Overall Equipment Effectiveness and the Six Big Losses in Total Productive Maintenance

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Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research
156
Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 2018, 5(4):156-164
Review Article
ISSN: 2394-2630
CODEN(USA): JSERBR
Overall Equipment Effectiveness and the Six Big Losses in Total Productive
Maintenance
Okpala Charles Chikwendu, Anozie Stephen Chima
Department of Industrial/Production Engineering. NnamdiAzikiwe University, P.M.B. 5025 Awka,
Anambra State, Nigeria
Abstract Maintenance philosophies have evolved over a period of time. These philosophies have developed
from breakdown maintenance to Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM). By performing proper maintenance
on plant equipment, manufacturing goals can be achieved. This forms the basis of Total Productive Maintenance
(TPM) strategy, which aims at supporting manufacturing goals, as it is based on the integrated manufacturing
system approach that includes process control, quality assurance, safety and maintenance. The paper reviewed
the literature and provided a detailed definition of TPM, and also identified 5S as its foundation with eight
supporting functions usually referred to as the pillars. Apart from reducing equipment breakdowns and defects,
enhancing productivity, throughput, and profitability, the following were listed as some of the benefits of
successful TPM Implementation: quality improvement, reduction of production cost, inventory, set up time,
accidents, and labour costs. Before discussing the six big losses in details, the paper pointed out that the losses
can be resolved by implementing the overall equipment effectiveness, and that the measurement of OEE assists
manufacturers to trace the benefits inherent in TPM implementation, and also in the identification of production
losses.
Keywords Total Productive Maintenance, Overall Equipment Effectiveness, six big losses, breakdown,
equipment, defect, downtime, performance, quality, availability
1. Introduction
Developed for overall enhancement of productivity by ensuring waste reduction and more reliable
manufacturing processes, Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is an all-encompassing methodology of
equipment maintenance that aims at perfect production.
Okpala and Egwuagu [1], noted that TPM is often referred to as the medical science of machines, as it is a
“philosophy of machine maintenance that entails active participation of employees to ensure the improvement of
the general effectiveness of a plant, by eliminating or reducing resources and time wastage through the
incorporation of the skills of the workforce.” They explained that as a maintenance programme that entails a
modern approach for equipment and plant maintenance, TPM aims to integrate maintenance and services of
machines into a plant’s daily routine, thereby reducing unscheduled and emergency stoppages and repairs to the
barest minimum.
Total Productive Maintenance is an organized machines and equipment maintenance system that focuses on
continuous improvement through teamwork; it fixes all identified potential causes of problems to forestall
breakdowns. According to Wakjira and Singh [2], Total Productive Maintenance is an attitude, concept and
process of continuous improvement in maintenance and manufacturing processes to improve overall equipment
effectiveness, operating efficiency, output quality and workers safety.

