj-Napoca, on the Eastern limits of the Transylvanian Plain, Romania. While the climatic and soil conditions are relatively consistent among the three orchards, the technical and economic results (expressed in hectares) vary due to the use of three different technological systems of apple production: extensive, intensive, and super-intensive. The study compares the life cycle, starting with age of fructification, production level (quantity and quality), costs (investment and production costs—divided into material costs, mechanical costs, human costs, and overhead costs), income, profit (including rate of profit), and investment efficiency: Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and Payback Period (PP). It was observed that the most economically efficient technological system in terms of investments is the super-intensive one, with a higher production level, a higher share of Extra Class apples, and a younger age of initial fructification. However OPEN ACCESS Sustainability 2015, 7 10522 certain inconveniences of this system—such as a more expensive investment, a higher cost of running the business throughout the year, and a reduced life cycle—cannot be ignored.
This study was carried out on Topaz, Cooper 39 and Muscat apple cultivars grafted on M27 rootstocks under Tokat ecological conditions during 2008 - 2010. The trees planted in 2.0 m x 0.5 m row spacing (10,000 trees ha-1) and trained to super spindle (SS) training system. The vegetative development, yield and fruit quality performances of the trees supported by wire – pole combination were observed for three years. At the end of the experiment, it was determined that Cooper 39 had a higher trunk cross sectional area (TCA) than Topaz and Muscat. While cumulative yield (CY) per tree and cumulative yield efficiency (CYE) were determined to be the highest in Cooper 39, these values were found to be the lowest in Topaz. CY per hectare over the first three crop year was found to be the highest in Cooper 39 and the yield reached to 142.9 t.ha1. The lowest CY per hectare (69.6 ton ha-1) was determined in Topaz
Kosina J., 2010. Effect of dwarfing and semi dwarfing apple rootstocks on growth and productivity of selected apple cultivars. Hort were tested in two experimental orchards established in the Research and Breeding Institute of Pomology Holovousy using scion cultivars Golden Delicious, Melrose, Jonagold, Rubin, and Florina. Following characteristics were recorded: yield, trunk circumference, suckering. Rootstocks Jork 9, Pajam 1, Pajam 2, M.9-751, and M.9-984 produced better results than original rootstock M.9. Clone J-TE-E favourably affected fruit-bearing of the Rubin cultivar. The growth vigour of trees grafted on Pajam 2, M.9-751, and M.9-984 was some-what larger than those on M.9. Rootstock J-TE-H was semi-vigorous and grafted trees had low yield efficiency. Clone Pajam 1 had the similar growth vigour as M.9. Trees on Jork 9 grew significantly weakly in comparison with M.9. The rootstocks J-OH-A and J-TE-F produced a lot of suckers. The following rootstocks were recommended for growing in commercial plantations: Jork 9, Pajam 1, Pajam 2, M.9-751, and M.9-984.
Series of replicated trials in New York State were established in 19982002 to evaluate the Cornell-Geneva series of apple rootstocks which have been bred for resistance to fire blight and Phytophthora root rot, high yield efficiency and good tree survival. Among dwarfing rootstock candidates that are similar in size to M.9, Geneva ® 41 (G.41), G.11 and G.16 have shown the greatest yield efficiency and have equaled or exceeded the performance of M.9. G.41 has shown a high level of resistance to fire blight and has also shown good cold hardiness in test winters, while G.11 has shown a moderate level of resistance to fire blight. G.16 showed significantly greater winter survival than M.9, M.26 or B.9 in a mid-winter freeze event in 2004 but greater tree damage than M.9 from the late fall freeze in 2003. Among semi-dwarfing rootstock candidates that are similar in size to M.26, both G.935 and G.202 had significantly greater yield efficiency than M.26. In addition, they both have shown high resistance to fire blight and good tolerance to apple replant disease. Both have shown good winter survival to midwinter cold events. Introduction. The adoption of high-density apple orchards on dwarfing rootstocks has allowed apple growers to achieve earlier production, higher production and better fruit quality than previously. However, for many apple growers in North America, New Zealand and some locations in Europe, the bacterial disease fire blight is a serious threat to dwarf apple orchards (Norelli et al., 2003). M.9 and M.26, the most common dwarfing apple rootstocks, are very susceptible to this disease and in some locations this disease limits the planting of dwarfing rootstocks. Outbreaks of the disease in the eastern USA have decimated many dwarf apple orchards.
