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Chapter 30
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in
the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and
Western Dharwar Cratons
Sukanta Dey
1
, Aniruddha Mitra
1
, Jinia Nandy
1
, Sudipto Mondal
1
, Abhishek Topno
1
, Yongsheng Liu
2
and
Keqing Zong
2
1
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India;
2
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction 741
2. Singhbhum Craton 743
2.1 Regional Geology 743
2.2 Champua Suite (Older Metamorphic Tonalite Gneiss
in Older Literature) and Equivalent Granitoids 745
2.2.1 Geological Setting and Age 745
2.2.2 Geochemistry 747
2.2.3 Petrogenesis 748
2.3 Singhbhum Suite 751
2.3.1 Geological Setting 751
2.3.2 Geochemistry and Age 753
2.3.3 Petrogenesis 760
2.4 Bonai Suite 765
2.4.1 Geological Setting 765
2.4.2 Geochemistry and Age 766
2.4.3 Petrogenesis 767
2.5 Paleoarchean Crustal Evolution in the Singhbhum
Craton 768
3. Dharwar Craton 769
3.1 Regional Geology 769
3.2 Granitoids 772
3.2.1 Anmodghat (Goa) Region 772
3.2.2 Chikmagalur Region 772
3.2.3 Holenarsipur Region 775
3.2.4 Gundlupet Region 779
3.3 Paleoarchean (to Mesoarchean) Crustal Evolution in
the Western Dharwar Craton 780
4. Discussion 782
Appendix 1: Analytical Techniques 783
Whole-Rock Element Analysis 783
Zircon UePb Dating 783
Zircon Hf Isotope Analysis 783
Acknowledgments 784
References 784
Further Reading 791
1. INTRODUCTION
The mechanism of Eoarchean (4.0e3.6 Ga) and Paleoarchean (3.6e3.2 Ga) continental crust formation and its geo-
dynamic setting is a controversial subject (Condie and Kröner, 2008; Johnson et al., 2014; Sizova et al., 2015). Suggested
models can be broadly divided into two categories. One group of workers argue that some form of horizontal tectonics
(i.e., plate tectonics) was already in operation during the early Archean (Komiya et al., 1999, 2015; Nutman et al., 2002;
Cawood et al., 2006; Shirey et al., 2008). Proposed evidence for plate tectonics includes accretionary complexes
characterized by thrust-related structural duplications (Komiya et al., 1999), suture zones (Nutman et al., 2002), possible
subduction-related ophiolites or stacked oceanic crust (Komiya et al., 2015;Furnes et al., 2015), deformation micro-
structures in Archean ultramafic rocks similar to suprasubduction zone mantle (Kaczmarek et al., 2016), rock associations
(boninites, calc-alkaline felsic volcanic rocks, high-pressure tonaliteetrondhjemiteegranodiorite series (TTGs), arc-like
dunites, basalts, and picrites) and geochemical signatures (e.g., high Th/Nb, Th/Yb and V/Ti, light rare-earth elements
[LREE] enrichment, depletion of high field strength elements (HFSE) compared with large-ion lithophile elements [LILE])
Earth’s Oldest Rocks. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63901-1.00030-7
Copyright ©2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
741
similar to Phanerozoic arc environments (Polat et al., 2002; Smithies et al., 2005; Polat, 2013; Kusky et al., 2013; Furnes
et al., 2015), and high-P, low-T metamorphic conditions in supracrustal rocks (Cutts et al., 2014).
Another group of workers contend that mantle plume-related crust formation and contemporaneous vertical tectonics was
an additional mechanism of crustal growth, until the onset of modern-style plate tectonics, characterized by steep subduction
of cold oceanic plate, at about 3.2e3.0 Ga (Smithies et al., 2007; Bédard et al., 2013; Van Kranendonk et al., 2015;
Hawkesworth et al., 2016). Much of the arguments in favor of vertical tectonics were based on studies carried out on the
well-preserved Paleoarchean rocks of the East Pilbara Terrane (EPT) of the Pilbara Craton, Western Australia, the Barberton
Granitoid-Greenstone Terrain (BGGT) of the eastern Kaapvaal Craton, southern Africa, and the Western Dharwar Craton
(WDC). Notable features of these terranes are a dome-and-keel architecture characterized by ovoid, domal granitoid bodies
flanked by relatively narrow, synclinal greenstone belts, concentric foliations within the granitoids, and structural and
metamorphic indicators of diapiric rise of granitoids and sinking of the volcano-sedimentary belts (Bouhallier et al., 1995a,b;
Collins et al., 1998; Van Kranendonk, 2011; Van Kranendonk et al., 2004, 2015). Commonly a mantle plumeerelated, thick
oceanic plateau setting, characterized by high heat flow, has been suggested for crust formation within these terrains
(Van Kranendonk et al., 2004, 2007, 2015; Smithies et al., 2009; Anhaeusser, 2010). Episodic mantle-derived underplating
and intraplating of maficeultramafic rocks in this setting and attendant crustal reworking was suggested to be a viable
mechanism for formation of early Archean TTGs (Bédard, 2006; Champion and Smithies, 2007; Johnson et al., 2017). The
middle to lower crust in such case was likely to be soft inducing sinking of the denser greenstone belts and concurrent
diapiric rising of the granitoid bodies (“partial convective overturn”) forming dome-and-keel architecture (Collins et al.,
1998; Zegers and van Keken, 2001; Bédard, 2006; Van Kranendonk et al., 2007, 2015; Kamber, 2015). The majority of
studies on early Archean rocks were region-specific.
Many workers now believe that both horizontal and vertical tectonics operated during the early Archean, although their
relative importance is still being actively debated (e.g., Van Kranendonk, 2010; Mueller et al., 2014). Peninsular India
includes five Archean cratons: Dharwar, Bastar (or Bhandara), Singhbhum, Aravalli, and Bundelkhand. These are flanked
by Proterozoic mobile belts, including the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt, Central Indian Tectonic Zone, and Southern
Granulite Terrain (Sarkar and Gupta, 2012; Meert and Pandit, 2015)(Fig. 30.1). Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean granitoids
and supracrustal rocks are well-preserved in these cratons, which have excellent potential to test or develop geodynamic
models for early Archean crustal growth.
FIGURE 30.1 An outline of India showing the locations of different Archean cratonic blocks and Proterozoic mobile belts. The Central Indian Tectonic
Zone lies between the Narmada-Son Fault Zone lineament (NS) and CIS (Central Indian Shear Zone). SdSinghbhum Shear Zone. Modified after a
compilation by French et al. (2008).
742 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
During the last few decades, a significant amount of structural, geochemical, isotopic, and geochronologic data have
been gathered on these cratons. However, the information is fragmentary, locality-specific and, often, not readily accessible
to international readers. This contribution is a synthesis of the geological setting, age, and geochemical (including Nd and
Hf isotopes) characteristics of Paleoarchean (and Mesoarchean) granitoids exposed over a vast tract in the Singhbhum
Craton and the western part of the Dharwar Craton (WDC) (Fig. 30.1). A broader picture is presented incorporating their
petrogenesis, comparison, and possible implications for early Archean tectonics.
2. SINGHBHUM CRATON
2.1 Regional Geology
The Singhbhum Craton extends over an area of 50,000 km
2
in eastern India (Fig. 30.1). The central part of the craton is
occupied mainly by granitoids (Fig. 30.2). Volcano-sedimentary sequences ranging in age from Paleoarchean to Paleo-
proterozoic encircle this central granitoid core. The oldest granitoids of the craton is a group of gneisses collectively termed
as Older Metamorphic Tonalite Gneiss (OMTG) (Saha, 1994) and later renamed as the Champua Suite by Dey et al.
(2017). The largest exposure of granitoid gneisses is located in the western part of the craton around Champua (Fig. 30.2).
Exposures of granitoid gneisses occur in different parts of the craton ranging in dimension from a few tens of km
2
down to
meter size enclaves within the more voluminous granitoids of the younger Singhbhum Suite. To the west of Champua is
the Older Metamorphic Group (OMG)dan ensemble of supracrustal rocks (metapelites, ortho- and para-amphibolites,
calc-silicate rocks, and quartzites) displaying strong ductile deformation and amphibolite-grade metamorphism
(Saha, 1994; Sharma et al., 1994; Misra, 2006; Prabhakar and Bhattacharya, 2013; Saha et al., 2012; Hofmann and
Mazumder, 2015). Smaller exposures of supracrustal rocks, presumably equivalent to the OMG, are also scattered across
different parts of the Singhbhum Craton (Fig. 30.2). Ortho-amphibolites of the OMG yielded a whole-rock SmeNd age of
3305 60 Ma (Sharma et al., 1994). Traditionally, the OMG has been considered as the oldest group of supracrustal rocks
of the Singhbhum Craton (Saha, 1994). Granitoids of the Champua Suite were thought to have intruded synkinematically
during the deformation of the OMG (Saha, 1994). Some authors, on the basis of recent field observations and zircon UePb
dating, however, contested this view and suggested that a part of the Champua Suite could be older, possibly forming the
basement for deposition of the OMG (Roy and Bhattacharya, 2012;Saha et al., 2012; Prabhakar and Bhattacharya, 2013;
Nelson et al., 2014).
The Champua Suite and OMG are engulfed by granitoids of the Singhbhum Suite (Singhbhum Granite in older litera-
ture), which intruded in pulses over the period 3.37e3.29 Ga (Mishra et al., 1999; Tait et al., 2011; Nelson et al., 2014;
Upadhyay et al., 2014; Dey et al., 2017). The Singhbhum Suite is composed of several ovoid bodies, which form a major part
of the core of the Singhbhum Craton (Saha et al., 1984, 1988; Saha, 1994; Dey et al., 2017). Some Paleoarchean composite
granitoid bodies also occur in the marginal part of the Singhbhum Craton; e.g., the Bonai Suite and Nilgiri-Kaptipada
Suite (Fig. 30.2).
The central granitic part of the Singhbhum Craton is encircled by supracrustal rocks of the Paleoarchean Iron Ore
Group (IOG) (Fig. 30.2). The IOG comprises mainly banded iron formations (BIF), shales, tuffs, cherts, and metabasalts
with locally developed felsic volcanic rocks, conglomerates, sandstones, komatiites, and dolomites metamorphosed mostly
to greenschist facies. These rocks are exposed in three belts occurring as synformal keelsdthe Gorumahisani-Badampahar
belt to the east, Tomka-Daitari belt to the south, and the Jamda-Koira belt to the west (Chakraborty and Majumder, 2002;
Acharyya, 1993; Saha, 1994;Mukhopadhyay, 2001;Ghosh and Mukhopadhyay, 2007; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2012). The
relative age of these belts is controversial because of a dearth of geochronological data. Acharyya (1993) and Saha (1994)
suggested that the rocks occurring in the three belts are coeval. On the other hand, Banerji (1977) and Iyengar and Murthy
(1982) discussed differences in rock associations and the mineralogy of BIF and the presence of unconformities between
sequences deposited in these three belts. These authors argued that the Gorumahisani-Badampahar and Tomka-Daitari are
older supracrustal rocks were deposited before those of the Jamda-Koira belt. Mukhopadhyay et al. (2008) reported a
zircon UePb age of 3507 3 Ma age for a dacitic volcanic rock from the Tomka-Daitari belt suggesting an older age of
the belt compared with the OMG of the Champua area. Basu et al. (2008) presented a zircon UePb age of 3392 25 Ma
from a tuff of the Jamda-Koira belt. A biotite monzogranite from the eastern part of the craton near Rairangpur was dated
by UePb zircon at 3326 5Ma(
Nelson et al., 2014). This granite hosts enclaves of BIF and calc-silicate rocks possibly
derived from the adjacent Gorumahisani-Badampahar belt. Therefore, this date puts a minimum estimate of the age of the
Gorumahisani-Badampahar belt. The volcanism and sedimentation of the OMG and IOG, therefore, appear to have
occurred in cycles over the period 3.5e3.3 Ga (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2012; Nelson et al., 2014), coinciding with the major
period of granitoid magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton.
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 743
The age relationship between the Singhbhum Suite and the IOG is also contentious. Some granitoid bodies of the
Singhbhum Suite contain enclaves of BIF, quartzite, phyllite, and amphibolites similar to those occurring within the IOG
(Saha et al., 1984; Saha, 1994; Sahu and Mukherjee, 2001;Roy and Bhattacharya, 2012). Tongues of granitoid locally
cut across the IOG (Saha, 1994; Sahu and Mukherjee, 2001). Therefore, the IOG was regarded as older than
the Singhbhum Suite (Dunn and Dey, 1942; Sarkar and Saha, 1983). However, Mukhopadhyay (1976) suggested that
the Singhbhum Suite formed the basement for deposition of the IOG, based on the disposition of IOG basins skirting the
Singhbhum Suite, bending of their main fold axial trace encircling the Singhbhum Suite, and an indication of a granitic
provenance for the IOG sediments. Jamda-Koira belt conglomerates and sandstones locally unconformably overlie
granitoids of the Singhbhum Suite (Bhattacharya and Mahapatra, 2008; Roy and Bhattacharya, 2012; Ghosh et al., 2015).
FIGURE 30.2 Geological map of the Singhbhum Craton. Old names such as “Older Metamorphic Tonalite Gneiss”and “Singhbhum Granite”are
replaced by more appropriate lithodemic names “Champua Suite”and “Singhbhum Suite,”respectively (Dey et al., 2017). The 12 bodies of the
Singhbhum Suite are shown by numbers: 1dSaraikela-Jorapokhar-Tiring, 2dHaludpukur-Chapra, 3dRajnagar-Kuyali, 4dKalikapur-Matku, 5d
Dalima, 6dGarumahisani, 7dRairangpur-Onlajori, 8dGamaria-Khorband-Karanjia, 9dHat Gamaria, 10dBara Nanda, 11dKeonjhargarh-Bhaunra,
and 12dManda-Asna-Besoi. Modified after Saha (1994).
744 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
These contrasting field relationships can be reconciled by an episodic nature of both granitoid magmatism and deposition
of IOG supracrustal sequences.
A-type granitoid plutons were emplaced along the northeast (NE) and southwest (SW) margins of the Singhbhum
Craton at w3.1 and w2.8 Ga, forming the Mayurbhanj Suite and the Pala Lahara Suite, respectively (Fig. 30.2)(Misra
et al., 2002; Mohanty et al., 2008; Nelson et al., 2014; Chattopadhyay et al., 2015; Topno et al., 2018). Subsequently,
several Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary successions (Simlipal, Dhanjori, Jagannathpur, and
Malangtoli) were deposited over the Singhbhum Craton. To the north, the craton is bordered by the North Singhbhum
Orogen hosting deformed and metamorphosed Paleoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic supracrustal sequences. We focus our
discussion on the Paleoarchean granitoids of the Singhbhum Craton in the next sections.
2.2 Champua Suite (Older Metamorphic Tonalite Gneiss in Older Literature) and
Equivalent Granitoids
2.2.1 Geological Setting and Age
Most of the information on the Champua Suite (OMTG of Saha, 1994) is restricted to the Champua region in the west-
central part of the Singhbhum Craton (Saha, 1994; Sharma et al., 1994; Prabhakar and Bhattacharya, 2013). Granitoids
of the Champua Suite are generally gray, well-foliated rocks with locally-developed, strong gneissic layering (Fig. 30.3A).
Saha (1994) suggested that the OMG and Champua Suite have a structural unity and were folded together in at least in two
stages. First-generation folds have steep NE-plunging axes, whereas the younger folds show steep southeast (SE)-plunging
axes. Prabhakar and Bhattacharya (2013) reported strong ductile deformation within gneisses near Champua, with four
generations of superposed folding, the latest being steeply plunging northwest (NW)- to NNE- trending, reclined folds.