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The overall goal of TPM is to provide a safe working environment, ensure that production targets are met and
that quality products are supplied to customers. Although these areas have always been important, TPM, as
opposed to other initiatives such as Predictive Maintenance or Preventative Maintenance, seeks to provide a
holistic and more integrative approach to running and maintaining plant operations. As a result, local
manufacturing industries are improving their operations to become more competitive by enlisting the help of
experts in the field of plant maintenance to assist their organisations in implementing TPM.
Venkatesh [3], noted that the origin of TPM can be traced back to 1951 when preventive maintenance was
introduced in Japan, when Nippondenso was the first company to introduce plant wide preventive maintenance.
He observed that with the automation of Nippondenso, maintenance became a problem as more maintenance
personnel were required. So the management decided that the routine maintenance of equipment would be
carried out by the operators.
Thus, the company which already followed preventive maintenance also added Autonomous maintenance, done
by production operators. This led to maintenance prevention, as preventive maintenance alongside
Maintainability Improvement gave birth to Productive maintenance, which aimed at the maximization of plant
and equipment effectiveness to achieve optimum life cycle cost of production equipment.
TPM represents a shift in the way progressive world-class companies think about maintenance, as it is a radical
departure from the traditional view of breakdown maintenance. As a methodology and philosophy of strategic
equipment management focused on the goal of building product quality by maximising equipment effectiveness,
TPM was originally introduced as a set of practices and methodologies focused on manufacturing equipment
performance improvement. However, over the years according to Ahuja and Kumar [4], TPM has matured into a
comprehensive equipment-centric effort to optimize manufacturing productivity. It embraces the concept of
continuous improvement and total participation by all employees and departments.
The objective of TPM is to attain autonomous maintenance through the improvement of equipment
effectiveness. This could be achieved by enhanced throughput and product quality, as well as the reduction of
production cost and inherent wastes in manufacturing processes.
The Pillars of TPM
For an effective implementation of TPM in manufacturing companies, the entire work force must be informed
and carried along right from the commencement of the exercise; this is because TPM entails setting up
anticipatory measures to enable operators to enhance equipment’s effectiveness. According to Vorne [5],
Involving operators in maintaining their own equipment, and emphasizing proactive and preventive maintenance
will lay a foundation for improved production, leading to fewer breakdowns, stoppages, and defects.
As shown in figure 1, the traditional TPM has the 5S which consists of Sort, Straighten, Shine, systemize, and
sustain as its foundation and eight supporting functions usually referred to as the pillars, and when successfully
implemented the end result will be world class result.
Figure 1: The Traditional TPM Model

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Ihueze and Okpala [6], noted that 5S practice that adopts the use of visual signs to ensure greater benefits is
targeted at improving productivity by sanitizing as well as ensuring a neat and well arranged shop floor. They
pointed out that the 5Swhich were originally Japanese words are:
• Seiri (Sort): Isolate and get rid of all material sthat are not useful;
• Seiton (Straighten): Systemize the important materials and arrange them properly for better retrieval
when they are required;
• Seiso (Shine): Clean-up the entire shop floor to maintain a conducive environment for manufacturing;
• Seiketsu (Systemize): Maintain a constant cleaning of the surroundings;
• Shitsuke (Sustain): Involve all the employees and ensure that the constant cleaning is maintained.
The eight pillars of TPM which emphasizes mainly on achieving equipment effectiveness through preventative
techniques is shown in Table 1. Table 1: The Eight Pillars of TPM [5].
Pillar
What is it?
How does it help?
Autonomous
Maintenance
Places responsibility for routine
maintenance, such as cleaning,
lubricating, and inspection, in the hands
of operators.
 Gives operators greater “ownership”
of their equipment.
 Increases operators’ knowledge of
their equipment.
 Ensures equipment is well-cleaned
and lubricated.
 Identifies emergent issues before they
become failures.
 Frees maintenance personnel for
higher-level tasks.
Planned
Maintenance
Schedules maintenance tasks based on
predicted and/or measured failure rates.
 Significantly reduces instances of
unplanned stop time.
 Enables most maintenance to be
planned for times when equipment is
not scheduled for production.
 Reduces inventory through better
control of wear-prone and failure-
prone parts.
Quality
Maintenance
Design error detection and prevention
into production processes. Apply Root
Cause Analysis to eliminate recurring
sources of quality defects.
 Specifically targets quality issues
with improvement projects focused
on removing root sources of defects.
 Reduces number of defects.
 Reduces cost by catching defects
early (it is expensive and unreliable
to find defects through inspection).
Focused
Improvement
Have small groups of employees work
together proactively to achieve regular,
incremental improvements in equipment
operation.
 Recurring problems are identified and
resolved by cross-functional teams.
 Combines the collective talents of a
company to create an engine for
continuous improvement.
Early Equipment
Management
Directs practical knowledge and
understanding of manufacturing
equipment gained through TPM towards
improving the design of new equipment.
 New equipment reaches planned
performance levels much faster due
to fewer startup issues.
 Maintenance is simpler and more
robust due to practical review and
employee involvement prior to