Optimizing relationships between growth and fructification processes in apple, in order to obtain high and quality yields every year, is a permanent concern of the fruit research. The relationship between apple trees training systems in "Gala", Pinova"‚ "Topaz" and "Florina" apple cultivars, grafted on M9 rootstocks, in the first 5 years of cropping under the climatic conditions of Cluj-Napoca, Romania, was studied. In the experimental field some growth parameters (trunk cross-sectional area, tree height, length of annual shoots) and fructification (yield in the end of first year of vegetation, cumulative yield for the first 5 years of fructification) were observed. The studied cultivars had a different behaviour, on hand, due to the genetic characteristic of each one and on the other hand, due to the training system of the trees. The results showed that Slender spindle and Vertical axis transmit much strongly growth than Solaxe and Tall spindle training systems. The biggest average trunk cross sectional area with the Tall spindle training system was obtained (33.4 cm 2) and also the highest trees (361.8 cm). Tall spindle gave precocity and the best yield potential compared to the all others cultivars, followed by Solaxe. Tall spindle training system proved to be, besides the other technological works, the best ones regarding the all performances of high density apple orchards.
Two important choices for apple growers are which cultivar to grow and which training system to use. Stochastic dominance analysis was used in an economic evaluation of a 10-year study in Pennsylvania (USA) comparing three cultivars ('Crimson Gala', 'Ginger Gold', and 'Fuji') grown on four training systems (vertical axe, slender spindle, 4-wire low trellis, and offset V-axe). Stochastic dominance accounts for grower risk attitude in such decisions. Because of consistently high yields and prices, 'Fuji' is the only cultivar that ranks highly across all risk attitude categories. For growers willing to accept more risk for higher reward, offset V-axe and vertical axe are preferred training systems. Trellis systems are preferred by growers seeking to minimize risk.
At 12 sites in the United States, trials were established in 1990 which included four apple (Malus X domestica Borkh.) cultivars ('Smoothee Golden Delicious,' 'Nicobel Jonagold,' 'Empire,' and 'Law Rome Beauty') in all combinations on five rootstocks (M.9 EMLA, B.9, Mark, O.3, and M.26 EMLA). After ten growing seasons, rootstock and scion cultivar interacted significantly to affect trunk cross-sectional area (TCA), root suckering, yield efficiency, and fruit size but not survival or yield per tree. In all cases these statistically significant interactions contributed minimally to the variability among rootstocks and were relatively unimportant in determining tree performance. Comparing cultivars after 10 years, survival was greatest for 'Empire' and poorest for 'Rome.' 'Jonagold' had the largest TCA, and 'Empire' and 'Rome' had the smallest. Root suckering occurred most prevalently with 'Empire.' 'Rome' yielded the most, and 'Jonagold' and 'Empire' yielded the least. 'Rome' trees also were the most yield efficient, and 'Jonagold' trees were the least efficient. Largest fruit were 'Rome' and 'Jonagold.' Comparing rootstock effects over 10 years, B.9 resulted in the greater tree survival than did O.3. M.9 EMLA, and Mark, and M.26 EMLA resulted in intermediate survival. Trees with the greatest TCA were on M.26 EMLA. Trees on M.9 EMLA and those on O.3 were similar and significantly smaller. Trees on B.9 and those on Mark were similar in size and the smallest in the trial. The greatest root suckering developed from B.9, Mark, and O.3, and the least came from M.26 EMLA. Trees on M.26 EMLA, O.3, and M.9 EMLA yielded similarly and significantly more than those on B.9 or Mark. The most yield efficient trees, however, were on B.9 and Mark, and the least were on M.26 EMLA. M.26 EMLAand M.9 EMLA resulted in the largest fruit size, and Mark resulted in the smallest.
In 2002, apple rootstock trials using three scion cultivars were established at Geneva, NY, to evaluate 64 apple (Malus xdomestica Borkh.) rootstocks for horticultural performance and fire blight resistance. Field trials compared several elite Geneva® apple rootstocks, which were bred for tolerance to fire blight and Phytophthora root rot, to both commercial standards and elite rootstock clones from around the world. Three rootstocks performed well with all scion cultivars: 'B.9', 'Geneva® 935', and 'Geneva® 41'. All three rootstocks were similar in size to 'M.9' clones but with elevated yield efficiency and superior resistance to fire blight. 'Geneva® 11' also performed very well with 'Golden Delicious' and 'Honeycrisp' with regard to yield efficiency and disease resistance. Resistant rootstocks greatly enhanced the survival of young trees, particularly with the susceptible scion cultivars 'Gala' and 'Honeycrisp'. Results demonstrate the ability of new rootstock clones to perform better than current commercial standards, reducing financial risk to producers while promoting orchard health with enhanced disease resistance.