Veins of leucogranites, devoid of penetrative deformation, and possibly belonging to the Singhbhum Suite, intruded both
the OMG and the Champua gneiss (Fig. 30.3B). Champua gneisses are migmatitic in places, with formation of ptygmatic
folding (Fig. 30.3C). Agmatites are developed locally (Fig. 30.3D). The Champua Suite contains xenoliths of amphibolites,
diorites, and biotitedmuscovite schists (Figs. 30.3E and F). It is not clear whether they belong to the OMG or to an older
supracrustal sequence. There is considerable variation in intensity of deformation within the area, originally mapped as
OMTG, in the Champua region. In several outcrops, granitoids lack gneissic texture and display weak to moderately
developed foliation defined by parallel alignment of biotite (Fig. 30.3G). In general, granitoids of the Champua Suite are
medium- to coarse-grained rocks constituted mainly of plagioclase (An
2040
) and quartz, with subordinate K-feldspar,
biotite hornblende (Saha and Ray, 1984; Saha, 1994). Accessory minerals include zircon, titanite, apatite, and epidote,
with occasional allanite and garnet.
A number of whole-rock RbeSr and PbePb dates are available for the granitoids exposed in the Champua region
(reviewed in Saha, 1994 and Mazumder et al., 2012). However, these ages are imprecise and suspect because of possible
inclusion of components of different ages. Recent zircon UePb dating suggests the presence of granitoids of different ages
in the Champua area (Fig. 30.4). The oldest component is 3.45e3.44 Ga metatonalites and trondhjemites (Mishra et al.,
1999; Saha et al., 2012; Upadhyay et al., 2014). The granite and granodiorite component of the Champua Suite was dated
at 3.33e3.32 Ga. This younger component contains 3.61, 3.45, and 3.42 Ga zircon xenocrysts (Nelson et al., 2014;
Upadhyay et al., 2014), indicating involvement of older crust in their petrogenesis and/or contamination. Recently,
Chaudhuri et al. (2018) reported 4.24e4.03 Ga xenocrystic zircons from 3.4 Ga tonalite gneiss from the Champua Suite. It
is difficult to precisely map the different granitoid components in the Champua area because of poor, discontinuous
outcrops and alluvium cover.
Little information is available from gneisses of other areas. Large enclaves of banded tonalite gneiss occur within the
Singhbhum Suite about 4.5 km SE of Patna in the SE part of the Singhbhum Craton (Dey et al., 2017). These gneisses are
frequently migmatitic with intrusion of leucogranite veins (Fig. 30.3H). A metatonalite enclave yielded a zircon UePb age
of 3471 24 Ma, similar to the oldest granitoid component of the Champua region (Dey et al., 2017).
Dey (1991) identified large enclaves of dark, coarse-grained metatonalite around Rairangpur, adjacent to the
Gorumahisani-Badampahar belt. The host granitoid contains abundant xenoliths of volcano-sedimentary rocks, whereas
the tonalite enclaves are devoid of any inclusions. Dey (1991) argued that these tonalite enclaves represent remnants of the
oldest granitoid basement in the Singhbhum Craton, over which the supracrustal rocks of the Gorumahisani-Badampahar
belt were deposited. However, no geochronological data are available to test this assumption.
In the NE part of the Singhbhum Craton, moderately foliated gneisses occur in a sickle-shaped exposure near Kalikapur
(Fig. 30.2). No geochemical data are available for this granitoid body. However, two samples of Kalikapur granitoid
yielded zircon UePb ages of 3527 17 Ma and 3448 19 Ma (Acharyya et al., 2010).
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 745
A small (12 km
2
) exposure of tonalite to granodiorite gneiss surrounded by the Singhbhum Suite occurs in the NE part
of the craton near Onlajori (Fig. 30.2). This granitoid body contains amphibolite enclaves. A weak magmatic foliation
within the granitoid swerves around the enclaves. Basu et al. (1981) reported a SmeNd whole-rock isochron age of
3775 89 Ma with an initial isochron εNd of þ30.9 for the Champua Suite. Many workers refuted this age as the
FIGURE 30.3 Field features of granitoids of the Champua Suite, Singhbhum Craton: (A) Strong gneissic banding within Champua Suite. Kongira River
section, 5 km east of Champua. (B) Leucogranite of the Singhbhum Suite intruding the dark gray, foliated, and banded Champua Suite. Ardei River section,
9.75 km SSW of Champua. (C) Migmatitic Champua gneiss with ptygmatic folding, 4.5 km ENE of Champua. (D) Agmatite within foliated Champua
granitoid. Ardei River section, 9.75 km SSW of Champua. (E) Xenolith of amphibolite within foliated Champua granitoid. Konkowa Nala section, 6 km
north of Champua. (F) Double enclave within banded Champua gneiss showing an inner enclave of dark gray, fine-grained intermediate rock enclosed by a
dioritic enclave. Kongira River section, 5 km east of Champua. (G) Moderately foliated Champua granitoid intruded by leucogranite veins possibly related to
the Singhbhum Suite, 7 km northeast of Champua. (H) Migmatitic tonalite gneiss intruded by leucogranite veins, 4.5 km southeast of Patna.
746 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
isochron was constructed with samples collected from two widely separated areas (Champua and Onlajori) exposing
non-cogenetic granitoids (Moorbath and Taylor, 1988).
2.2.2 Geochemistry
The bulk of geochemical data on granitoids of the Champua Suite is old, with trace elements mostly determined by
instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Precise data on some of the crucial elements, Nb, Ta, Zr, and Hf, are
lacking.
Most of the samples from the Champua area plot in the tonalite and trondhjemite fields (Fig. 30.5). Upadhyay et al.
(2014) reported that some samples plot in the granite field. The Champua granitoids display a large variation in SiO
2
(mostly 64e72 wt%) and Al
2
O
3
. The samples are metaluminous to slightly peraluminous (A/CNK ¼0.7e1.2).
FIGURE 30.4 Distribution of zircon ages of different types of granitoids and felsic volcanic rocks from the Singhbhum Craton. TIMS, thermal ionization
mass spectrometry; SIMS, secondary ion mass spectrometry; SHRIMP, sensitive high resolution ion microprobe; LA-ICPMS, Laser Ablation Inductively
Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Data source: 1. Acharyya et al. (2010);2.Basu et al. (2008);3.Dey et al. (2017); 4. This chapter; 5. Mishra et al.
(1999);6.Mukhopadhyay et al. (2008);7.Nelson et al. (2014);8.Reddy et al. (2009);9.Sengupta et al. (1996); 10. Tait et al. (2011); 11. Upadhyay et al.
(2014); 12. Unpublished data of present authors.
FIGURE 30.5 Normative AbeAneOr classification of granitoids of the Champua Suite. Fields after Barker (1979).Data source: Basu et al. (1981),
Saha et al. (1984), Sharma et al. (1994), Dey (1991), Nelson et al. (2014) and Dey et al. (2017).
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 747
Generally, Na
2
O contents are high (3.8e6.9 wt%), with low K
2
O contents (0.9e3.1 wt%) and K
2
O/Na
2
O ratios
(0.17e0.66). They plot mostly in the calc-alkaline field extending into the (low-K) tholeiite field (Fig. 30.6). MgO, Mg#,
Cr, and Ni contents are commonly low at the level of SiO
2
(Fig. 30.6). Rb and Ba values are low to moderate. Sr contents
and Sr/Y ratios are commonly high, although low values were also reported (Fig. 30.7A). The rocks show a wide
variation in Yb
N
(0.5e4.4) and La
N
/Yb
N
(12e98) suggesting presence of both high-HREE (heavy rare-earth elements)
and low-HREE TTGs (Fig. 30.7B). Whole-rock depleted Nd mantle model ages of Champua granitoids range from 3.28
to 3.57 Ga (data from Basu et al., 1981 and Sharma et al., 1994).
A 3.47 Ga enclave of the Patna area shows calk-alkaline, tonalite composition with high CaO, Na
2
O, and Y (24 ppm),
moderate MgO and Mg# (0.41), and low Al
2
O
3
,K
2
O/Na
2
O, Sr, Sr/Y (10), Cr, and Ni (Figs. 30.6 and 30.7). The rock
displays elevated HREE and a distinct negative Eu anomaly (Dey et al., 2017). Zircon εHf
3.47Ga
values range from þ2.1
to þ4.8 (Fig. 30.8).
The enclaves of the Rairangpur area are calc-alkaline tonalites characterized by moderate SiO
2
(66e68 wt%) and Na
2
O
contents with low K
2
O and K
2
O/Na
2
O (0.33e0.62) (Fig. 30.6)(Dey, 1991). Al
2
O
3
and CaO contents are high. The MgO
contents and Mg# values are low to moderately high (0.28e0.50).
A sample of the Onlajori gneiss is a low-Al
2
O
3
(14.4 wt%) trondhjemite with moderately high Na
2
O (4.8 wt%), low
K
2
O/Na
2
O (0.43), and Mg# (0.26) (Basu et al., 1981). Depleted Nd mantle model ages of five Onlajori whole-rock samples
range from 3.43 to 3.59 Ga (Basu et al., 1981).
2.2.3 Petrogenesis
The SiO
2
- and Na
2
O-rich nature of Champua Suite granitoids along with low K
2
O contents, K
2
O/Na
2
O, and Mg# values
indicate their TTG character (Martin et al., 2005; Moyen and Martin, 2012). In general, TTGs contain low total ferro-
magnesian element contents (Fe
2
O
3
þMgO þMnO þTiO
2
<5 wt%) and high Sr/Y and La
N
/Yb
N
ratios (low-HREE
TTGs). The majority of the Champua Suite granitoids have high Sr/Y and La
N
/Yb
N
ratios (low-HREE TTGs) and total
ferromagnesian element contents. A few samples have higher total ferromagnesian element values (up to 9.7 wt%; Saha
et al., 1984), but this could be an artifact of sampling, as gneissic terrains often contain multiple components including
restites and amphibolites (Moyen and Martin, 2012; see Chapter 7).
In the absence of precise zircon dates and matching geochemical data, it is difficult to ascertain the role of fractional
crystallization in formation of the Champua Suite. Experimental and geochemical studies suggested that TTGs were pro-
duced by partial melting of mafic rocks at variable depths (Rapp and Watson, 1995; Wyllie et al., 1997; Martin et al., 2005;
Moyen, 2011; Moyen and Martin, 2012). Laurent et al. (2014) proposed a Al
2
O
3
/(FeO
T
þMgO) 3CaO 5(K
2
O/
Na
2
O) ternary plot for discrimination of the source for granitoids based on published experimental studies. Most of the
samples from the Champua Suite are enriched in CaO, suggesting a low-K maficsource(
Fig. 30.9). However, a few samples
plot in the high-K mafic and tonalite fields suggesting some heterogeneity in the source.
Depleted Nd mantle model ages (3.28e3.57 Ga) indicate a juvenile source with short crustal residence (maximum
200 Ma). The low MgO, Cr, and Ni contents and Mg# values rule out direct involvement of mantle and indicate that these
granitoids were produced by intracrustal melting. The presence of both low- and high-HREE TTGs with a wide range of
Al
2
O
3
, Sr, Y, and Yb contents signifies that the partial melting of the crustal source took place at variable pressures.
Granitoids with high Sr contents (>600 ppm) and Sr/Y and La
N
/Yb
N
ratios (low-HREE TTGs) with low Y and Yb
contents (<12 and <0.5 ppm, respectively) (Fig. 30.7) were derived from high-pressure partial melting at deep crustal
levels, leaving garnet-bearing residues without plagioclase. On the other hand, some samples display distinctly lower Sr
contents (w300 ppm or less) and Sr/Y and La
N
/Yb
N
ratios coupled with higher Y (15 ppm) and Yb contents. These are
high-HREE TTGs formed by low-pressure partial melting at shallower depths. On the basis of rare-earth element (REE)
modeling, Sharma et al. (1994) suggested that the Champua Suite was generated by 20% partial melting of OMG am-
phibolites. Detrital zircon dates from OMG quartz-muscovite schist and metasandstone are clustered around 3.35 and
3.38 Ga, respectively (Saha et al., 2012; Nelson et al., 2014). These results place a maximum age limit of the OMG
supracrustal rocks at 3.35 Ga. Therefore, the OMG amphibolites could not have been the source of the Champua Suite, at
least for its w3.45 Ga component. In conclusion, granitoids of the Champua region were formed by reworking of a
dominantly juvenile mafic crust older than the OMG at variable depths.
The 3.47 Ga tonalite enclaves of the Patna area belong to a high-HREE suite with characteristic undepleted and
flatHREEpatterns,negativeEuanomaly,highYandYbcontents,andlowSr/YandLa
N
/Yb
N
ratios indicating a
low-pressure origin (Dey et al., 2017). The low MgO, Cr, and Ni contents and Mg# values also suggest that the granitoid
748 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
was formed by intracrustal melting without direct involvement of mantle. The elevated CaO and low Al
2
O
3
and K
2
O
contents (Fig. 30.6) and positive zircon εHf
t
values (þ2.1 to þ4.8) (Fig. 30.8) are consistent with a juvenile, low-K mafic
source (Fig. 30.9).
Trace element data are not available for the tonalite enclaves of the Rairangpur and trondhjemites of the Onlajori area.
The Rairangpur enclaves are high-Al TTGs enriched in CaO. They were probably formed by high-pressure melting of
high-K to low-K mafic rocks as suggested by the Al
2
O
3
/(FeO
T
þMgO) 3CaO 5(K
2
O/Na
2
O) ternary plot
(Fig. 30.9). The Onlajori sample is a low-Al trondhjemite that appears to be a product of low-pressure partial melting of a
low-K mafic source (Fig. 30.9).
FIGURE 30.7 The granitoids of the Champua Suite on (A) Y versus Sr/Y and (B) Yb
N
versus (La/Yb)
N
plots. Also plotted, for comparison, are fields of
high-HREE (wlow-Al) TTG, low-HREE (whigh-Al) TTG, and transitional (enriched) TTG (after the compilation made by Dey et al., 2014). The last
type of granitoids are similar to classical TTGs except for their higher contents of LILE, as well as Th and U, and higher K
2
O/Na
2
O ratios (0.6e1) (Dey
et al., 2014, 2016). HREE, heavy rare-earth elements; LILE, large-ion lithophile elements; TTG, tonaliteetrondhjemiteegranodiorite. Data from Saha
et al., (1984),Nelson et al. (2014), and Dey et al. (2017).
FIGURE 30.8 Zircon εHf(t) versus age plots for granitoids of the Singhbhum Craton. Data source: Patna tonalitic gneiss enclave, Keonjhargarh
granite, and Karanjia granitedDey et al. (2017); othersdthis chapter.
750 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
2.3 Singhbhum Suite
2.3.1 Geological Setting
The Singhbhum Suite is a composite granitoid body. Twelve disparate, mappable units (lithodemes) have been identified
on the basis of field and lithological criteria (Saha et al., 1984; Saha, 1994)(Fig. 30.2) as follows:
1. Saraikela-Jorapokhar-Tiring body (w740 km
2
): Steeply domical, ovoid body.
2. Haludpukur-Chapra body (w170 km
2
): Elongated asymmetric dome trending NW-SE (Fig. 30.10A), dated at
3285 7Ma(
Nelson et al., 2014) and 3288 8Ma (Reddy et al., 2009).
3. Rajnagar-Kuyali body (w80 km
2
): An arcuate sheet-like body dipping toward south and showing local doming. The
granitoid yielded a UePb zircon age of 3316 32 Ma (unpublished data of the present authors).