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installation.
Training and
Education
Fill in knowledge gaps necessary to
achieve TPM goals. Applies to
operators, maintenance personnel and
managers.
 Operators develop skills to routinely
maintain equipment and identify
emerging problems.
 Maintenance personnel learn
techniques for proactive and
preventative maintenance.
 Managers are trained on TPM
principles as well as on employee
coaching and development.
Safety, Health,
Environment
Maintain a safe and healthy working
environment.
 Eliminates potential health and safety
risks, resulting in a safer workplace.
 Specifically targets the goal of an
accident-free workplace.
TPM in
Administration
Apply TPM techniques to
administrative functions.
 Extends TPM benefits beyond the
plant floor by addressing waste in
administrative functions.
 Supports production through
improved administrative operations
(e.g. order processing, procurement,
and scheduling).
The Need for TPM in Manufacturing
According to Tripathi [7], TPM implementation in a manufacturing company leads to higher productivity, better
quality, fewer breakdowns, lower costs, reliable deliveries, motivating working environments, enhanced safety
and improved morale of the employees. The ultimate benefits that can be obtained by implementing TPM are
enhanced productivity and profitability of the manufacturing organisation.
TPM aims to increase the availability of existing equipment in a given situation, reducing in that way the need
for further capital investment. According to Bohoris et al, [8], instrumental to its success is the investment in
human resources, which further results in better hardware utilization, higher product quality and reduced labour
costs.
Suzuki [9], opined that manufacturing organisation practicing TPM invariably achieve startling results,
particularly in reducing equipment breakdowns, minimizing idling and minor stops (indispensable in unmanned
plants), lessening quality defects and claims, boosting productivity, trimming labour and costs, shrinking
inventory, cutting accidents, and promoting employee involvement. When the breakdowns and defects are
eliminated, many benefits are presented: equipment productivity improvement, cost reduction, quality
improvement, and inventory reduction, etc. The TPM approach helps increase uptime of equipment, reduce
machinery set-up time, enhance quality, and lower costs. Through this approach, maintenance becomes an
integral part of the team.
In addition, TPM implementation in a manufacturing organization can also lead to realization of intangible
benefits in the form of improved image of the organization, leading to the possibility of increased orders. After
introduction of autonomous maintenance activity, operators take care of machines by themselves without being
ordered to Dossenbach [10], pointed out that with the achievement of zero breakdowns, zero accidents and zero
defects, operators get new confidence in their own abilities and the organizations also realize the importance of
employee contributions towards the realization of manufacturing performance.
TPM implementation also helps to foster motivation in the workforce, through adequate empowerment, training
and felicitations, thereby enhancing the employee participation towards the realization of manufacturing
companies’ goals and objectives. Ideally, TPM provides a framework for addressing the manufacturing
organisational objectives. The other benefits include favourable changes in the attitude of the operators,

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achieving goals by working in teams, sharing knowledge and experience and the workers getting a feeling of
owning the machine.
Overall Equipment Effectiveness and the Six Bog Losses in TPM
Often regarded as one of the best measurements of Total Productive Maintenance, Overall Equipment
Effectiveness (OEE) is a technique applied for the measurement of major production features which include
performance efficiency, rate of quality and availability. It aims at speed increment, and the reduction of
defective products, machines stoppages (downtime), and poor quality products by machines, as well as
machines and equipment that work below their production capacity.
The OEE model that depicts the losses and target is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2: The OEE Model
OEE according to Leanproduction [11], is a metric that identifies the percentage of planned production time that
is truly productive, and was developed to support TPM initiatives by accurately tracking progress towards
achieving “perfect production”. It observed that it is of utmost important to measure OEE in order to expose and
quantify productivity losses, and also measure and track improvements resulting from TPM initiatives.
As shown in Table 2, OEE is associated with the goals of TPM of no stoppages measured by availability, no
defective products measured by quality, and no small stops measuredby performance.
Table 2: Components of OEE [11]
Component
TPM Goal
Type of Productivity Loss
Availability
No Stops
Availability takes into account
Availability Loss, which includes
all events that stop planned
production for an appreciable
length of time (typically several
minutes or longer). Examples
include Unplanned Stops (such as
breakdowns and other down
events) and Planned Stops (such as
changeovers).
Performance
No Small Stops or Slow Running
Performance takes into account
Performance Loss, which includes
all factors that cause production to
operate at less than the maximum
possible speed when running.
Examples include both Slow