Choice of cultivar, training system, planting density, and rootstock affect orchard performance and profitability. To provide guidance to growers in northern cold climates on these choices, a field trial was established in Peru, Clinton County, NY, in 2002, with two apple cultivars (Honeycrisp and McIntosh). From 2002 through 2016, we compared Central Leader on ‘M.M.111’; Slender Pyramid on ‘M.26’ and ‘Geneva® 30’ (‘G.30’); Vertical Axis on ‘M.9 (Nic® 29)’ (‘M.9’), ‘Budagovsky 9’ (‘B.9’), and ‘G.16’; SolAxe on ‘M.9’, ‘B.9’, and ‘G.16’; and Tall Spindle on ‘M.9’, ‘B.9’, and ‘G.16’. Central Leader was planted at 539 trees/ha, Slender Pyramid at 1097 trees/ha, Vertical Axis and SolAxe at 1794 trees/ha, and Tall Spindle at 3230 trees/ha. Cumulative yield was higher with ‘McIntosh’ than with ‘Honeycrisp’. High planting densities (Tall Spindle) gave the highest cumulative yields (593 t·ha–1 on ‘McIntosh’ and 341 t·ha–1 on ‘Honeycrisp’). Tall Spindle (3230 trees/ha) on ‘M.9’ appeared to be the best option for ‘McIntosh’. On the other hand, for a weak-growing cultivar such as ‘Honeycrisp’, Tall Spindle on ‘B.9’ (366 t·ha–1) and Slender Pyramid (1097 trees/ha) on ‘G.30’ (354 t·ha–1) were the two combinations with the highest cumulative yield, largest fruit size (220–235 g), and greatest efficiency index (4.6–3.9 kg·cm–2). © 2018, American Society for Horticultural Science. All rights reserved.
Planting a new apple orchard encompasses a 20-year commitment. Since orchard profitability can be affected by many factors, there is great disparity regarding the right planting density and training system for each condition. It is necessary to conduct long-term studies to find the best training system for each particular situation: cultivar, planting density, training system, climate, and economic conditions. A 2-hectare replicated field trial was planted in 1997 at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, New York, with 4 apple cultivars (‘Empire’, ‘Fuji’, ‘Gala’, and ‘McIntosh’), where we compared 8 tree planting densities (598, 840, 1026, 1283, 1655, 2243, 3262, and 5382 trees/ha), and two tree shapes (conic and V). The aim of this study was to evaluate the economic profitability of each combination of cultivar, planting density and tree shape. A secondary goal was to assess the effect of various economic factors on the profitability of each arrangement. After 20 years, Net Present Value (NPV) of ‘Gala’ planted at its optimum density and shape was over $100,000/ha, followed by ‘Empire’ with $77,000/ha, Fuji’ with $39,000/ha with ‘, and ‘McIntosh’ with $32,000/ha. Yield was one of the main factors affecting orchard profitability. A decrease in yield was predicted to be especially critical for profitability at densities greater than 2000 trees/ha. Fruit price was the other key variable that played a significant role in orchard profitability. High-density systems were more sensitive to fruit price than low-density systems. Break-even year to positive NPV (BYPNPV) was mostly driven by the balance between investment, yield and fruit price. For all the cultivars, the lowest (598 trees/ha) and the highest planting densities (5382 trees/ha) took the most years to be profitable. The high-density systems require substantially greater investments and thus have greater risk than moderate density systems. Taking into account NPV and BYPNPV, the best option for ‘Empire’, ‘McIntosh’, and ‘Gala’ was a conic shape and 2000, 2500 and 3000 trees/ha, respectively. The best option for ‘Fuji’ was a V shape at 1000 trees/ha.