4. Kalikapur-Matku body (w60 km
2
): A sheet-like body trending NNW-SSE with steep eastward dip and strong arching
in the NW. This is different from the Kalikapur gneiss described earlier.
5. Dalima body (w110 km
2
): It comprises two NE-SWetrending, elongated subunits separated by a layer of metamorphic
enclaves (Fig. 30.10B and C).
6. Gorumahisani body (w30 km
2
): Mostly massive and devoid of foliation. A UePb zircon age of 3332 5 Ma was
reported from the granitoid (Nelson et al., 2014).
7. Rairangpur-Onlajori body (w70 km
2
): A sheet-like body elongated N-S (Fig. 30.10D). Raha (1967) reported late-stage
upward flow of crystalline aggregates toward the SW. This body is different from the previously described Rairangpur
tonalite or Onlajori granite.
8. Gamaria-Khorband-Karanjia body (w1790 km
2
): A dome-shaped body consisting of light gray, fine- to medium-
grained biotite leucogranite (Fig. 30.10E) with evidence of late-stage movement of magmatic mush (Saha,
1994). Locally, the granitoid displays alternate light and dark (biotite-rich) magmatic layers (Chattopadhyay,
1983; Dey et al., 2017). The granitoids contain enclaves of layered amphibolite and, rarely, BIF (Fig. 30.10F).
Large enclaves of 3.47 Ga gneissic tonalites occur within the granite near Patna in the SE part (Fig. 30.3H). The
pluton has yielded zircon UePb ages of 3299 7Ma (
Nelson et al., 2014) and 3304 25 Ma (Dey et al.,
2017). Our investigations show that it is not a single body but consists of multiple granitoid bodies differing in trace
element compositions.
9. Hat Gamaria body (w60 km
2
): An ovoid, porphyritic granitoid body (Fig. 30.10G) forming a steeply pinching arch
(Chatterjee, 1965).
10. Bara Nanda body (w5km
2
): A sheet-like body steeply dipping toward the west.
FIGURE 30.9 Al
2
O
3
/(FeOt þMgO) 3CaO 5(K
2
O/Na
2
O) ternary diagram indicating the possible sources of granitoids of the Champua
Suite. The compositions of melts derived from various sources are shown (after Laurent et al., 2014).
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 751
FIGURE 30.10 Field features of granitoids of the Singhbhum Suite. (A) A view of the Haludpukur-Chapra granite. The exposure consists of light gray,
homogeneous leucogranite, about 4.5 km NNE of Hata. (B) Foliated Dalima trondhjemite containing patchy mafic enclaves. Kharkai River section, about
17.5 km NW of Rairangpur. (C) Lit-per-lit injection of Dalima trondhjemite into mafic rock. Kharkai River section, about 17.5 km northwest of Rair-
angpur. (D) Foliated dark gray Rairangpur trondhjemite intruded by leucogranite veins possibly related to the Gamaria granite, 3.5 km SSW of Rair-
angpur. (E) Foliated leucocratic Gamaria granite, 9 km WSW of Rairangpur. (F) Large enclaves of banded iron formation, possibly related to Iron Ore
Group, within coarse-grained leucocratic granite of the Gamaria-Khorband-Karanjia body. Deo River section, 20.5 km north of Champua. (G) Porphyritic
Hat Gamaria granite. Deo River section, 19 km NNE of Champua. (H) Porphyritic Keonjhargarh-Bhaunra granite intruded by leucogranite veins of the
Karanjia granite.
752 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
11. KeonjhargarheBhaunra unit (w700 km
2
): A dome-shaped body with several subdomes suggesting upwelling of
magmatic mush at several places (Saha, 1994). It is a coarse-grained feldspar megacrystic biotite granite with
weak magmatic layering (Fig. 30.10H). The rock is only mildly deformed and dated at 3347 35 Ma (Dey et al.,
2017). Rare enclaves of tonalite gneiss and amphibolites were reported (Chattopadhyay, 1983). The granite is intruded
by the biotite leucogranite of the Gamaria-Khorband-Karanjia body (Fig. 30.10H).
12. Manda-Asna-Besoi body (w200 km
2
): An asymmetric dome-shaped body trending NE-SW with evidence of subvert-
ical movement of magma. Upadhyay et al. (2014) clubbed zircon UePb data from this body with those of the
Keonjhargarh-Bhaunra body and reported an age of 3336 4 Ga. Zircons from the Manda-Asna-Besoi body alone
yield a weighted average
206
Pb/
207
Pb age of 3342 10 Ma (MSWD ¼0.7).
Most of these granitoid bodies show steeply dipping primary igneous foliations defined by parallel alignment of biotite,
mafic clots, and, locally, feldspar laths (Saha, 1994). The foliation is more prominent along pluton margins and forms a
concentric pattern defining the shape of many of the plutons (Saha et al., 1984; Saha, 1994). On the basis of field criteria,
modal, and chemical compositions, the twelve granitoid bodies were thought to be intruded in three successive, closely
related phases (Sarkar and Saha, 1983; Saha et al., 1984; Saha, 1994). Phase I includes the Dalima and Rajnagar-Kuyali
bodies. Phase II comprises the Besoi, Hat Gamaria, and Keonjhargarh-Bhaunra bodies. The rest of the granitoid bodies
constitute Phase III. Recently published zircon UePb dates suggest that the different bodies of the Singhbhum Suite
intruded over a time period of 3.38e3.29 Ga (Fig. 30.4). Granitoid bodies included in the same phase can vary widely in
composition and the age of granitoid bodies of different phases overlap. Dey et al. (2017) recommended abolishing the
terms Singhbhum Granite Phase I, II, and III, as there is no evidence that these granitoids were intruded in only three
discrete phases.
Precise geochemical data on the Singhbhum Suite are inadequate. We have carried out mapping and geochemical
investigation in the NE part of the Singhbhum Craton where different lithodemes of the Singhbhum Suite are well-exposed
(Fig. 30.11). The whole-rock geochemical data are given in Table 30.1. Zircon UePb and Hf isotope data are presented in
Tables 30.2 and 30.3, respectively. Analytical techniques are described in Appendix 1. The Dalima pluton consists of
medium- to coarse-grained, light gray granitoid comprised mainly of sericitized plagioclase and quartz with subordinate
microcline and biotite. Accessory minerals include zircon, titanite, apatite, epidote (secondary), and opaques (mostly
magnetite). Microcline grains host inclusions of quartz and plagioclase. The rock shows hypidiomorphic granular texture.
Parallel alignment of biotite streaks defines a well-developed foliation trending N-S to ENE-WSW. In places, the granitoid
contains patchy dark mafic enclaves (Fig. 30.10B). Lit-per-lit injection of the Dalima granitoid into mafic rocks is also
noted (Fig. 30.10C).
The SE part of the area is occupied by a dark to light gray, medium- to coarse-grained, well-foliated, and lineated
granitoid (Rairangpur pluton: Fig. 30.10D). The foliation, defined by parallel alignment of biotite-rich streaks, generally
trends NNE-SSW. The rock locally displays compositional banding. The Rairangpur granites consist of quartz, plagio-
clase, microcline and microcline perthite, and biotite. Accessory minerals include zircon, titanite, allanite, epidote,
magnetite, and apatite. The texture is hypidiomorphic granular. Myrmekites are common.
To the west, a light gray, medium-grained leucogranite is exposed (Fig. 30.10E), which is part of the larger Gamaria-
Khorband-Karanjia body. The granite displays weakly to moderately developed subvertical N-Setrending magmatic
foliation defined by parallel alignment of biotite. Locally it is porphyritic and shows primary igneous layering. Enclaves of
well-banded, migmatitic TTG gneiss and mafic rocks occur within the granite at places. Veins of Gamaria granitoid intrude
the Dalima and Rairangpur bodies. The Gamaria granitoid consists of quartz, plagioclase, microcline, microcline perthite,
and biotite with accessory muscovite, zircon, magnetite, titanite, allanite, epidote (secondary), and apatite. Microcline
grains are late magmatic and more abundant compared with the Dalima and Rairangpur granitoids. Large microcline grains
commonly enclose plagioclase, quartz, and biotite.
The NE part of the area is occupied by a coarse-grained, dark greenish gray, well-foliated granodiorite (Bahalda pluton).
2.3.2 Geochemistry and Age
Granitoids of the Singhbhum Suite are geochemically classified mainly as trondhjemites and granites (Fig. 30.12). These
are mostly high-silica rocks (SiO
2
mostly 69e75 wt%) that display calc-alkaline (med-K) to high-K calc-alkaline character
(Fig. 30.13). Al
2
O
3
concentrations are generally high (>15 wt% at 70 wt% SiO
2
). The K
2
O/Na
2
O ratio varies widely
(mostly 0.5e1.5). The aluminum saturation index mostly ranges from 0.9 to 1.2. The MgO (<1 wt%), Cr, and Ni contents
(both <20 ppm) and Mg# values (0.2e0.4) are low at the level of SiO
2
contents. The Sr contents are moderate to high
(commonly 200e600 ppm) with low Y concentrations (generally<10 ppm), resulting in moderately high Sr/Y ratios
(mostly 40e80) (Fig. 30.14). The exception is the Gamaria pluton, which is characterized by moderate Y and low Sr and
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 753
Sr/Y values. No correlation exists between SiO
2
and Sr/Y. Rb and Ba contents are low to moderately high (commonly
50e150 and 200e600 ppm, respectively).
Chondrite-normalized REE patterns show enrichment of LREE, moderate to high HREE depletion (Yb
N
mostly <4), and
slight to moderate negative Eu anomaly (Fig. 30.15). The Gamaria pluton is distinctive in showing undepleted and flat HREE
pattern. Some of the samples from the Keonjhargarh-Bhaunra and Karanjia plutons show concave upward HREE patterns.
The Rairangpur granitoids are high-silica trondhjemites characterized by high Na
2
O and Sr and low K
2
O, K
2
O/Na
2
O,
MgO, and Mg# (Figs. 30.12 and 30.13). The Sr/Y ratios are mostly high (Fig. 30.14). The samples are characterized by
fractionated LREE and depleted HREE patterns with negligible Eu anomaly. The trondhjemite sample SBG54, taken about
2.5 km south of Rairangpur, was selected for zircon UePb dating. Zircon grains recovered from this sample are pink,
euhedral, and long to short prismatic or stubby with clear oscillatory zoning in cathodoluminescence (CL) images
(Fig. 30.16A). Commonly, a CL-bright core is rimmed by a CL-dark zone, the two being separated by a resorption surface.
Some zircon grains show sector zoning. 18 spot analyses on 18 grains show generally low to moderate U (20e418 ppm)
and Th (8e120 ppm) and moderately high Th/U (predominantly 0.25e0.67) (Table 30.2). Fifteen most concordant zircons
(discordance <5%) define a weighted average
206
Pb/
207
Pb age of 3369 15 Ma (MSWD ¼1.09), which is taken as the
time of crystallization of the rock. The εHf
3.37Ga
values of the zircons vary from þ1.6 to þ4.6 (weighted avg. þ2.5 0.6,
MSWD 0.4) (Table 30.3,Fig. 30.8).
FIGURE 30.11 Geological map of the Bahalda-Rairangpur area, northeastern part of the Singhbhum Craton, showing location of granitoid samples with
serial numbers from Table 30.1.
754 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
TABLE 30.1 Major (wt%) and Trace (ppm) Element Composition of Granitoids of Northeast Part of the Singhbhum Craton
Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Rairangpur Pluton Gamaria Pluton Gamaria Pluton Dalima Pluton
Sample SBG54 SBG229 SBG230 SBG453 SBG455 SBG457 SBG52 SBG222W SBG223 SBG225 SBG461 SBG466 SBG166 SBG170 SBG172 SBG200 SBG49
SiO
2
72.09 70.62 73.14 75.71 71.20 72.06 73.44 71.77 72.18 74.88 72.81 75.53 67.82 71.49 71.20 68.91 75.60
TiO
2
0.29 0.38 0.20 0.08 0.26 0.26 0.14 0.19 0.38 0.17 0.33 0.14 0.35 0.29 0.22 0.32 0.05
Al
2
O
3
14.53 15.63 14.57 13.43 15.09 15.21 14.39 13.88 14.72 13.60 14.36 13.79 15.42 15.22 15.33 15.39 15.06
Fe
2
O
3(T)
2.64 2.71 1.70 1.01 2.31 1.67 1.32 1.34 2.45 1.27 2.07 1.47 2.95 2.37 2.19 2.43 0.61
MnO 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02
MgO 0.49 0.79 0.41 0.15 0.52 0.42 0.27 0.27 0.62 0.26 0.47 0.23 0.91 0.62 0.66 0.75 0.12
CaO 2.36 2.78 1.96 1.04 2.13 1.99 1.20 1.32 2.20 1.26 2.15 1.44 3.25 2.81 2.40 2.86 2.10
Na
2
O 4.60 5.10 4.45 4.18 4.81 4.99 3.64 3.74 4.27 3.71 3.68 4.14 4.47 4.81 4.45 4.72 5.80
K
2
O 1.62 1.77 3.11 3.89 2.59 2.64 5.14 4.55 3.02 4.69 3.48 3.52 2.16 1.62 2.91 1.90 0.70
P
2
O
5
0.09 0.13 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.04 0.08 0.03 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.14 0.01
LOI 0.40 0.82 0.77 0.45 1.14 0.80 0.52 1.45 0.80 0.81 0.85 0.50 1.31 1.14 1.32 3.19 0.49
Total 99.15 100.77 100.40 100.00 100.16 100.12 100.12 98.59 100.77 100.73 100.31 100.82 98.81 100.51 100.79 100.64 100.55
K
2
O/Na
2
O 0.35 0.35 0.70 0.93 0.54 0.53 1.41 1.22 0.71 1.26 0.95 0.85 0.48 0.34 0.65 0.40 0.12
A/CNK 1.69 1.62 1.53 1.47 1.58 1.58 1.44 1.44 1.55 1.41 1.54 1.52 1.56 1.65 1.57 1.62 1.75
Mg# 0.25 0.34 0.30 0.21 0.29 0.31 0.27 0.26 0.31 0.27 0.29 0.22 0.38 0.89 0.87 0.87 0.97
Be 12222223 <132222214
Rb 72 74 74 131 62 90 168 210 42 208 114 107 50 47 69 49 19
Cs 3.1 2.4 1.5 4.0 0.8 3.0 2.5 4.2 0.8 5.5 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.8 1.0
Sr 404 522 373 217 544 617 185 122 661 108 185 244 502 494 413 556 416
Ba 317 250 258 478 296 428 587 431 1208 415 527 385 410 234 342 287 85
Tl 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.9 1.0 0.5 1.1 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 <0.1
Pb 8 13 14 22 9 15 28 26 10 27 17 17 12 12 9 11 22
Th 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.4 1.7 0.4 24.8 18.4 9.0 16.2 11.8 2.5 5.5 6.3 2.4 5.8 7.9
U 0.9 1.0 0.8 2.1 0.9 1.4 1.7 4.3 0.7 2.4 1.2 0.6 1.2 1.1 0.7 0.9 2.1
Y 6 5 8 24 12 9 12 19 7 18 17 9 8 9 13 7 6
Zr 180 174 94 78 131 145 150 145 216 134 179 107 108 136 95 136 67
Hf 4.2 3.1 2.3 2.2 3.0 3.3 4.2 3.3 3.2 3.0 4.1 2.6 2.3 3.1 2.1 2.6 1.9
Nb 4 6 4 7 5 5 9 13 3 13 10 6 4 6 4 3 3
Sn <11 <1<1<11 1 4 <14 2 <1<11 <1<1<1
Continued
TABLE 30.1 Major (wt%) and Trace (ppm) Element Composition of Granitoids of Northeast Part of the Singhbhum Cratondcont’d
Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Rairangpur Pluton Gamaria Pluton Gamaria Pluton Dalima Pluton
Ta 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.4 1.7 0.4 2.1 1.9 0.3 2.2 2.0 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.4
Mo <2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2<2
V 18 31 19 7 21 14 12 10 22 11 17 6 45 29 22 31 6
Cr <20 <20 20 50 30 20 <20 <20 <20 <20 20 20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20
Sc 33223223 333243331
Ni <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20
Ag <0.5 2.0 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 1.6 2.4 1.5 <0.5 <0.5 1.6 1.9 1.2 1.5 <0.5
Ga 16 20 18 15 18 18 17 20 18 19 17 15 19 20 19 19 19
Ge <11 <11 <11 <12 <11 1 <11 1 2 1 <1
La 35.8 44.9 17.9 35.4 28.6 31.7 66.9 49.8 81.8 44.5 42.2 11.9 27.1 28 9.8 32.6 12.4
Ce 60.1 77.7 32.1 55.3 52.0 55.3 119 88.6 136 79.1 77.6 19.9 48.7 50.1 16.2 57.6 21.3
Pr 5.77 7.92 3.31 5.8 5.37 5.4 11.6 8.8 12.7 7.7 7.7 1.9 5.27 5.31 1.98 6.3 2.26
Nd 17.5 25.1 10.8 18.9 17.5 16.8 34.3 28.5 38.9 25 24.8 5.7 18.3 18.9 7.6 22.6 7.9
Sm 2.6 3.3 1.7 3.0 2.8 2.4 5.1 4.5 4.8 4.2 3.9 0.9 3.1 3.4 1.6 3.7 1.7
Eu 0.74 0.88 0.51 0.65 0.76 0.74 0.58 0.52 1.20 0.48 0.79 0.52 0.91 0.86 0.61 1.03 0.39
Gd 1.9 1.8 1.2 2.2 1.8 1.5 3.8 3.2 2.3 3.0 2.8 0.8 2 2.2 1.2 2.3 1.3
Tb 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Dy 1.1 1.0 0.8 1.5 1.4 0.8 2.2 3.0 1.2 3.1 2.4 0.7 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.3 0.8
Ho 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1
Er 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.6 0.4 1.3 1.7 0.6 1.7 1.2 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4
Tm 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.20 0.27 0.09 0.28 0.18 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.06
Yb 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.3 1.3 1.9 0.6 1.9 1.1 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4
Lu 0.11 0.07 0.06 0.13 0.1 0.05 0.22 0.28 0.1 0.26 0.18 0.09 0.1 0.12 0.11 0.07 0.06
La
N
/Yb
N
34.48 60.54 30.17 29.83 32.14 71.24 34.70 17.67 91.92 15.79 25.86 16.05 30.45 20.97 9.44 43.96 20.90
Gd
N
/Yb
N
2.19 2.91 2.42 2.22 2.42 4.03 2.36 1.36 3.09 1.27 2.05 1.29 2.7 1.97 1.38 3.71 2.62
Eu/Eu* 9.89 10.84 6.36 11.43 9.99 8.44 19.59 16.89 14.78 15.79 14.70 3.78 11.08 12.17 6.17 12.98 6.61
Sr/Y 67.33 104.40 46.63 9.04 45.33 68.56 15.42 6.42 94.43 6 10.88 27.11 62.75 54.89 31.77 79.43 69.33
A/CNK ¼molecular Al
2
O
3
/(CaO 1.67P
2
O
5
þNa
2
OþK
2
O), Mg# ¼molecular MgO/(MgO þFeO
(T)
). Major elements, Ba, Sr, Y, Zr, Sc, and V analyzed by fusion inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES).