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Cycles, and Small Stops.
Quality
No Defects
Quality takes into account Quality
Loss, which factors out
manufactured pieces that do not
meet quality standards, including
pieces that require rework.
Examples include Production
Rejects and Reduced Yield on
startup.
OEE
Perfect Production
OEE takes into account all losses
(Availability Loss, Performance
Loss, and Quality Loss), resulting
in a measure of truly productive
manufacturing time.
The OEE is applied in the enhancement of machine performance and related processes through the identification
of performance opportunities that imparts heavily on the bottom line. The OEE metric which is the ratio of
actual output of equipment to its greatest theoretical output, measures and enhances the reliability of machine,
products’ quality, and changeovers’ improvements.
OEE is calculated with the following formulae:
𝑶𝑬𝑬=𝑨𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 ×𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆
Availability (in percent)= Actual Running Time
Scheduled Running Time ×100
Whereas Actual Running Time =scheduled running time-unplanned stoppages
Availability = 𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐝𝐫𝐮𝐧𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞−𝐮𝐧𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐝𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐬
𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐝𝐫𝐮𝐧𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
Performance Rate (in percent) =𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
Average production rate = 𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞
𝐧𝐨𝐨𝐟𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝
Quality rate (in percent) =𝐧𝐨𝐨𝐟𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐝−𝐧𝐨𝐨𝐟𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐬𝐫𝐞𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝
𝐧𝐨𝐨𝐟𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐬𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐝 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
The framework of production loss is depicted in figure 3.
Figure 3: The Framework of Production Loss

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The measurement of OEE assists manufacturers to trace the benefits inherent in TPM implementation and also
in the identification of production losses. Okpala and Egwuagu [1], noted that “As the important function of
production line, rate of production, availability, rate of performance, and machine’s quality rate, Overall
Equipment Effectiveness is calculated with regards to the six major losses that can result from faulty equipment
or operation which include unexpected breakdown, setup and adjustment losses, idling and stoppage losses,
speed losses, quality defect and rework losses, as well as equipment and capital investment losses.”
The six major losses that can result from faulty equipment or operation is shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Six major losses [12]
S/No.
Loss Category
Costs to Organization
1
Unexpected breakdown losses
Results in equipment downtime for repairs. Costs can include
downtime (and lost production opportunity or yields), labor, and
spare parts.
2
Set-up and adjustment losses
Results in lost production opportunity (yields) that occurs during
product changeovers, shift change or other changes in operating
conditions.
3
Idling and Stoppage losses
Results in frequent production downtime and that difficult to record
manually. As a result, these losses are usually hidden from
efficiency reports and are built into machine capabilities but can
cause substantial equipment downtime and lost production
opportunity.
4
Speed losses
Results in productivity losses when equipment must be slowed
down to prevent quality defects or minor stoppages. In most cases,
this loss is not recorded because the equipment continues to operate.
5
Quality defect & Rework losses
Results in low standard production and defects due to equipment
malfunction or poor performance, leading to output which must be
reworked or scrapped as waste.
6
Equipment and capital
investment losses
Results in wear and tear on equipment that reduces its durability and
productive life span, leading to more frequent capital investment in
replacement equipment.
Breakdowns
Equipment breakdown also known as unplanned stops is an Availability Loss that occurs whenever an
equipment that is scheduled for operation is shut down as a result of a failure. Such failures are unavailability of
inventory or operators, forced maintenance, equipment and tool failures, as well as bottlenecks. Reducing and
possible elimination of breakdowns is very crucial to enhancing Overall Equipment Effectiveness.
Setup time and Adjustment Losses
Often referred to as planned stops, setup time and adjustment losses is the period when an equipment that has
already been scheduled for operation is shut down as a result of equipment repairs, adjustments, cleaning,
planned maintenance and lubrication, inspection and changeovers.
Also an Availability Loss, set up time which measured as the period between the last good product produced
before setup to the first regular good products produced after setup, can be tackled by the application of the
Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED) system pioneered by a Japanese – Shingeo Shingo.
Idling and Stoppage Losses
Idling and stoppage losses also referred to as small stops and reduced speeds which are often sorted out by the
operator arise when an equipment stops for a short period of less than five minutes. The Performance Loss is
usually ignored by operators as they occur intermittently thereby making it a very difficult loss to identify.
Examples include hampered product flow, jammed materials, routine quick cleanings, misfeeds, faulty settings
and designs, and obstructed sensors. The loss can be tracked bythe application of Cycle Time Analysis (CPA).