While the adoption of high-density apple orchards during the last decades has resulted in a significant improvement in yield and fruit quality, there is great disparity of opinion on the optimum density or the optimum tree shape. A 2-ha replicated field trial was planted in 1997 at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, New York and continued through 2016, with 4 apple cultivars (‘Empire’, ‘Fuji’, ‘Gala’, and ‘McIntosh’), where we compared 8 tree planting densities (598, 840, 1026, 1283, 1655, 2243, 3262, and 5382 trees/ha), and two tree shapes (conic and V). At the lowest 2 densities, trees were planted on M.7 rootstock (598 trees/ha) and M.26 rootstock (840 trees/ha). At all of the higher tree densities, trees were planted on M.9. After 20 years, there was a strong negative correlation of tree planting density and trunk cross sectional area for all the cultivars and training systems, with the exception of ‘McIntosh’ in a V tree shape where no clear differences were observed. A different pattern for each cultivar was observed with respect to yield and planting density. High-density plantings were more appropriate for ‘Fuji’ and ‘Gala’, where conic tree shapes were better than V shapes. On the other hand, with ‘Empire’ and ‘McIntosh’ high planting density was not as beneficial. The highest yields from ‘McIntosh’ were realized at less than 3000 trees/ha with V tree shapes, or ∼3500 trees/ha with conic tree shapes. Planting density significantly affected firmness, soluble solids, fruit color, and fruit size. Light interception for each density and shape was measured only with ‘Empire’. Planting density had a strong positive effect on light interception. There were no significant differences in interception between tree shapes through the 4th leaf, however, after that more light was intercepted by the V shaped trees. Cumulative yield was a linear function of light energy intercepted by the canopy. While V tree shapes had more light interception, conic shapes seemed to have a better efficiency converting intercepted energy into yield. Planting density improved light interception, but decreased tree partitioning because of the need for more pruning leading to unbalanced trees. Tall Spindle at high planting density seemed to be the best option for cultivars with similar bearing habits such as ‘Fuji’ and ‘Gala’.
A study was carried out to determine the horticultural performance and leaf and fruit elemental nutrient concentrations of 48 apple rootstocks grafted on ‘Fuji’ apple cultivar, and grown on a commercial farm in the Hudson Valley (Milton) New York State, USA from 2005 to 2015. Tree circumference was measured at the end of each year, and fruit yield data were collected from the third year (2007) to the eleventh year (2015). Leaf and fruit macro- and microelements were evaluated at the tenth year of the study. Most of the rootstocks evaluated survived well in the Hudson Valley conditions, with the exception of the Geneva® (G or CG) rootstocks CG.4002 and CG.5030. The smallest trees were on CG.2034, M.27 and JM.4 and had the lowest cumulative yield and the lowest cumulative number of fruits, and medium to low fruit size, but the highest cumulative yield efficiency (kg cm-2). Other rootstocks, such as the dwarfing CG.2002, CG.2426, CG.4008, CG.5757, M.9 and the semi-dwarfing rootstock CG.6006, also showed higher yield efficiencies. On the other hand, the medium vigor CG rootstocks such as CG.6001, CG.6253, CG.6976, and CG.8189 had high cumulative yield and high cumulative fruit number, and medium high yield efficiency. Rootstocks had a significant influence on most of the fruit and leaf mineral concentration (dry weight basis). G.935, G.222 and CG.5257 conferred some of the highest values of fruit boron whereas M.9, M.27 and PiAu51.11 had the lowest. Fruit phosphorous values were closely associated with leaf boron, leaf potassium, and leaf sodium. Fruit calcium was highest in G.214, CG.2406, G.969, JM.4 and CG.5757, while the lowest values were with JM.1, PiAu51.11, and JTE-C. Fruit nitrogen values were lowest in M.7, PiAu51.4, B.118, and CG.8534 and the highest values were in the dwarfing rootstock CG.2034 and semi-dwarfing rootstock CG.4011. Weak but significant positive correlations were found between fruit size and leaf and fruit Mg, and leaf C. Significant correlations were found between nutrients: leaf B, P and K were highly positively correlated, and leaf Zn with leaf Mn and leaf Na. A strong positive correlation was found between fruit P and fruit K, fruit P and fruit B, and moderate positive correlation between fruit S and fruit K suggesting similar mechanisms of rootstock induction for these nutrients. These nutrient data are being utilized to customize scion nutrient requirements to rootstock-induced nutrient profiles.