Other elements analyzed by fusion inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. La
N
/Yb
N
and Gd
N
/Yb
N
are ratio of chondrite-normalized elemental concentrations. Eu* ¼Eu/(Gd
N
*Sm
N
)
1/2
.
TABLE 30.2 UePbeTh Isotope Analyses and Age of Zircon Grains From Granitoids of Northeast Part of the Singhbhum Craton
Sopt
no. Pb Th U Th/U
207
Pb/
206
Pb
207
Pb/
235
U
206
Pb/
238
U
208
Pb/
232
Th
238
U/
232
Th
207
Pb/
206
Pb
207
Pb/
235
U
206
Pb/
238
U
208
Pb/
232
Th Concordance
ppm Ratio 1sRatio 1sRatio 1sRatio 1sRatio
Age
(Ma) 1s
Age
(Ma) 1s
Age
(Ma) 1s
Age
(Ma) 1s
SBG54 (Rairangpur trondhjemite)
SBG54-01 63.3 41.0 61.2 0.67 0.2806 0.0051 27.1495 0.4824 0.6964 0.0069 0.1746 0.0039 1.4180 3366 27.6 3389 17.6 3407 26.3 3253 66.7 99%
SBG54-02 59.5 26.2 58.8 0.45 0.2875 0.0051 28.6703 0.5210 0.7169 0.0070 0.1838 0.0044 2.0680 3405 27.8 3442 18.0 3484 26.3 3410 75.0 98%
SBG54-03 72.4 43.0 73.2 0.59 0.2802 0.0051 26.7265 0.5051 0.6867 0.0071 0.1689 0.0037 1.7198 3364 28.7 3373 18.6 3370 27.2 3154 64.2 99%
SBG54-04 80.26 30.4 97.9 0.31 0.2687 0.0052 25.2807 0.6539 0.6736 0.0116 0.1613 0.0052 3.0676 3298 30.6 3319 25.4 3320 44.9 3023 90.5 99%
SBG54-05 259.3 103 418 0.25 0.2546 0.0048 16.9771 0.3358 0.4791 0.0042 0.1185 0.0027 3.9208 3213 29.9 2934 19.1 2524 18.3 2264 48.2 84%
SBG54-06 60.4 40.8 61.8 0.66 0.2900 0.0066 27.4674 0.6588 0.6820 0.0081 0.1700 0.0045 1.4574 3418 35.2 3400 23.6 3352 31.0 3174 78.1 98%
SBG54-07 81.3 34.8 85.7 0.41 0.2891 0.0060 27.9040 0.6229 0.6947 0.0078 0.1802 0.0049 2.3679 3413 37.8 3416 22.0 3401 29.6 3349 84.6 99%
SBG54-08 251.8 120 357 0.34 0.2608 0.0047 20.8236 0.5513 0.5706 0.0101 0.1489 0.0037 2.7362 3252 23.0 3130 25.7 2910 41.7 2806 65.5 92%
SBG54-09 57.73 27.5 59.0 0.47 0.2823 0.0053 28.7782 0.5836 0.7354 0.0086 0.1837 0.0043 2.0547 3376 29.3 3446 20.0 3553 32.1 3409 72.7 96%
SBG54-10 33.33 15.3 34.4 0.44 0.2818 0.0055 29.0246 0.6323 0.7445 0.0102 0.1944 0.0060 2.2116 3373 30.7 3454 21.5 3587 37.6 3591 101 96%
SBG54-11 125.2 68.7 132 0.52 0.2841 0.0046 27.3351 0.4555 0.6932 0.0058 0.1795 0.0035 1.8841 3387 25.0 3396 16.5 3395 22.1 3338 60.0 99%
SBG54-12 77.1 37.7 79.3 0.48 0.2764 0.0051 28.2315 0.5492 0.7373 0.0083 0.1908 0.0043 2.0766 3343 29.0 3427 19.2 3560 30.7 3530 72.7 96%
SBG54-13 37.27 19.2 41.2 0.47 0.2765 0.0055 26.1544 0.5242 0.6833 0.0073 0.1769 0.0046 2.1098 3343 25.9 3352 19.7 3357 28.1 3291 79.7 99%
SBG54-15 72.12 29.7 81.3 0.37 0.2770 0.0046 25.7196 0.4294 0.6682 0.0055 0.1690 0.0036 2.6700 3346 25.6 3336 16.5 3299 21.3 3156 61.8 98%
SBG54-16 19.72 8.1 20.4 0.40 0.2841 0.0067 28.7976 0.6865 0.7345 0.0106 0.1808 0.0064 2.4170 3387 36.0 3447 23.5 3550 39.4 3360 109 97%
SBG54-17 153.5 38.9 270 0.14 0.2553 0.0045 15.6725 0.2847 0.4404 0.0036 0.1685 0.0045 7.9706 3218 28.1 2857 17.4 2353 16.3 3147 77.7 80%
SBG54-18 88.1 39.9 96.7 0.41 0.2845 0.0058 26.3247 0.5449 0.6648 0.0072 0.1640 0.0043 2.2284 3388 26.4 3359 20.4 3286 28.1 3069 74.0 97%
SBG54-19 107.4 64.1 108 0.59 0.2827 0.0058 27.5717 0.5832 0.7000 0.0081 0.1693 0.0043 1.5282 3389 31.8 3404 20.9 3421 30.8 3161 73.8 99%
SBG52 (Gamaria granite)
SBG52-02 301.5 182 429 0.42 0.2517 0.0049 18.0483 0.4354 0.5158 0.0083 0.2423 0.0073 2.4886 3195 31.6 2992 23.3 2681 35.2 4385 119 89%
SBG52-04 479.6 646 1691 0.38 0.1782 0.0029 4.1762 0.0703 0.1682 0.0013 0.2301 0.0050 2.6104 2636 26.7 1669 13.8 1002 7.2 4186 81.7 50%
SBG52-05 163.2 217 341 0.64 0.2132 0.0039 9.8019 0.2043 0.3297 0.0043 0.1411 0.0034 1.5872 2931 29.6 2416 19.3 1837 21.1 2668 61.0 72%
SBG52-06 250.7 199 257 0.77 0.2805 0.0055 27.0370 0.6133 0.6908 0.0104 0.1837 0.0055 1.4023 3366 30.7 3385 22.3 3386 39.7 3409 93.7 99%
SBG52-07 563.3 1817 2377 0.76 0.1454 0.0029 3.0337 0.0629 0.1495 0.0017 0.0923 0.0027 1.3240 2292 35.3 1416 15.9 898 9.5 1785 49.1 55%
SBG52-09 572.1 1071 2432 0.44 0.1585 0.0031 3.4428 0.0591 0.1565 0.0015 0.1274 0.0028 2.3606 2440 32.7 1514 13.5 937 8.4 2424 50.8 52%
Continued
TABLE 30.2 UePbeTh Isotope Analyses and Age of Zircon Grains From Granitoids of Northeast Part of the Singhbhum Cratondcont’d
Sopt
no. Pb Th U Th/U
207
Pb/
206
Pb
207
Pb/
235
U
206
Pb/
238
U
208
Pb/
232
Th
238
U/
232
Th
207
Pb/
206
Pb
207
Pb/
235
U
206
Pb/
238
U
208
Pb/
232
Th Concordance
ppm Ratio 1sRatio 1sRatio 1sRatio 1sRatio
Age
(Ma) 1s
Age
(Ma) 1s
Age
(Ma) 1s
Age
(Ma) 1s
SBG52-10 348.7 276 750 0.37 0.2406 0.0039 10.7063 0.1666 0.3190 0.0025 0.1850 0.0054 2.8147 3124 25.9 2498 14.6 1785 12.2 3432 92.8 66%
SBG52-11 71.2 48.3 75.2 0.64 0.2672 0.0049 24.8564 0.5084 0.6672 0.0089 0.1819 0.0049 1.5549 3290 28.7 3303 20.1 3295 34.6 3378 83.6 99%
SBG52-12 255.6 261 579 0.45 0.2416 0.0050 12.6491 0.4765 0.3674 0.0104 0.1594 0.0052 2.4915 3131 33.3 2654 35.5 2017 49.1 2990 90.5 72%
SBG52-13 145.5 138 269 0.51 0.2600 0.0056 17.2797 0.8021 0.4638 0.0184 0.2158 0.0073 1.7492 3247 34.3 2950 45 2456 81 3950 122 81%
SBG52-14 273.4 284 664 0.43 0.2205 0.0047 9.6043 0.3456 0.3047 0.0073 0.1490 0.0040 2.3431 2985 34.0 2398 33.1 1714 36.0 2808 69.6 66%
SBG52-15 803.2 2682 3118 0.86 0.1876 0.0032 3.8007 0.0720 0.1453 0.0013 0.0982 0.0031 1.1627 2722 27.6 1593 15.3 875 7.3 1894 57.4 41%
SBG49 (Dalima trondhjemite)
SBG49-01 162.7 333 273 67.21 0.2909 0.0043 16.4026 0.4607 0.4047 0.0090 0.1329 0.0041 0.9357 3433 23.2 2901 27.0 2191 41.3 2521 74.0 72%
SBG49-02 296 708 1412 73.88 0.2024 0.0027 4.0349 0.0642 0.1438 0.0014 0.0895 0.0017 2.0698 2846 21.9 1641 13.0 866 8.2 1733 32.4 38%
SBG49-03 181.7 152 229 74.87 0.2984 0.0040 21.8200 0.3552 0.5279 0.0059 0.2216 0.0045 1.6067 3462 19.9 3176 16.0 2732 25.1 4046 74.5 84%
SBG49-04 149.2 92.9 159 69.64 0.3092 0.0044 26.2659 0.4442 0.6162 0.0092 0.3160 0.0090 1.8179 3517 22.2 3356 16.7 3095 36.8 5550 137 91%
SBG49-06 167.3 159 514 55.24 0.2685 0.0049 8.7012 0.2151 0.2328 0.0039 0.1722 0.0048 3.4310 3297 28.4 2307 22.6 1349 20.6 3211 83.1 47%
SBG49-07 115.9 33.3 141 56.50 0.2807 0.0050 24.4380 0.4330 0.6278 0.0052 0.1864 0.0052 4.3823 3369 27.8 3286 17.4 3141 20.6 3456 88.8 95%
SBG49-08 295 434 1254 53.39 0.2019 0.0038 4.4898 0.0890 0.1614 0.0023 0.1634 0.0053 3.1681 2843 30.2 1729 16.5 964 12.7 3059 92.3 43%
SBG49-09 339 210 778 67.14 0.2475 0.0037 11.0436 0.2665 0.3229 0.0067 0.2404 0.0083 3.8765 3169 23.5 2527 22.5 1804 32.5 4354 135 66%
SBG49-10 279 503 1305 52.73 0.2250 0.0043 6.1258 0.4286 0.1941 0.0124 0.1740 0.0125 2.6645 3016 29.8 1994 61 1144 67 3243 215 45%
SBG49-11 261 371 1142 44.59 0.2207 0.0050 5.8002 0.3171 0.1903 0.0091 0.1878 0.0096 3.5328 2986 36.1 1946 47.4 1123 49.1 3479 164 46%
SBG49-12 256.0 252 1163 62.71 0.1667 0.0027 4.2887 0.1302 0.1841 0.0043 0.1647 0.0039 4.8176 2525 26.8 1691 25.0 1089 23.3 3081 68.4 56%
SBG49-13 218.0 83.4 560 64.41 0.2207 0.0034 10.1663 0.2654 0.3302 0.0063 0.1598 0.0043 7.2241 2987 25.0 2450 24.2 1839 30.4 2996 74.7 71%
SBG49-14 267.3 279 1271 72.01 0.1484 0.0021 3.4882 0.0675 0.1696 0.0023 0.1304 0.0026 4.5992 2327 23.8 1525 15.3 1010 12.9 2477 46.4 59%
TABLE 30.3 LueHf Isotope Composition of Zircon Grains From Granitoids of Northeast Part of the Singhbhum
Craton
Spot No.