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Speed Losses
Speed Losses takes place when equipment runs at reduced speed when compared to the theoretical ideal cycle
time. The examples of the Performance Loss which is also called reduced speed or slow cycles are inadequate
lubrication, inexperienced operator, low quality inventory, shutdown, as well as dirty equipment.
Quality Defect and Rework Losses
Quality defect and rework losses also known as process defects are defective and faulty products, as well as
products that could still be reworked that are manufactured during regular production. The production of a lot of
defective products adversely affects manufacturing companies’ profitability due to the high cost of rework,
hence the need for OEE.
Whenever defects are noticed, it is always advised to track it in order to isolate the possible causes. Considered
as a Quality Loss, examples of quality defect and rework losses are operator handling errors, as well as faulty
setting of equipment.
Equipment and Capital Investment Losses
According to Gupta, Tewari, and Sharma [12], Equipment and Capital Investment Losses leads to wear and tear
on equipment that reduces its durability and productive life span, thereby leading to more frequent capital
investment in replacement equipment.
The six big losses and OEE loss category with event examples are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: The Six Big Losses and OEE Loss Category
Six Big Loss
Category
OEE Loss
Category
Events Example
Comment
Breakdowns
Downtime
Loss
Tooling Failures
Unplanned
Maintenance
General Breakdowns
Equipment Failure
There is flexibility on where to set the threshold
between a breakdown (Downtime loss) and a
small stop (Speed loss)
Setup and
Adjustments
Downtime
Loss
Setup/Changeover
Material Shortages
Operator Shortages
Major Adjustments
Warm-up Time
This loss is often addressed through setup time
reduction programmes
Small Stops
Speed Loss
Obstructed Product
Flow
Component Jams
Misfeeds
Sensor Blocked
Delivery Blocked
Clearing/Checking
Typically only includes stops that are under five
minutes and that do not require maintenance
personnel
Reduced Speed
Speed Loss
Rough Running
Under Nameplate
Capacity
Under Design
Capacity
Equipment Wear
Operator Inefficiency
Anything that keeps the process from running at
its theoretical maximum speed (Ideal run rate or
nameplate capacity)
Start-up Rejects
Quality Loss
Scrap
Rework
In-process Damage
In-process Expiration
Rejects during Warm-up, start-up or other early
Production. May be due to improper setup, warm-
up period etc.

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Incorrect Assembly
Production
Rejects
Quality Loss
Scrap
Rework
In-process Damage
In-process Expiration
Incorrect Assembly
Rejects during steady state production
However, the six major losses can be resolved by implementing the overall equipment effectiveness.
Conclusion
The six big losses which support OEE and offer an outstanding approach to improvement of manufacturing is
deeply rooted in TPM, this is because one of the aims of TPM is the identification and subsequent elimination of
the six big losses which is an effective approach to equipment based losses categorization.
The right step to achieve sound and verifiable results in TPM implementation is for manufacturing companies to
focus on continuous improvement to improve the constraint, which will ultimately lead to the reduction of the
six big losses and enhanced profitability and throughput.
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