The investigations were undertaken to study the generative developments of thirteen scion cultivars grafted onto four dwarfing rootstock clones viz., EMLA.111, EMLA.7, MM.111 and BUD.9 for pomological traits in dry temperate ecosystem of north-west Himalaya of India. Comparing scion cultivars after 7 years of planting, the survival was recorded maximum for ‘Gale Gala’ grafted onto EMLA.111 and the poorest for ‘Oregon Spur-II’ grafted onto BUD.9 rootstock clone. EMLA.111 and EMLA.7 performed very well with “Gale Gala” and ‘Golden Spur’ with regard to agro-morphometric traits and elevated yield efficiency. The growth vigor of trees grafted onto EMLA.111 and EMLA.7 was larger than those on BUD.9. After seventh harvest season, the rootstock and scion cultivar significantly affected TCSA, TCV, CA, root suckering, yield efficiency and fruit size. Maximum TCSA, TCA and CA were recorded in scion cultivar grafted onto EMLA.111. The greatest root suckering was developed from EMLA.111 (Gibson Golden) and EMLA.7 (Red Gravenstein, Sparton), and the least in EMLA.111 (Gale Gala). Correlation analysis of different attributes representing the pomological traits also resulted in a significant association at alpha = 0.05 attribute pairs. PCA of pomological and fruit quality traits was also worked out to evaluate the differences among scion cultivars tested on different dwarfing rootstock clones. PC4 accounted for 93.9% (pomological traits) and 80.6% (fruit quality) of the cumulative variance of scion cultivars studied. PCA-F1 had the highest positive loadings from plant height, tree girth, TCSA, and TCV followed by PCA-F2 (fruit yield and cumulative fruit yield). Further, no significant differences were obtained when the calculated factor scores of PCA-F1, PCA-F2 and PCA-F3 for fruit quality attributes were analyzed. The study inferred that the ability of the rootstock clones to perform better than current commercial standards, while, promoting orchard health and productivity with enhanced insect-pest and disease resistance.
Two replicated rootstock trials on growers farms in New York State were begun in 2004 to evaluate the Cornell-Geneva series of apple rootstocks which have been bred for tolerance to fire blight and Phytophthora root rot, high yield efficiency and good tree survival. In the 2001 trial with 'Golden Delicious' as the scion, the two named Geneva® rootstocks, G.41 and G.11 were dwarfing, had good survival and had high yield efficiency. Other promising un-named dwarf selections include CG.4214, 6006, 5005, 5087 and 5012. Two semi-dwarfing selections similar in size to M.7 showed good survival and high yield efficiency, CG.6969 and 5890. In the 2004 trial with 'Honeycrisp' as the scion, the named Geneva® rootstocks, particularly G.11 and G.935 continued to perform very well but we have also identified a group of 4 new dwarfing rootstocks CG.4021, 4210, 5757 and 4214 similar in size as M.9 or B.9 which have high productivity and fire blight resistance. We also identified a group of 6 semi-dwarfing rootstocks, CG.4001, 6969, 5757, 5046, 4004 and 5012 between the size of M.9 and M.7 which have high productivity and fire blight resistance. These rootstocks are free-standing but will need trunk and limb support for the high crops which they produce in the early years. These may be useful in parts of the world where fully dwarfing rootstocks are not adapted. We also identified a group of 4 vigorous rootstocks, CG.6001, 7707, 5890 and 6874, larger than MM.106 which have high productivity and fire blight resistance. These may be useful in the garden center trade.
Over the last 60 years, planting densities for apple, pear, peach, cherry, apricot and plum have all increased as improved management systems have been developed and the need for earlier production has become critical. For apple and pear, dwarfing rootstocks have been the key to the dramatic changes in tree size, spacing and early production. However, other improvements such as the development of feathered trees, development of minimal pruning strategies and physiological studies of limb angle have also contributed to the dramatic changes in tree density. Other studies on light interception and distribution have led to practical pruning strategies and improved tree forms. Advances in other fruit crops have generally followed advances in apples but since they have not had the benefit of fully dwarfing rootstocks, their planting densities have not increased as high as apple and pear. With cherry, semi-dwarfing precocious rootstocks have induced over-cropping which has required new pruning and cropload management strategies to obtain large fruit size. For cherry, peach, and plum, future increases in tree density depend on the development of improved dwarfing rootstocks. With apple and pear, the relentless march toward higher and higher tree densities over the last 50 years has recently been limited by economic factors, especially the price of trees. Economic studies have shown that the optimum tree density for apple is less than the maximum density that can be successfully managed. These studies have shown that the price of trees becomes very critical as tree density increases. Further increases in tree density will depend on reducing tree costs. As we look to the future, there are two possible scenarios. 1) The continued incremental improvement in our understanding of plant physiology that will lead to continued incremental improvements in orchard management or 2) Dramatic changes in orchard production system through genetic engineering. The first scenario will see continued understanding of the mechanisms of dwarfing, precocity and rooting which will lead to new rootstocks and better management of rootstocks for optimum performance. The second scenario could lead to identifying genes that control dwarfing, precocity and rooting and incorporating those characteristics into new varieties thus eliminating the need for the rootstock. Similarly, if the heterozygosity of Malus and Prunus species could be overcome, a seed based system of plant propagation could be envisioned which would dramatically change orchard planting densities and management. With either scenario, there is a need to improve our understanding of the genetic control of vegetative growth, flowering and fruit growth as well as improve our understanding of the physiology of pruning and thinning.