176
Hf/
177
Hf 1s
176
Lu/
177
Hf 1s
176
Yb/
177
Hf 1s
176
Hf/
177
Hf (t) εHf(t) 1s
SBG54 (Rairangpur trondhjemite), t [3.37 Ga
SBG54-01 0.280710 0.000012 0.000882 0.000043 0.024487 0.001114 0.280653 1.8 1.3
SBG54-02 0.280787 0.000017 0.001521 0.000016 0.044251 0.000228 0.280688 3.0 1.3
SBG54-03 0.280726 0.000015 0.000953 0.000031 0.028385 0.000956 0.280664 2.1 1.3
SBG54-04 0.280690 0.000014 0.000482 0.000019 0.013683 0.000628 0.280658 2.0 1.3
SBG54-05 0.280721 0.000016 0.001089 0.000009 0.033513 0.000602 0.280650 1.7 1.3
SBG54-06 0.280728 0.000013 0.000750 0.000009 0.020986 0.000143 0.280679 2.7 1.3
SBG54-07 0.280751 0.000016 0.000983 0.000023 0.028648 0.000641 0.280687 3.0 1.3
SBG54-08 0.280745 0.000014 0.000844 0.000018 0.029101 0.000388 0.280690 3.1 1.3
SBG54-09 0.280733 0.000016 0.000603 0.000019 0.017937 0.000777 0.280694 3.2 1.3
SBG54-10 0.280680 0.000014 0.000473 0.000016 0.013827 0.000518 0.280650 1.6 1.3
SBG54-11 0.280822 0.000015 0.001392 0.000012 0.044828 0.000524 0.280732 4.6 1.3
SBG54-12 0.280776 0.000013 0.001246 0.000009 0.037708 0.000521 0.280696 3.3 1.3
SBG54-13 0.280757 0.000015 0.000985 0.000002 0.029125 0.000243 0.280693 3.2 1.3
SBG54-14 0.280699 0.000013 0.000730 0.000016 0.022664 0.000640 0.280652 1.7 1.3
SBG54-15 0.280699 0.000015 0.000696 0.000017 0.019044 0.000477 0.280654 1.8 1.3
SBG54-16 0.280683 0.000014 0.000501 0.000016 0.013975 0.000395 0.280651 1.7 1.3
SBG54-17 0.280691 0.000013 0.000579 0.000005 0.017523 0.000156 0.280653 1.8 1.3
SBG54-18 0.280729 0.000012 0.000831 0.000014 0.022071 0.000371 0.280675 2.5 1.3
SBG52 (Gamaria Granite), t [3.34 Ga
SBG52-01 0.280745 0.000020 0.001262 0.000051 0.037900 0.001899 0.280664 1.1 1.7
SBG52-02 0.280782 0.000015 0.001500 0.000033 0.045251 0.001218 0.280686 1.9 1.6
SBG52-04 0.280936 0.000018 0.002613 0.000023 0.084401 0.001032 0.280768 4.8 1.6
SBG52-05 0.280734 0.000022 0.001265 0.000033 0.034512 0.001081 0.280653 0.7 1.7
SBG52-06 0.280692 0.000015 0.000980 0.000039 0.026743 0.001114 0.280629 0.1 1.6
SBG52-10 0.280763 0.000016 0.001403 0.000044 0.038575 0.001342 0.280673 1.4 1.6
SBG52-11 0.280689 0.000012 0.000529 0.000008 0.016634 0.000316 0.280655 0.8 1.6
SBG52-12 0.280728 0.000018 0.001446 0.000064 0.041016 0.002036 0.280635 0.1 1.6
SBG52-13 0.280831 0.000013 0.001512 0.000067 0.046009 0.001663 0.280735 3.6 1.6
SBG52-14 0.280783 0.000025 0.001765 0.000033 0.047799 0.001171 0.280670 1.3 1.8
SBG49 (Dalima trondhjemite), t [3.46 Ga
SBG49-06 0.280718 0.000013 0.000789 0.000006 0.024201 0.000236 0.280666 4.4 1.5
SBG49-09 0.280751 0.000014 0.001117 0.000020 0.032483 0.000575 0.280676 4.7 1.5
SBG49-10 0.280707 0.000089 0.001614 0.000026 0.044328 0.000914 0.280599 2.0 2.5
SBG49-12 0.280753 0.000018 0.001208 0.000010 0.033590 0.000329 0.280672 4.6 1.5
SBG49-14 0.280802 0.000017 0.001387 0.000004 0.039357 0.000132 0.280710 5.9 1.5
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 759
The Gamaria granitoids are classified as granites displaying high SiO
2
, low Al
2
O
3
, MgO, and Mg# (Figs. 30.12 and
30.13). K
2
O contents are generally high with wide-ranging K
2
O/Na
2
O (0.71e1.41). Sr contents and Sr/Y ratios are
commonly low (Fig. 30.14). The rocks display fractionated LREE, flat HREE, and distinct negative Eu anomalies
(Fig. 30.15). The granite sample SBG52, chosen for zircon UePb dating, was collected about 8.5 km WSW of Rairangpur
(Fig. 30.11). Zircon grains in this sample are pink, euhedral, mostly long to short prismatic with oscillatory zoning
(Fig. 30.16A). In some zircons, a CL-bright resorbed core is rimmed by a darker zone. The oscillatory zoning is often
punctuated by a resorption zone. 12 spot analyses on 12 zircon grains show low to high U (75e3118 ppm) and Th
(48e2682 ppm) and moderately high Th/U (0.37e0.86) (Table 30.2). The data are concordant to discordant (Fig. 30.16C).
The discordant zircons contain very high U and Th, which probably induced damage within zircon structure followed by
alteration and Pb loss (Rayner et al., 2005). Twelve analyses define an upper intercept age of 3337 52 Ma
(MSWD ¼18) (Fig. 30.16C). Two concordant analyses (#6 and 12) define a similar weighted average
206
Pb/
207
Pb age of
3325 42 Ma (MSWD ¼3.3), which is interpreted as the time of crystallization of the rock. This age matches with the
UePb zircon age of 3326 5 Ma for a granite sample collected near Rairangpur with a similar description (weakly
foliated, medium-grained leucogranite) (Nelson et al., 2014). The εHf
3.33Ga
values of the zircons vary from 0.1 to þ4.8
(weighted avg. þ1.6 1.0, MSWD ¼0.91) (Fig. 30.8).
Samples of the Dalima Pluton dominantly plot in the trondhjemite field, except for one sample falling in the tonalite
field (Fig. 30.12). These rocks have a moderate range of SiO
2
(68e76 wt%), with high Al
2
O
3
,Na
2
O, and Sr and low K
2
O,
K
2
O/Na
2
O, MgO, Mg#, and Rb (Fig. 30.13). These granitoids show fractionated LREE, slightly negative to slightly
positive Eu anomalies (0.8e1.1), depleted HREE, and moderate to high Sr/Y (32e79) (Figs. 30.14 and 30.15).
Trondhjemite sample SBG49 was collected about 5.5 km WSW of Bara Dalima (Fig. 30.11) for zircon UePb dating.
Zircon grains in this sample are pink, euhedral, and prismatic with oscillatory zoning (Fig. 30.16A). Often the zircon grains
are fractured with alteration along growth zones. 13 spot analyses on 13 grains display predominantly high U (range
141e1412 ppm) and Th (33e708 ppm) and high Th/U (0.15e1.22) values (Table 30.2). Majority of the analyses are
highly discordant suggesting strong lead loss (Fig. 30.16D) preventing calculation of a precise upper intercept age. Some
of the highly discordant grains have
206
Pb/
207
Pb age between 3.4 and 3.5 Ga. Two analyses (#4 and 7) with <10%
discordance define a weighted average
206
Pb/
207
Pb age of 3459 35 Ma (MSWD ¼17). Ghosh et al. (1996) obtained a
whole-rock PbePb age of 3442 26 Ma (MSWD ¼1.85) for the Singhbhum Granite Phase I. This suggests that the
zircon UePb date obtained in this study is close to the actual crystallization age of the granite. The εHf
3.46Ga
values of the
zircons range from þ2.0 to þ5.9 (weighted avg. þ4.6 1.5, MSWD ¼0.47) (Fig. 30.8).
2.3.3 Petrogenesis
In this section, we discuss the relative role of source composition, partial melting conditions, and fractional crystallization
in petrogenesis of the 3.38e3.29 Ga granitoids of the Singhbhum Suite. These granitoids plot dominantly in the granite
field. However, many samples, especially those from Dalima and Rairangpur plutons, plot in the trondhjemite field
indicating their TTG character. Within most of the granite plutons, the SiO
2
content shows only restricted variation
(generally 5 wt%) not well-correlated with other elements (Fig. 30.13). This fact indicates a minor role of fractionation.
The exceptions are the Dalima and Rairangpur trondhjemites, which show decreasing trends of TiO
2
, FeO, Al
2
O
2
,
FIGURE 30.12 Normative AbeAneOr classification of granitoids of the Singhbhum Suite. The field of the Champua Suite is also marked. Data
source: Saha et al. (1984), Tait et al. (2011), Nelson et al. (2014), Dey et al. (2017), and this chapter.
760 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
CaO, and MgO with increasing SiO
2
, suggesting possible fractionation of plagioclase, ferromagnesian minerals
(e.g., biotite and magnetite), and titanite.
The minor role of fractional crystallization implies that the source composition and partial melting conditions played
major roles in petrogenesis of the Singhbhum Suite. The low MgO, Cr, and Ni contents and Mg# preclude interaction with
the mantle. The Dalima and Rairangpur trondhjemites have high Al
2
O
3
, CaO, Na
2
O, and Sr and low K
2
O, Ba, Th, U, and
K
2
O/Na
2
O indicating their derivation from a source depleted in LILE (Fig. 30.13). The Al
2
O
3
/(FeO
T
þMgO)
3CaO 5(K
2
O/Na
2
O) ternary plots indicate mainly a low-K mafic source for the Dalima and Rairangpur plutons
(Fig. 30.17).
The Karanjia and Gamaria plutons (both are part of the larger Gamaria-Khorband-Karanjia body) contain the most
silicic granitoids that extend toward the highest values of K
2
O, Rb, K
2
O/Na
2
O, Th, U, and Rb/Sr noted among the
Singhbhum Suite (Fig. 30.13). These two plutons are also characterized by the lowest concentrations of ferromagnesian
oxides (MgO, FeO
T
, TiO
2
), Al
2
O
3
, CaO, P
2
O
5
, and Sr. A tonalite source is suggested for these plutons. The Keonjhargarh-
Bhaunra Pluton has a range of LILE, U, and Th contents. It plots in the area overlapping the Dalima and Rairangpur
plutons at one end and Karanjia and Gamaria plutons at the other end in the Harker variation diagrams (Fig. 30.13). The
Al
2
O
3
/(FeO
T
þMgO) 3CaO 5(K
2
O/Na
2
O) discrimination plot indicates a mixed source consisting of both
mafic rocks and tonalites (Fig. 30.17).
The Gamaria Pluton is characterized by a negative Eu anomaly, high HREE and Y concentrations, and low Sr/Y and
La/Yb ratios (Figs. 30.14 and 30.15). These characteristics suggest shallow (<10 kbar) partial melting of the tonalite
source with plagioclase in the residue. Other plutons of the Singhbhum Suite display a range of Sr/Y and La/Yb values,
most of which are moderate to high (30e100 and 30e110, respectively) and similar to those of the high-silica adakites
(Moyen, 2010). These rocks display moderate to negligible negative Eu anomalies, as well as moderate to strong HREE
depletions suggesting medium- to high-pressure (w10e15 kbar) melting of a source with garnet and/or amphibole and
variable amount of plagioclase in the residue.
Zircon εHf
t
values of all the five plutons of the Singhbhum Suite, irrespective of their age, are characterized by
dominantly positive values (Fig. 30.8). This suggests repeated melting of a crustal source with a short residence time
(juvenile). However, a few analyses from the Gamaria pluton have near-chondritic εHf
t
, suggesting reworking of some
older crust. This older crust could be the 3.45 Ga TTG rocks exposed in the Champua and other part of the craton. Enclaves
of TTG gneisses are also common within the Singhbhum Suite (Saha, 1994; Dey et al., 2017). One such enclave from the
Patna area (Patna tonalite) was dated at 3.47 Ga testifying to this fact (Dey et al., 2017).
FIGURE 30.14 The granitoids of the Singhbhum Suite on a Y versus Sr/Y diagram. Fields of high-HREE TTG, low-HREE TTG, and transitional
(enriched) TTG after Dey et al. (2014).HREE, heavy rare-earth elements; TTG, tonaliteetrondhjemiteegranodiorite. Data from Tait et al. (2011), Nelson
et al. (2014), Dey et al. (2017), and this chapter.
762 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
FIGURE 30.15 Chondrite-normalized rare-earth element patterns for granitoids of the Singhbhum Craton. Data source: Keonjhargarh-Bhaunra
bodydTait et al. (2011) and Dey et al. (2017); Gorumahisani and Haludpukur-Chapra bodiesdNelson et al. (2014); Karanjia bodydDey et al.
(2017); Dalima, Rairangpur, and Gamaria bodiesdthis chapter.
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 763
SBG54
100
(A)
µ
SBG52
100µ
SBG49
100µ
1
10
6
5
11
12
10
9
4
FIGURE 30.16 (A) Representative cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircon grains from Singhbhum Suite granitoids, northeastern part of the
Singhbhum Craton. The circles in CL images show laser ablation spots with numbers corresponding to Table 30.2.Solid circle,UePb analysis and
dashed circle, Hf isotope analysis. The gray area outside each zircon is the background.
764 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
2.4 Bonai Suite
2.4.1 Geological Setting
The Bonai Suite is exposed as a composite ovoid body occurring in the western part of the Singhbhum Craton. Quartzites and
mafic volcanic rocks of the IOG unconformably overlie its periphery (Mohakul and Bhutia, 2015). The most dominant
FIGURE 30.16, cont’d (BeD) Concordia diagrams displaying laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry UePb dating of zircons from
samples SBG54 (Rairangpur trondhjemite), SBG52 (Gamaria granite), and SBG49 (Dalima trondhjemite), respectively. Error ellipses are drawn at 2s
level.
FIGURE 30.17 Al
2
O
3
/(FeOt þMgO) 3CaO 5(K
2
O/Na
2
O) ternary diagram (after Laurent et al., 2014) indicating the possible sources of
granitoids of the Singhbhum Suite. Data source same as in Fig. 30.12.
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 765
component is a foliated porphyritic granitoid (Sengupta et al., 1991, 1993)(Fig. 30.18A). A weakly foliated equigranular
granitoid forms a subordinate component (Fig. 30.18B). Although both the granitoids are closely associated, field evidence
showing their relative age is not found. They contain enclaves of trondhjemite gneiss, banded migmatite, and quartzite
(Fig. 30.18B). Enclaves of metabasic rocks displaying an overall synformal structure were also reported from the Bonai Suite
(Sengupta et al., 1991), which displays steep outward-dipping foliations near its periphery, parallel to the granitoideIOG
contact (Sengupta et al., 1991). Sengupta et al. (1991) considered the Bonai Suite to be emplaced diapirically within the core
of an antiform.
2.4.2 Geochemistry and Age
Porphyritic granitoids of the Bonai Suite range in composition from trondhjemite to granite, whereas the equigranular
granitoids are classified as trondhjemite (Fig. 30.19). Both granitoids are rich in SiO
2
(71e75 wt%). The porphyritic
granitoids are high-K (K
2
O¼3.1e5.9 wt%) calc-alkaline rocks with high K
2
O/Na
2
O (mostly >1) and low MgO, Mg#,
and Sr (Fig. 30.20). The equigranular granitoids are calc-alkaline (med-K) rocks showing relatively higher Na
2
O, MgO,
and Mg# and lower CaO and K
2
O. Both the granitoids are characterized by fractionated LREE, flat HREE, and negative Eu
anomaly (Sengupta et al., 1991).