Currently, Dutch fruit growers plant apple orchards mainly in single rows, using thin slender spindle trees. Planting distances vary from 3.0 × 0.75 to 3.0 × 1.25 m. Optimal economic planting density is between 3,000 and 6,000 trees per ha. Growers demand well-feathered trees with the lowest side branch at about 80 cm above soil level, branch length preferably not longer than 50 cm and a thin central leader with flower buds. Two-year-old interstem trees and 'knip' trees (two-year-old trees with one-year-old top with sylleptic feathers) are preferred. Early fruiting is used to let the branches bend down preventing them from growing into neighboring trees. Tree height is about 2.25m which is about 0.25m higher than 8-10 years ago. The prevailing rootstock is M.9-T.337, although other clones of M.9 such as the more dwarfing M.9-F1.56 are becoming more important. Standard rootstock-shank length is 15 cm, but 25-35 cm is preferred when more growth reduction is pursued. A long interstem (30 cm or longer) of Summerred is also being used for additional growth reduction. On vigorous soils, trees are planted on top of the soil surface and ridged up soon afterwards. This is due to higher average yield capacity, higher picking output and less tree management cost. Growing a Super Spindle system is especially interesting, when moving into an economic friendly market situation with a new high priced variety, using non skilled labour, well sized and not biennial bearing susceptible varieties and dwarf rootstocks.
This paper presents the results of trials carried out in an apple orchard situated in the Bistrita fruit growing region of Romania. Within trials, we studied the influence of different densities, tree training system and rootstocks on tree growth and yield. We used semidwarf rootstock M.26 and dwarf M.9 at two densities: 1666 trees/ha and 2500 trees/ha. Trials were conducted on the cultivars 'Auriu of Bistrita' and 'Florina' grafted on M.9 trained in a V system and 'Florina' and 'Generos' grafted on M.26 trained as slender spindles. All the trees were planted in spring 2000. Since the second year after planting, trees were drip irrigated. Early results obtained show that mean shoot growth and canopy volume per tree were smaller when they had higher densities compared to lower densities. Flower buds were present in the second year after planting, but the yield per tree was poor, ranging from 1.1 to 2.7 kg/tree. Beginning the third growing season, the fruit yield was better correlated with tree density. In the fourth year after planting, the yields per hectare ranged from 8.9 t/ha ('Florina'/M.26/spindle slender; 1666 trees/ha) to 15 t/ha ('Florina'/M.9/V system; 2500 trees/ha) and from 10.8 t/ha ('Auriu of Bistrita'/M.9/V system; 1666 trees/ha) to 13.5 t/ha ('Auriu of Bistrita'/M.9/V system; 2500 trees/ha). Cumulative yield per hectare for all the four years and for all cultivars was the greatest at a density of 2500 trees per hectare.
In spring 2002, a North American-wide trial of apple rootstocks was established under the coordination of NC-140. 'Buckeye Gala' (Malus × domestica) was used as the scion cultivar, and rootstocks included B.9 North America (the strain commonly used in North America), B.9 Europe (the strain commonly used in Europe), M.26 EMLA, M.26 NAKB, M.9 Burgmer 756, M.9 Nic 29, M.9 NAKBT337, and Supporter 4. The trial was planted in Arkansas, British Columbia (Canada), Chihuahua (Mexico), Illinois, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, and Ohio. Trees were spaced 2.5×4.5 m and trained as vertical axes. After six growing seasons, smallest trees were on the two B.9 strains and trees on B.9 Europe were significantly smaller than those on B.9 North America. Supporter 4, M.26 EMLA, M.26 NAKB, and M.9 Burgmer 756 were similar and resulted in the largest trees, followed by M.9 Nic 29 and M.9 NAKBT337, in descending trunk cross-sectional area. Trees on M.26 NAKB, M.26 EMLA, and Supporter 4 cumulatively (2004-07) yielded more than those on B.9 Europe. The most cumulatively yield efficient trees were on the two B.9 strains, significantly more than trees on any of the other rootstocks (all of which were similar). Over the 2004- 07 fruiting life of the trial, rootstock did not affect fruit size.
In 1993, a planting of virus-free 'Royal Gala' apple (Malus xdomestica Borkh.) on 'M.9' rootstock was established at Summerland, B.C., Canada, to determine whether angled-canopy training systems could improve orchard tree performance relative to slender spindles. The trees were trained in one of five ways: slender spindle (SS), Geneva Y-trellis (GY), a modified Solen training we called 'Solen Y-trellis' (SY), or V-trellis (LDV), all at the same spacing (1.2 m × 2.8 m), giving a planting density of 2976 trees/ha. In addition, a higher density (7143 trees/ha) version of the V-trellis (HDV) was planted to gauge the performance of this system at densities approaching those of local super spindle orchards. The plots were drip-irrigated and hand-thinned. No summer pruning was done. After 8 years, differences among training systems at the same density and spacing were small and few. The two Y-shaped training systems had 11% to 14% greater cumulative yield/ha than the SS, but did not intercept significantly more light at maturity. No consistent differences occurred in fruit size or the percentage of fruit with delayed color development among the four training systems at the same density. Relative to the LDV, the HDV yielded less per tree, but far more per hectare, particularly in the first 3 years. After 8 years, the cumulative yield/ha was still 65% greater than with LDV. Yield efficiency was unaffected by tree density. Fruit size on HDV ranked lowest among the systems nearly every year, but was still commercially acceptable. The HDV intercepted more light (73%) than SS (53%). The percentage of fruit with delayed color development in HDV was not significantly different from that for LDV in most years. The trees in HDV were difficult to contain within their allotted space without summer pruning. The substantially similar performance of all the training systems (at a given density, and with minimal pruning) suggests that cost and ease of management should be the decisive factors when choosing a tree training method.
A field planting of `Empire' and `Redchief Delicious' apple trees (Malus domestics Borkh.) was established in 1978 to evaluate four planting systems: 1) slender spindle/M.9, 2) Y-trellis/M.26, 3) central leader/M.9/MM.111, and 4) central leader/M.7a. During the first 5 years, yields per hectare for `Empire' were positively correlated with tree density. In the second 5 years, the Y-trellis/M.26 trees produced the highest yields while yields of the other systems continued to be related to tree density. Cumulative yields were highest with the Y-trellis/M.26 trees. With `Delicious', the Y-trellis/M.26 yields were greatest during all 10 years despite lower tree density than the slender spindle/M.9. Yields of `Delicious' with the other three systems were a function of tree density during the 10 years. At maturity, canopy volume per tree was greatest on the central leader/M.7a trees and smallest on the slender spindle/M.9 trees; however, there were no significant differences in canopy volume per hectare between the systems despite large differences in yield. Trunk cross sectional area (TCA) per hectare was greatest with the Y-trellis/M.26 trees and smallest with the central leader/M.7 trees. Yield was highly correlated to TCA/ha. Yield efficiency with `Empire' was greatest for the slender spindle/M.9 system, followed by the Y-trellis/M.26, central leader/M.9/MM.111, respectively. With both cultivars, the central leader/M.7a system had the lowest yield efficiency. With `Delicious', there were no differences in yield efficiency for the other three systems. The greater yield of the Y-trellis/M.26 system was the result of greater TCA/ha and not greater efficiency. `Empire' fruit size was largest on the central leader/M.7a and the central leader/M.9/MM.111 trees and smallest on the slender spindle/M.9 and the Y-trellis/M.26 trees. With `Delicious', fruit size was larger with the Y-trellis/M.26 trees than the other systems. When fruit size was adjusted for crop density, there were no significant differences due to system with `Empire', but with `Delicious' the Y-trellis/M.26 trees had larger adjusted fruit size than the other systems. Crop density calculated using TCA correlated better to fruit size than did crop density calculated using annual increase in TCA, canopy volume, or land area. Fruit color and quality with `Redchief Delicious' were not influenced by system. With `Empire', average fruit color and soluble solids content were lower for the Y-trellis/M.26 and slender spindle/M.9 in some years when canopy density was allowed to become. excessive.
The influence of two training systems (tiller, and open central leader) on leaf mineral contents, growth, fruit set, yield, and fruit quality of "Anna" apples cultivar was estimated in the experiment conducted during two successive seasons at private orchard located Cairo Alexandria desert road about 80 Km from Cairo. Results indicated that, tiller training system significantly increased leaf Nitrogen, and Potassium contents. Moreover, shoots length, diameter, and leaf area were increased significantly under tiller training system as compared with open central leader training system (control). Also, fruit set, yield, and fruit quality increased significantly with tiller training system compared with control. Present study can lead to conclude that tiller training system significantly affect growth, yield, and fruit quality, and it is recommended to apply cultural practices for improving irradiance conditions which consequently enhance production in apple orchards.