Gneissic enclaves within Bonai granitoids are low-K tonaliteetrondhjemites (Fig. 30.19) with high Al
2
O
3
,Na
2
O, and
Sr and low K
2
O/Na
2
O, Rb, and Rb/Sr (Fig. 30.20). They show fractionated LREE and depleted HREE patterns with
negligible to slightly negative Eu anomalies (Sengupta et al., 1991).
Sengupta et al. (1991) reported a whole-rock PbePb age of 3163 126 Ma (MSWD ¼18.6) regressing samples from
both porphyritic and equigranular granitoids. They also obtained a whole-rock PbePb age of 3369 57 Ma (MSWD ¼1.2)
for the trondhjemite enclaves. One such trondhjemite enclave yielded a thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) zircon
UePb age of 3380 þ6/e4Ma(
Sengupta et al., 1996), similar to the Rairangpur trondhjemite. Therefore, 3.38e3.37 Ga is a
time of significant trondhjemite magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton. One subconcordant zircon xenocryst from the Bonai
trondhjemite enclave defined a
207
Pb/
206
Pb age of c.3448 Ma. This enclave sample yielded a whole-rock εNd
3.38Ga
value
of 4.2 (Sengupta et al., 1996). Four other enclave samples, however, have positive εNd
3.38Ga
(þ0.3 to þ1.8).
FIGURE 30.18 Field features of granitoids of the Bonai area. (A) Foliated porphyritic granitoid, 11 km NNW of Bonai. (B) Banded migmatitic gneiss
intruded by veins of weakly foliated, gray equigranular granitoid, 13 km NNE of Bonai.
FIGURE 30.19 Normative AbeAneOr classification of granitoids of the Bonai area. Data from Sengupta et al. (1991).
766 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
2.4.3 Petrogenesis
The Na
2
O-rich character, low K
2
O/Na
2
O ratio, elevated Al
2
O
3
and Sr contents, and depleted HREE pattern of the
trondhjemite enclaves indicate their TTG character. They were produced by high-pressure melting of a low-K mafic source
(Fig. 30.21) with garnet in the residue (Moyen, 2011; Moyen and Martin, 2012). The presence of a 3.45 Ga zircon
xenocryst and negative initial εNd value of one enclave sample suggest involvement of old felsic crust. The w3.45 Ga
TTGs, similar to those exposed in different parts of the Singhbhum Craton (e.g., Champua Suite and Patna tonalite),
possibly also contributed in the source. However, positive initial εNd values of other trondhjemite enclave samples indicate
a source with a short crustal residence time.
FIGURE 30.20 Variation of major and trace elements, Mg#, and K
2
O/Na
2
O with respect to SiO
2
within granitoids of the Bonai area. Data from
Sengupta et al. (1991).
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 767
The younger porphyritic and equigranular granitoids (tonalites, trondhjemites, and granites) mostly plot in the tonalite
source field (Fig. 30.21). The enriched HREE, negative Eu anomaly, and low Sr contents suggest low-pressure melting of the
source. However, due to lack of isotope data, it is not possible to comment on the residence time of the protolith in the crust.
Their field association and the presence of older TTG enclaves indicate that the 3.37 Ga crust could be a potential protolith.
2.5 Paleoarchean Crustal Evolution in the Singhbhum Craton
The following features of the Paleoarchean part of the Singhbhum Craton are noteworthy:
lThe granitoid bodies are ovoid domes with concentric foliations at the margins, steeply dipping away from the center
(Sengupta et al., 1991; Saha and Ray, 1984).
lSynclinal Paleoarchean volcano-sedimentary belts (IOG) flank the granitoid bodies (Chakraborty and Majumder, 2002;
Mukhopadhyay, 2001; Ghosh and Mukhopadhyay, 2007; Mohakul and Bhutia, 2015).
lStructural evidence of partial convective overturn, leading to rising of the granitoid domes and sinking of the supracrustal
rocks, was recorded from the craton (Prabhakar and Bhattacharya, 2013).
lLinear lithotectonic belts, accretionary complexes, and thrust-related tectonic duplications are not reported from the
Singhbhum Craton.
lRock associations typical of island arcs, including adakites, siliceous high-Mg basalts, Nb-enriched basalts, and sanu-
kitoids, are yet to be documented in the craton.
lThe Champua Suite contains synchronous high-HREE and low-HREE TTGs (Fig. 30.7), indicative of melting across
the range of crustal depths.
lGranitoids of the Singhbhum Craton are characterized by low Mg#, Cr, and Ni, ruling out direct involvement of mantle
in their petrogenesis.
lAvailable geochronological data suggest that maficeultramafic volcanic rocks of the IOG and OMG formed during
3.51e3.30 Ga, roughly coinciding with ages of formation of the granitoids (Sharma et al., 1994; Mukhopadhyay
et al., 2008; Nelson et al., 2014; Upadhyay et al., 2014; Dey et al., 2017).
The above-mentioned features implicate a dominance of vertical tectonics during the Paleoarchean evolution of the
Singhbhum Craton. The silicic nature of the granitoid rocks and their low Mg#, Ni, and Cr values indicate an origin
through crustal reworking. However, the granitoids consistently show positive zircon εHf
t
values reflecting reworking of
a juvenile crustal source. We suggest a volcanic plateau environment characterized by intermittent, mantle plume-related
maficeultramafic magma underplating and intraplating, as documented for the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia
(Smithies et al., 2009; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Van Kranendonk et al., 2007, 2015). Archean mantle was probably
hotter, which resulted in more frequent plumes, extensive maficeultramafic magmatism, and the formation of thick crust
FIGURE 30.21 Al
2
O
3
/(FeOt þMgO) 3CaO 5(K
2
O/Na
2
O) ternary diagram (after Laurent et al., 2014) indicating the possible sources of
granitoids of the Bonai Suite. Data from Sengupta et al. (1991).
768 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
(Herzberg et al., 2010; Herzberg and Rudnick, 2012). Increased subcrustal mantle heat flux combined with latent heat
released by emplacement and crystallization of mantle-derived magma within thick plateau-type crust can cause
extensive melting of basaltic material (Bea, 2012; Campbell and Davies, 2017). Voluminous granitoid magma could be
generated by this process over time (Johnson et al., 2017). The komatiites of the IOG, exposed in the eastern
Gorumahisani-Badampahar belt, provide testimony to Paleoarchean plume magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton
(Sahu and Mukherjee, 2001; Chaudhuri et al., 2015, 2017). Voluminous mafic rocks also occur within the IOG and OMG
(Sharma et al., 1994; Sengupta et al., 1997; Manikyamba et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2016). Paleoarchean granitoid
magmatism within the craton ranged from 3.53 to 3.29 Ga. Initially, Na-rich granitoids were derived from maficsources.
Subsequent granitoids were progressively more enriched in K and LILE, implying involvement of felsic material in their
source (Dey et al., 2017). This led to effective crustal differentiation and formation of a stable craton by 3.25 Ga, over
which extensive Mesoarchean shelf sediments were deposited in a passive margin setting (Ghosh et al., 2015).
Due to repeated magmatic underplating and intraplating, the lower crust was probably soft. This induced sinking of the
denser volcano-sedimentary belts (IOG and OMG) and diapiric rising of the granitoid domes (Prabhakar and Bhattacharya,
2013). At the present level of erosion, the central parts of granitoid domes are rimmed by downwarped low-grade volcano-
sedimentary belts. Some workers (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2016) reported depletion of enrichment of LILE
and LREE and relative depletion of HFSE within IOG basalts and suggested that they formed within an arc setting on the
basis of geochemical discrimination plots. In addition to the well-known pitfalls of geochemical discriminations diagrams in
identifying Archean tectonic settings, these studies did not consider the role of older felsic crust in petrogenesis of the
volcanic rocks in the absence of isotope (Nd and Hf) fingerprinting. Detrital zircon UePb dates from the Singhbhum Craton
(Mishra et al., 1999; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014) suggest formation of early felsic crust at 3.6 Ga. Whole-rock Nd isotope
data indicate initiation of crust formation at least 3.9 Ga (Saha et al., 2004). Recently published studies on xenocrystic
zircons within TTG gneiss of the Champua Suite (Chaudhuri et al., 2018) and detrital zircons (Miller et al., 2018) extend the
crust formation event within the Singhbhum craton up to 4.2 Ga. Contamination with felsic crust might have resulted in
negative HFSE anomalies within the IOG basalts. In conclusion, the Paleoarchean granitoid magmatism in the Singhbhum
Craton can best be explained by partial melting of mafic crust within volcanic plateau at various depths.
3. DHARWAR CRATON
3.1 Regional Geology
The Dharwar Craton is exposed over an area of 3,50,000 km
2
in the southern part of India (Ramakrishnan, 1994)
(Fig. 30.22). The craton is divided into two blocksdthe eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) and western (WDC)don the basis
of the nature of greenstone belts, age of the surrounding granitoids, and deformation and metamorphic patterns (Swaminath
et al., 1976; Chadwick et al., 2000). The two blocks are separated by the Chitradurga Shear Zone or Chitradurga boundary
fault (CSZ in Fig. 30.22). The whole Dharwar Craton shows an N-S to NNW-SSEetrending structural fabric interpreted as
the result of Neoarchean transcurrent shear deformation (Drury and Holt, 1980).
The WDC is characterized by 2.9e2.55 Ga greenstone belts (Kumar et al., 1996; Sarma et al., 2012), unconformably
overlying a basement comprising 3.4e3.0 Ga granitoids and metamorphosed supracrustal rocks of the Sargur Group. These
Dharwar-type greenstone belts-Dharwar-type contain dominant sedimentary components (BIF, graywacke, and shale with
minor quartzite and conglomerate) along with basalts forming the Dharwar Supergroup (Ramakrishnan, 1994). An event of
reworking of the older crust in WDC took place at w2.6 Ga producing K-rich granitoids (Jayananda et al., 2006).
In contrast, the EDC is dominated by Neoarchean granitoids (2.7e2.51 Ga) and narrow w2.7 Ga greenstone belts
(Chadwick et al., 2000; Jayananda et al., 2000; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2012; Dey et al., 2014, 2016). These greenstone
belts (Kolar-type) comprise dominantly mafic(ultramafic and felsic) volcanic rocks with relatively subordinate
sedimentary rocks (mostly graywacke and BIF). The lower crust of both the WDC and EDC experienced granulite facies
metamorphism at 2.52e2.51 Ga (Peucat et al., 2013). The Dharwar Craton shows a gradual north-to-south increase in
metamorphic grade from greenschist facies to granulite facies (Raase et al., 1986). This is attributed to a northern tilting of
the craton exposing an oblique section from upper crust in the north to lower crust in the south. In this contribution, we
focus mainly on the Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean rocks of the WDC.
Seismological evidence suggests that the WDC has a greater crustal thickness (42e51 km) than the EDC (34e39 km)
(Borah et al., 2014). A major part of the WDC is occupied by polyphase, largely gneissic, granitoids of Paleoarchean to
Mesoarchean age (Dhoundial et al., 1987; Meen et al., 1992; Peucat et al., 1993; Maibam et al., 2011; Jayananda et al.,
2015, 2018). These granitoids host linear belts of strongly deformed and metamorphosed (upper amphibolite to lower
granulite facies) sediments and maficeultramafic rocks that are collectively termed the Sargur Group or Sargur
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 769
Supracrustals (Viswanatha and Ramakrishnan, 1981; Srinivasan, 1988; Janardhan, 1994). The rock types of the Sargur
Group are fuchsite-bearing quartzite, metapelite (kyanite-garnet-staurolite-sillimanite-graphite schist), banded magnetite
quartzite, and metabasalt (amphibolite) with local barite, marble, and calc-silicate rocks. In some belts, komatiites with
spinifex and pillow structures were also identified (Jayananda et al., 2008). Layered plutonic bodies containing peridotite,
dunite, pyroxenite, and anorthosite are reported from a few belts (Bhaskar Rao et al., 2000; Mukherjee et al., 2012).
There are few age constraints on the Sargur Group. The contact with the enclosing granitoid gneisses is generally
migmatized obscuring the basementecover relation. In places, the granitoids have invaded the Sargur supracrustal rocks.
Some workers suggested that the Sargur rocks are older than the enclosing gneisses (Naqvi, 1981; Hussain and Naqvi,
1983). Conversely, others (Ramakrishnan and Viswanatha, 1981; Meen et al., 1992) consider the surrounding granitoids to
FIGURE 30.22 Geological map of the Dharwar Craton. The red boxes show the location of granitoids discussed in the text. From north to south,
Anmodghat (An), Chikmagalur, Holenarsipur (Hn), and Gundlupet. Greenstone/supracrustal belts are also marked: BbdBababudan, CdChitradurga,
GdGadwal, HdHutti, HKdHungund-Kushtagi, HndHolenarsipur, KdKolar, KadKadiri, KudKudremukh, NdNuggihalli, PdPenakacherla,
RdRamagiri, RcdRaichur, SdSandur, SgdSargur, ShdShimoga, VdVeligallu, CSZdChitradurga shear zone. Inset: EDCdEastern Dharwar
Craton, WDCdWestern Dharwar Craton, EGdEastern Ghats Mobile Belt, SGTdSouthern Granulite Terrain. Modified after Chardon et al. (2008).
770 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
be older. Detrital zircons from Sargur metasedimentary rocks have given UePb ages of 3.58e3.13 Ga (Nutman et al.,
1992; Lancaster et al., 2015; Maibam et al., 2016). A rhyolite flow in the Holenarsipur belt yielded an SHRIMP UePb
zircon age of 3298 7Ma (
Peucat et al., 1995). Limited whole-rock SmeNd ages of the komatiite flows of the Sargur
Group and associated maficeultramafic intrusive rocks vary from 3.35 to 3.1 Ga (Fig. 30.23) with initial εNd(t) values
ranging from þ0.8 to þ3.5 (Bhaskar Rao et al., 2000; Jayananda et al., 2008; Mukherjee et al., 2012; Maya et al., 2016).
FIGURE 30.23 Distribution of zircon ages of different types of granitoids, felsic volcanic rocks, and whole-rock ages of maficeultramafic rocks from
the Western Dharwar Craton. Data source: Zircon: 1. Maibam et al. (2011);2.Trendal et al. (1997); 3. Peucat et al. (1995);4.Jayananda et al. (2006);
5. Bhaskar Rao et al. (2008);6.Nutman et al. (1996);7.Chardon et al. (2011);8.Devaraju et al. (2007);9.Chadwick et al. (2007); 10. Jayananda and
Chardon (2011); 11. Chardon (1997); 12. Peucat et al. (1993); 13. Jayananda et al. (2015); 14. Nasheeth et al. (2015); 15. Jayananda et al. (2013); 16.
Sarma et al. (2011). Whole-rock SmeNd: 17. Jayananda et al. (2008); 18. Maya et al. (2016); 19. Bhaskar Rao et al. (2000); 20. Mukherjee et al. (2012);
21. Guitreu et al. (2017).
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 771
Recent understanding is that the time span of formation of the Sargur supracrustal rocks broadly coincides with the major
phase of granitoid magmatism (3.35e3.0) within the WDC (Fig. 30.23).
Both Al-depleted and Al-undepleted komatiites have been reported from the Sargur belts, interpreted as a result of
melting at variable depths within a rising mantle plume (Jayananda et al., 2008, 2016; Tushipokla and Jayananda, 2013;
Maya et al., 2016). The positive εNd(t) and chondritic to subchondritic abundances of incompatible elements, such as REE,
suggest the presence of depleted Paleoarchean mantle below the WDC. This implies significant crust extraction before
3.35 Ga in the WDC (Jayananda et al., 2008; Dey, 2013; Tushipokla and Jayananda, 2013).
3.2 Granitoids
A major part of the WDC is occupied by 3.4e3.0 Ga granitoids collectively termed the “Peninsular Gneiss Complex”
(Naqvi et al., 1983; Bhaskar Rao et al., 1991; Jayaram et al., 1984). The complex is highly heterogeneous. It contains
polyphase TTG gneisses with maficeultramafic enclaves, repeatedly remobilized and migmatized, and intruded by late
pegmatites and w3.0 Ga granites representing both juvenile and reworked crustal components. Various components
include biotite gneisses alternating with amphibolites and ultramafic rocks, banded hornblende-biotite migmatite gneisses,
banded migmatitic garnet-bearing paragneisses, and diapiric trondhjemiteegranodioriteegranite plutons (e.g., Halekote
and Sigegudda bodies) intrusive into the other members (Naqvi et al., 1983; Rogers et al., 1985; Rogers and Callahan,
1989). A number of studies reported whole-rock geochemical and RbeSr and PbePb dates during the 80s and early 90s
(Beckinsale et al., 1980; Monrad, 1983; Stroh et al., 1983; Ramakrishnan et al., 1984; Taylor et al., 1984; Dhoundial et al.,
1987; Bhaskar Rao et al., 1991; Meen et al., 1992), attesting to the Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean age of the gneissic
complex (see compilation of ages in Jayananda et al., 2015). More recent studies reported zircon UePb/PbePb ages
(Fig. 30.23) and Nd isotope data (Peucat et al., 1993; Devaraju et al., 2007; Chardon et al., 2011; Maibam et al., 2011;
Ishwar-Kumar et al., 2013; Jayananda et al., 2015). A large part of the gneissic tract is still poorly studied. Here we base
our discussion on the following relatively better-studied areas from north to south with increasing metamorphic grade
(exposing deeper crustal levels).
3.2.1 Anmodghat (Goa) Region
A number of granitoid bodies and low-grade metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks of the Neoarchean Dharwar
Supergroup (locally termed as Goa Group) are exposed in the north-westernmost part of the Dharwar Craton, near Goa and
northern Karnataka (Fig. 30.24)(Dhoundial et al., 1987; Devaraju et al., 2007). These granitoids yielded whole-rock
RbeSr age of w2.6 Ga and are variably interpreted as either intrusive into (Dhoundial et al., 1987), or basement
(Devaraju et al., 2007) for the adjacent Goa Group. However, strongly deformed, gneisses, called the Anmodghat
trondhjemite, yielded a RbeSr whole-rock age of 3400 140 Ma with an initial
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio of 0.7016 (Dhoundial
et al., 1987) and a two-point TIMS zircon UePb age of 3330 34 Ma (Devaraju et al., 2007). These granitoids display
steep N-S foliation and consist mainly of quartz and plagioclase with minor K-feldspar and biotite. They are trondhjemites
(Fig. 30.25) generally characterized by high SiO
2
(70e74 wt%) and Na
2
O with low CaO, MgO, K
2
O, Y (10e18 ppm), Cr
(w8 ppm), and Ni (w5 ppm) (Fig. 30.26) indicative of their TTG character. Commonly, they plot in the calc-alkaline to
(low-K) tholeiite field with low K
2
O/Na
2
O (0.3e0.5) and Mg# (mostly 0.05e30). The Sr/Y ratios are low to moderately
high (10e35; Fig. 30.27). The rocks display enriched LREE and nearly flat to moderately depleted HREE with minor
negative Eu anomalies (Fig. 30.28).
The Anmodghat trondhjemite is exposed in the upper crustal level of the Dharwar Craton. Devaraju et al. (2007)
mentioned that the area shows dome-and-basin structures, although no supporting field evidence or structural data were
provided. The restricted range of SiO
2
in the Anmodghat trondhjemite rules out a major role of fractionation in its
petrogenesis. Low values of Mg#, Cr, and Ni suggest an origin of the precursor magma through reworking of crust without
involvement of mantle. The Anmodghat trondhjemite samples plot in the low-K mafic to tonalite source field (Fig. 30.29).
A wide range of Sr/Y values and variable HREE depletion implies that melting of the source took place at variable depth
within the crust. The low initial
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio (0.7016; Dhoundial et al., 1987) and depleted mantle Nd model ages similar
to crystallization ages (w3.3 Ga; Devaraju et al., 2007) suggest a juvenile source.
3.2.2 Chikmagalur Region
The Chikmagalur granite forms a roughly triangle-shaped body along the southern margin of the Dharwar-type Bababudan
greenstone belt in the central part of the WDC (Jayananda et al., 2015)(Fig. 30.30). The body consists of weakly
772 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
deformed, porphyritic granodiorites containing quartz, plagioclase, microcline, and biotite. The Chikmagalur granite
intruded into medium- to coarse-grained TTG gneisses that frequently display migmatitic layering (Taylor et al., 1984;
Jayananda et al., 2015). The gneisses comprise mainly quartz and plagioclase with subordinate K-feldspar and biotite.
Enclaves of gneisses are also present. The TTG gneisses host narrow belts of Sargur Group rocks. These gneisses and the
Chikmagalur granite are unconformably overlain by sedimentary rocks of the Dharwar-type Bababudan and Sigegudda
greenstone belts.
Four zircons from a Chikmagalur gneiss sample yielded discordant SHRIMP PbePb ages ranging from 3.35 to 3.28 Ga
(Jayananda et al., 2015). The oldest age was interpreted to be the emplacement age of the precursor magma. This is
commensurate with single zircon PbePb evaporation ages of 3.33e3.23 Ga obtained for the same gneisses (Peucat et al., 1993).
FIGURE 30.24 Geological map of Anmodghat area, Goa and Karnataka (after Dhoundial et al., 1987). Neoarchean granitoids: DSdDudhsagar granite,
CHdChandranath granite, CNdCanacona granite porphyry, LdLonda migmatitic gneiss.
FIGURE 30.25 Normative AbeAneOr classification of Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean granitoids from the Western Dharwar Craton. Data from
Ramakrishnan et al. (1984), Dhoundial et al. (1987), Bhaskar Rao et al. (1991), Shadakshara Swamy et al. (1995), Devaraju et al. (2007), Naqvi et al.
(2009), and Jayananda et al. (2015).
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 773
The Chikmagalur granite recorded a UePb zircon age of c.3.15 Ga (Jayananda et al., 2015), which is similar to a whole-rock
PbePb age of 3175 45 Ma (Taylor et al., 1984). The εNd(t) values of the Chikmagalur gneisses range from þ1.4 to 0.5,
whereas that of one Chikmagalur granite sample is 0.9 (Jayananda et al., 2015).
The Chikmagalur gneisses are silica-rich rocks (SiO
2
¼72e75 wt%) classified mostly as trondhjemites (Fig. 30.25).
These rock have high Na
2
O, variable K
2
O (0.9e3.5 wt%), and K
2
O/Na
2
O (0.2e0.8), with low MgO and Mg# (mostly
0.1e0.3) (Fig. 30.26). Available limited trace element data indicate variable Sr (201e674 ppm), Y (6e66 ppm), and Sr/Y
(10e30) (Fig. 30.27). REE patterns show undepleted to moderately depleted HREE with negative to no Eu anomalies
(Fig. 30.28). These gneisses mostly plot in the low-K mafic source field (Fig. 30.29). A wide range of Sr/Y and HREE
depletions suggest melting of a source at variable depths. The εNd(t) values (þ1.4 to 0.5) indicate a juvenile source with
some input from older crustal material (Jayananda et al., 2015).
The Chikmagalur granites are silicic rocks (SiO
2
¼70e75 wt%) showing high CaO and Na
2
O, moderate K
2
O
(2.7e3.4 wt%) and K
2
O/Na
2
O (0.6e0.8), and low MgO and Mg# (mostly 0.15e0.25) (Fig. 30.26). Trace element data
from a single sample show low Sr (114 ppm) and low Sr/Y (10). The REE pattern shows a slight negative Eu anomaly with
slightly fractionated HREE (Fig. 30.28). The presence of 3.35 Ga TTG gneiss enclaves and low values for MgO, Mg#, and
εNd(t) (0.9) indicate a crustal origin with involvement of preexisting felsic crust.
3.2.3 Holenarsipur Region
This area, in the south-central part of the WDC, exposes the trident-shaped Holenarsipur greenstone belt (Fig. 30.31)
consisting of medium-grade (amphibolite facies) supracrustal rocks including metapelites, amphibolites, and metakomatiites
FIGURE 30.27 Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean granitoids of the Western Dharwar Craton on Y versus Sr/Y plot. HREE, heavy rare-earth elements; TTG,
tonaliteetrondhjemiteegranodiorite. Data from Bhaskar Rao et al. (1991), Shadakshara Swamy et al. (1995), Devaraju et al. (2007), Naqvi et al. (2009),
and Jayananda et al. (2015). Fields of high-HREE TTG, low-HREE TTG, and transitional (enriched) TTG after Dey et al. (2014).
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 775
FIGURE 30.28 Chondrite-normalized rare-earth element patterns for Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean granitoids of the Western Dharwar Craton. Data
from Dhoundial et al. (1987), Bhaskar Rao et al. (1991), Shadakshara Swamy et al. (1995), Devaraju et al. (2007), Naqvi et al. (2009) and Jayananda
et al. (2015).
FIGURE 30.29 Al
2
O
3
/(FeOt þMgO) 3CaO 5(K
2
O/Na
2
O) ternary diagram (after Laurent et al., 2014) indicating the possible sources of
Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean granitoids of the Western Dharwar Craton. Data source same as Fig. 30.25.
776 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
with subordinate metamorphosed felsic volcanic rocks, conglomerates, and BIF (Srinivasan, 1988; Bhaskar Rao et al., 1991,
2000; Bouhallier et al., 1995a,b). Intrusive layered maficeultramafic bodies are also present within the belt.
Highly strained TTG gneisses surround the Holenarsipur belt. Gneisses to the west of the Holenarsipur belt are named
“Gorur gneisses,”which yielded zircon UePb ages of 3.35e3.18 Ga (Bhaskar Rao et al., 2008; Jayananda et al., 2015;
Guitreau et al., 2017)(Fig. 30.23). These gneisses are cut by 3.13 Ga granitic veins. Recently, Guitreu et al. (2017)
published a zircon UePb age of 3410.8 3.6 Ma from a K-rich granitic gneiss from the area, which is the oldest date yet
reported from the Dharwar Craton. Along the eastern margin of the belt, “Eastern Gneisses”yield a UePb zircon ages of
3.28 Ga (Jayananda et al., 2015). Prominent 3.23e3.20 Ga trondhjemite bodies (“Halekote trondhjemite”) intruded the
gneisses (Fig. 30.31)(Bouhallier et al., 1993;Jayananda et al., 2015).
Chadwick et al. (1978) suggested that the Holenarsipur belt has undergone three phases of deformation and that the
Halekote trondhjemite intruded synkinematically. Bouhallier et al. (1993, 1995a,b) documented distinct dome-and-basin
structures defined by foliation trajectories (Fig. 30.31 and B). The elliptical antiformal domes are occupied by granitoids
FIGURE 30.30 Geological map of Chikmagalur area (after Jayananda et al., 2015). BIF, banded iron formation.
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 777
FIGURE 30.31 (A) Geological map of Holenarsipur area. (B) Foliati on trajectory map of the Holenarsipur area marking the domal granitoid bodies.
(C) Cross section through Holenarsipur area showing granitoid domes flanked by synformal supracrustal (Holenarsipur) belt. (A) After a compilation
made by Jayananda et al. (2015) from Hussain and Naqvi (1983) and Bouhallier et al. (1993);(B)AfterBouhallier et al. (1993); (C) After Bouhallier
et al. (1995b).
778 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
that are flanked by synformal keels of Holenarsipur belt supracrustal rocks (Fig. 30.31C)(Bouhallier et al., 1993, 1995a,b).
Steeply dipping foliations are strongly developed at the contact between the supracrustal rocks and granitoids, whereas
foliations in the central part of the granitoid domes are shallow and less prominent (Fig. 30.31C). According to some
workers (Bouhallier et al., 1993, 1995a,b; Jayananda et al., 2013, 2015), the area experienced two tectono-metamorphic
eventsdan amphibolite facies metamorphic event probably associated with diapirism and intrusion of the Halekote
trondhjemite, and a Neoarchean (w2.5 Ga) regional N-S transcurrent ductile shearing event (see the eastern margin of the
Holenarsipur belt in Fig. 30.31A) that reoriented the earlier generation of rocks and fabrics.
The gneisses and Halekote trondhjemite consist dominantly of quartz and plagioclase with subordinate K-feldspar,
biotite, and rare hornblende. These rocks are geochemically classified mainly as trondhjemites, with few samples extending
into the tonalite and granite fields (Fig. 30.25)(Naqvi et al., 1983, 2009; Bhaskar Rao et al., 1991; Jayananda et al., 2015).
These rocks are rich in Na
2
O(4e6 wt%), with low to moderate K
2
O contents and K
2
O/Na
2
O ratios (predominantly <0.6 wt
% with a few values up to 0.9), indicating their TTG character (Fig. 30.26). Low values of MgO (mostly <1.2 wt%), Mg#
(mostly <0.4), Cr (mostly <1e35 ppm), and Ni (1e14 ppm) are distinctive. Both the gneisses and Halekote trondhjemite
show a wide range of pressure-sensitive element (Al, Sr, Y, and Yb) contents and ratios (Eu/Eu*, Sr/Y, and La
N
/Yb
N
)
(Figs. 30.27 and 30.28). The εNd(t) values of the gneisses and Halekote trondhjemite are variable: þ2.4 to 2.8 and þ2.4
to 0.5, respectively (Peucat et al., 1993; Jayananda et al., 2015).
The Holenarsipur TTG gneisses do not display any trend in Harker variation diagrams (Fig. 30.26), suggesting that
fractionation was not the dominant process in their genesis. The low contents of ferromagnesian elements (Mg, Cr, and Ni)
and Mg# indicate that their precursor magma was produced by crustal melting without direct involvement of mantle. The
Al
2
O
3
/(FeO
T
þMgO) 3CaO 5(K
2
O/Na
2
O) discrimination plot suggests a heterogeneous source consisting of
tonalite and low- to high-K mafic rocks (Fig. 30.29). The wide range of La
N
/Yb
N
and Sr/Y values along with flat to
depleted HREE patterns and negligible to prominent negative Eu anomalies (Fig. 30.28) indicate the presence of both low-
pressure (low-Al or high-HREE) TTGs and high-pressure (high-Al or low-HREE) TTGs. Melting of a crustal source at
middle to lower crustal depths (w10e18 kb) is indicated (Jayananda et al., 2015). The wide variation in εNd(t) values
(þ2.4 to 2.8) also suggests a heterogeneous source, which likely consisted of juvenile crust with variable contributions of
older crustal material. The presence of this older crustal component in the WDC can be identified by cryptic isotopic
signatures (granitoid whole-rock Nd T
DM
values and UePb ages of detrital zircons and inherited zircons upto 3.6 Ga
within gneisses; Dey, 2013, Lancaster et al., 2015; Guitreu et al., 2017). A 3.41 Ga peraluminous, K-rich, granitic gneiss
with mildly depleted zircon Hf isotope signatures (εHf
t
¼þ2.2 0.6) was reported from the area, indicating reworking of
a felsic source with a short crustal residence time (Guitreu et al., 2017).