Rootstocks have been used for propagating temperate fruit trees for more than 2000 years. Many of the rootstocks used, as well as providing a simple method of propagation, also affect scion growth, cropping, and adaptability to different environmental conditions. How rootstocks bring about their effects on scion growth and cropping is still not understood. This review describes and discusses some of the many rootstock effects on temperate fruit tree scion growth, vigour, and habit, as well as scion precocity and abundance of flowering and the propensity of flowers to set fruits. Finally rootstock effects on yield efficiency are considered.
A single-plant-plot design was found very suitable for a study of growth and yield effect of tree density, rectangularity and row orientation on a wide range of intra and inter-row planting-distances.Densities from about 250 to 40 000 trees per hectare were studied in 2 apple cultivars on 2 weak-growing rootstocks over a period of 8 years. On unpruned trees a maximum yield of 80 tons per hectare of ‘James Grieve’ and about 95 tons of ‘Spartan’ was recorded. At the highest densities these yields were reached 2–3 years after planting.As early as the second to third year the growth was restricted at densities over about 1000 trees per hectare. A higher yield per tree at medium densities than at lower densities for the first fruiting-years is supposed to be an effect of growth resulting in earlier fruiting.A high rate of rectangularity reduced the yield only on densities of 1200–1550 trees per hectare. The lack of a significant effect on lower and higher densities is discussed.The growth and yield of rows oriented North—South were 17% higher than of those oriented East—West.
Norelli, J. L., Holleran, H. T., Johnson, W. C., Robinson, T. L., and Aldwinckle, H. S. 2003. Resistance of Geneva and other apple rootstocks to Erwinia amylovora. Plant Dis. 87:26-32. When vigorously growing shoots of 49 different apple rootstocks grown in a greenhouse were inoculated with different strains of Erwinia amylovora, Budagovsky 9 (B.9), Ottawa 3, Malling 9, and Malling 26 were the most fire blight susceptible rootstocks and Geneva 11, Geneva 65, Geneva 16, Geneva 30, Pillnitzer Au51-11, Malling 7, and several breeding selections were the most resistant. Significant strain-rootstock interactions were observed in the amount of fire blight that resulted from inoculation. Field-grown fruiting 'Royal Gala' trees on Geneva 16 and Geneva 30 rootstocks were highly resistant to rootstock infection (no tree mortality) when trees sustained severe blossom infection with E. amylovora, compared with Malling 9 and Malling 26 rootstock clones, which were highly susceptible to infection (36 to 100% tree mortality). In contrast to potted own-rooted B.9 plants inoculated in a greenhouse, B.9 rootstocks of orchard trees appeared resistant to rootstock infection (0% tree mortality). Orchard trees on Geneva 11 were moderately resistant to rootstock infection (25% tree mortality). There was general agree- ment in the evaluation of resistance under orchard conditions when rootstock resistance was evaluated in relation to controlled blossom inoculation or to natural blossom infection.
Four-year-old apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) trees cv. 'Braeburn' on M.26 rootstock were thinned at full bloom to establish six crop loads ranging from a heavy crop to a deflowered treatment. At harvest, mean yield per tree varied from 0 to 38 kg and mean fruit weight ranged from 225 g in the heaviest cropping treatment to 385 g in the lightest cropping treatment. Light cropping resulted in a significant advance in fruit maturity as indicated by background color, starch/iodine score and soluble solids. There were small differences in leaf photosynthetic rate among the treatments when shoot growth was active. However, in early January, coincident with cessation of shoot growth and maximum rate of accumulation of fruit weight, leaf assimilation rate was reduced by as much as 65% on the deflowered trees compared to the trees carrying the heaviest crop. Leaf assimilation rate showed a curvilinear response to crop load at this time, with little increase in leaf assimilation when crop load exceeded 12 fruit m(-2) leaf area.
- W R Autio
- T L Robinson
- W Cowgill
- C Hampson
- M Kushad
- G Lang
Autio, W.R., Robinson, T.L., Cowgill, W., Hampson, C., Kushad, M., Lang, G., 2011.
Performance of 'Gala' apple trees on supporter 4 and different strains of B.9, M.9, and
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