The Halekote trondhjemites are characterized by very low MgO, Mg#, Cr, and Ni contents (Fig. 30.26), reflecting an
origin through crustal melting. A heterogeneous source ranging from low-K mafic rocks to tonalites can be envisaged for
these trondhjemites depending on their major element contents (Fig. 30.29). The high Al
2
O
3
contents and high Sr/Y ratios
(Fig. 30.27), coupled with depleted HREE patterns (low-HREE TTG) (Fig. 30.28) of some samples, imply high-pressure
melting at lower crustal depths, with garnet in the residue. However, other samples show low-Al
2
O
3
contents and Sr/Y
ratios along with flat HREE patterns and negative Eu anomalies (high-HREE TTG). These rocks originated through
shallow crustal melting of a source containing plagioclase. The εNd(t) values of the Halekote trondhjemites (þ2.4 to 0.5)
imply a juvenile source with some input from older crustal material.
3.2.4 Gundlupet Region
This area (Fig. 30.32), located along the southern margin of the WDC, exposes linear bodies of metasedimentary
(quartzites, pelites, marbles, calc-silicate rocks, banded magnetite quartzites) and maficeultramafic rocks of the Sargur
Group engulfed by TTG gneisses (Janardhan and Vidal, 1982). The rocks were metamorphosed to upper amphibolite to
transitional hornblende-granulite facies (Raase et al., 1986; Shadakshara Swamy and Reddy, 1989) and are considered
to represent a lower crustal section of the Dharwar Craton. This area also shows dome-and-basin structures. Bouhallier
et al. (1995a,b) opined that the denser supracrustal bodies form mushroom-shaped antidiapirs. In the Holenarsipur area,
the shallow-level vertical walls of the antidiapirs contain steeply dipping foliations. The Gundlupet area exposes the
basal, flat part of the antidiapir, where flat-lying foliations characterize the central part of the supracrustal bodies. The
WNW-ESEetrending dextral Moyar shear zone marks the southern boundary of the Gundlupet area to the south of
which occurs the high-grade khondalite-charnockite rocks of the Southern Granulite Terrain.
TheGundlupetgneissesarecommonlymigmatizedandintrudedbyLILE-andHFSE-enrichedcalc-alkalinegranites
(Shadakshara Swamy et al., 1995). The gneisses yielded UePb zircon age of w3.3 Ga (Buhl, 1987). Whole-rock Nd
T
DM
model ages (3.44e3.38 Ga; Peucat et al., 2013) are somewhat older. Geochemically, the Gundlupet gneisses are
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 779
tonalites and trondhjemites (Fig. 30.25), characterized by generally high Al
2
O
3
,Na
2
O, and Sr, with low MgO (mostly
<1.2 wt%), Cr, Ni, and K
2
O(Fig. 30.26). The REE patterns show strong depletion of HREE with no Eu anomalies
(Fig. 30.28). The Y values are low (mostly 4e21 ppm), resulting in high Sr/Y ratios (mostly 40e90) (Fig. 30.27).
The Gundlupet TTG gneisses plot in the low-K mafic to tonalite source field (Fig. 30.29). The low MgO, Cr, and Ni
contents, along with the high-Al nature and high Sr/Y and La
N
/Yb
N
ratios, suggest that the rocks were derived from
high-pressure melting within the crust. The Nd T
DM
model ages are only marginally higher than the UePb zircon
crystallization age, suggesting that the source of the TTG magma had a short crustal residence before melting.
3.3 Paleoarchean (to Mesoarchean) Crustal Evolution in the Western Dharwar Craton
Some workers have suggested a model involving subduction of plume-fed basaltic oceanic crust and subsequent melting for
the formation of the TTG crust of the WDC. Their arguments were mostly based on the chemical compositions of the TTGs,
which are similar to subduction-related Neoarchean high-silica adakites (high La/Yb and low Yb) (Naqvi et al., 2009). Ram
Mohan et al. (2008) noted low B/Be, As/Pr, and W/Th, along with high Nb/Ta ratios within the TTGs, and proposed their
formation by melting of subducted, dehydrated eclogites depleted in fluid-mobile elements (B, As, and W). However, it
should be noted that the Paleoarchean TTG samples used by Ram Mohan et al. (2008) were collected from the Holenarsipur
and Sigegudda areas, where rocks have undergone strong deformation, amphibolite facies metamorphism, possible hydro-
thermal alteration, and modification of mobile element contents and Rb/Sr ratios leading to anomalous initial
87
Sr/
86
Sr values
(<0.69897) (Meen et al., 1992; Jayananda et al., 2015). These facts question the reliability of using fluid-mobile trace
element ratios in such old and altered rocks. Moreover, TTGs produced by melting of subducted oceanic slab have to pass
through the overlying mantle wedge, raising their Mg, Cr, and Ni contents (Smithies, 2000). TTGs of the WDC consistently
show low values of MgO, Mg#, Cr, and Ni (Fig. 30.26). Naqvi et al. (2009) suggested that the subduction was flat with
negligible mantle wedge between the subducted slab and the base of the arc crust. Nowadays, Archean flat subduction is not
FIGURE 30.32 Geological map of Gundlupet area (after Bouhallier et al., 1995b).
780 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
considered geodynamically viable (Van Hunen and Moyen, 2012), and it cannot explain the existence of coeval low-HREE
(high-pressure) and high-HREE (low-pressure) TTGs in the WDC.
Mukherjee et al. (2010, 2012, 2015) reported that the composition of chromite grains from chromite ore bodies of
layered maficeultramafic intrusives of the Nuggihalli greenstone belt plot in the suprasubduction zone setting in chromite
tectonic discrimination diagrams. These authors calculated the parental composition of the chromites to be komatiitic
basalt, which had resemblance to boninites. Mukherjee et al. (2010, 2012, 2015) argued that the komatiitic magma was
derived through hydrous melting of depleted mantle wedge in a subduction zone, whereas the spatially associated TTGs
were produced by melting of subducted oceanic slab.
The tectonic discrimination diagrams used by Mukherjee et al. (2010, 2015) are based on limited data from very recent
magmatic rocks. Their applicability in Paleoarchean terrains should be regarded with considerable uncertainty. Moreover,
komatiitic basalts with boninite signatures are yet to be reported from the Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean greenstone belts of
the WDC.
The presence of prominent dome-and-basin structures (Fig. 30.31) led some authors (Bouhallier et al., 1993, 1995a,b;
Choukroune et al., 1995) to propose synmagmatic vertical tectonics with sinking of the denser greenstone belts and rising
of granitoid domes (Bouhallier et al., 1995a,b). A combined arcdplume model has also been put forward (Jayananda et al.,
2008, 2018; Raju et al., 2013), which considers formation of Sargur Group komatiites and komatiitic basalts in an oceanic
plateau environment related to a mantle plume at 3.3e3.2 Ga. Subsequently subduction started along the margin of the
oceanic plateau and TTGs formed by melting of the subducted oceanic slab during 3.2e3.15 Ga (Jayananda et al., 2008;
Tushipokla and Jayananda, 2013). Finally, closure of the oceanic domain, termination of subduction, and slab break-off
resulted in upwelling of hot mantle material and reworking of earlier TTG in the lower crust to produce K-rich granites
at 3.0 Ga. This model explains neither the presence of 3.35 Ga TTGs nor the evidence of felsic crust as old as 3.6 Ga
(implied by detrital zircons; Nutman et al., 1992; Lancaster et al., 2015; Maibam et al., 2016) in the WDC.
Guitreau et al. (2017), on the basis of detrital and granitoid zircon Hf isotope records, divided the evolution of the WDC
into three periods. The pre-3.4 Ga record is marked by wide-ranging zircon εHf
t
values (þ10.4 to 2.3), suggesting
diverse sources. The 3.4e3.2 Ga period has mildly depleted or near-chondritic signatures indicative of a juvenile source.
The post-3.2 Ga period is characterized by negative εHf
t
values implying crustal reworking. Guitreau et al. (2017) sug-
gested that the Sargur Group komatiites formed in an oceanic plateau setting. Subduction started along the margin of the
oceanic plateau, which caused accretion of various crustal blocks including oceanic arcs and small oceanic plateaus.
Finally, at 3.2 Ga, a continental block, containing >3.4 Ga zircons, juxtaposed with the WDC marking its stabilization.
Available sparse geochronological data suggest that the formation of Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean TTGs within the
WDC was contemporaneous with greenstone belt felsic and maficeultramafic magmatism (Fig. 30.23). K-rich granitoids
formed at 3.0 Ga (Chardon et al., 2011; Jayananda et al., 2015). The terrain was involved in synmagmatic “partial
convective overturn”with kinematic indicators displaying downward movement of supracrustal rocks wrapping around
granitoid domes (Bouhallier et al., 1993, 1995a,b). This is reminiscent of the mantle plumeerelated crustal growth model,
which invokes formation of continental nuclei in thick volcanic plateau over hot, continuously upwelling mantle
(Van Kranendonk, 2011; Van Kranendonk et al., 2015; Johnson et al., 2017). Repeated melting of the plateau crust in
response to episodic underplating and intraplating of mantle-derived maficeultramafic rocks resulted in generation of felsic
melts that evolved toward K-rich compositions. The high heat flow rendered the middle to lower crust soft leading to sinking
of the denser greenstone rocks and diapiric rise of granitoids (Van Kranendonk, 2011; Van Kranendonk et al., 2015).
The existence of coeval high-HREE and low-HREE TTGs (Jayananda et al., 2013) can be explained by melting of plateau
crust at different depths. The present linear feature of the Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean greenstone belts is caused by a much
later (w2.5 Ga) transcurrent shear deformation event that affected the whole Dharwar Craton (Choukroune et al., 1995;
Chardon et al., 2008).
The majority of the maficeultramafic rocks of the Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean greenstone belts of the WDC display
komatiitic affinity (Jayananda et al., 2008; Tushipokla and Jayananda, 2013; Devaraju, 2009). Tholeiitic volcanic rocks occur
in subordinate amounts (Devaraju, 2009). Volcanic rocks, such as boninites, adakites, Nb-enriched basalts and high-Mg
andesites, and characteristics of subduction settings, appear only in the younger Dharwar-type (2.9e2.55 Ga) and Kolar-
type (w2.7 Ga) greenstone belts (Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2012; Dey et al., 2015; Ganguly et al., 2016). The WDC
cratonized at 3.0 Ga, followed by onset of mature clastic (quartz arenites and quartz-pebble conglomerates) sedimentation on
a cratonic platform at 2.9 Ga. By that time the continental crust was sufficiently rigid, which rifted with outpouring of
continental basalts (Srinivasan and Ojakangas, 1986).
Global zircon Hf isotope datasets suggest that c.3 Ga ago possibly represents a reduction in crustal growth rate, which
may be linked to increased recycling attendant to the onset of modern-style plate tectonics (Dhuime et al., 2012;
Hawkesworth et al., 2016). A detrital zircon Hf isotope study from the Dharwar Craton has also shown such a change at
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 781
c.3 Ga (Lancaster et al., 2015). Dey (2013) noted that the maficeultramafic rocks of the Sargur Group were derived from
significantly depleted mantle (whole-rock εNd(t) mostly >2). In contrast, the younger (2.9e2.6 Ga) juvenile mafic rocks
of the Dharwar Supergroup indicate a chondritic to slightly enriched mantle source (εNdt ¼0.3 to þ0.4). Dey (2013)
suggested that subduction-related metasomatism could be responsible for refertilization of younger mantle. We conclude
that the Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean geological setting of the WDC fits more into the volcanic plateau model of crustal
growth marked by vertical tectonics. It was only at 3.0e2.9 Ga when signatures of plate tectonics started appearing in the
Dharwar Craton.
4. DISCUSSION
The Singhbhum Craton and WDC share a similar early evolutionary history (Fig. 30.33). Both cratons display a dominance
of vertical tectonics marked by dome-and-basin structures, comparable with those noted in other Paleoarchean provinces
such as the East Pilbara Terrane (EPT) and the Barberton Granitoid-Greenstone Terrain (BGGT). Early TTGs were
emplaced contemporaneously with greenstone belt maficeultramafic magmas. Coeval high-HREE and low-HREE TTGs
with low MgO, Mg#, Cr, and Ni characterize both the cratons, implying their origin through crustal reworking. The final
cratonization is marked by production of potassic granites. We suggest that both the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar
cratons nucleated within thick volcanic plateaux. Subduction was not required to explain their early evolution, although
that does not rule out the operation of subduction at this time.
In detail, there are differences between the two cratons. The maficeultramafic rocks of the Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean
greenstone belts of the WDC (Sargur Group) are mainly of komatiite affinity. In general, these belts contain subordinate
amounts of sedimentary rocks. On the other hand, the Paleoarchean IOG and OMG of the Singhbhum Craton contain mainly
tholeiitic to calc-alkaline mafic volcanic rocks (Sharma et al., 1994; Sengupta et al., 1997). Minor IOG komatiites and
komatiitic basalts occur only within the eastern Gorumahisani-Badampahar belt (Sengupta et al., 1997; Chaudhuri et al.,
2015, 2017). Except for this belt, the OMG and other IOG belts have significant sedimentary components. The metamorphic
grade of the IOG and OMG varies from greenschist to lower amphibolite facies, whereas the Sargur Group displays a higher
grade of metamorphism (amphibolite to amphibolite-granulite transition facies).
FIGURE 30.33 Comparison plot of major Archean events in Singhbhum and Dharwar Cratons showing periods of main supracrustal formation,
granitoid emplacement, and dome-and-keel formation. TTG, tonaliteetrondhjemiteegranodiorite. Sources of data same as in Figs. 30.4 and 30.23 in
addition, to Sharma et al. (1994), Kumar et al. (1996), Augé et al. (2003), Misra and Johnson (2005), Sarma et al. (2012), Prabhakar and Bhattacharya
(2013), Mukhopadhyay et al. (2014), and Topno et al. (2018).
782 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
In the Singhbhum Craton, voluminous K-rich granitoids (K
2
O/Na
2
O1) were emplaced at 3.33e3.28 Ga (Fig. 30.4). The
TTGs, as well as the K-rich granitoids, have consistently positive zircon εHf
t
values (Fig. 30.8), indicating a protracted period of
juvenile addition of crust, which quickly melted to form felsic rocks. Successive crustal reworking events incorporated more
felsic material, generating granites with increasingly higher K (Dey et al., 2017). The Singhbhum Craton stabilized at
w3.25 Ga, followed by emplacement of layered maficeultramaficbodies(
Augé et al., 2003; Khatun et al., 2014) and the A-
type Mayurbhanj Granite at w3.1 Ga (Nelson et al., 2014)(Fig. 30.33). This makes the Singhbhum Craton one of the earliest
stabilized cratons of the world. The WDC stabilized about 250 Ma later (w3.0 Ga) (Fig. 30.23). The granitoids in this craton
are predominantly of sodic composition, with minor w3.0 Ga K-rich granites. A large range of whole-rock εNdt values (þ2.4
to 2.8) of granitoids (Jayananda et al., 2015) suggests reworking of juvenile crust with a variable contribution from
significantly older crust. The differences indicate that the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons nucleated at different sites
and have undergone similar, but independent, crustal evolutionary histories during the Archean.
APPENDIX 1: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Whole-Rock Element Analysis
The samples were analyzed for whole-rock major and trace elements (Table 30.1) in the laboratory of Actlabs, Ontario,
Canada, using their analytical package “code 4LITHO.”Powered samples weighing 200 mg along with standards were
fused using a lithium metaborate/tetraborate flux and then totally dissolved using 5% HNO
3
. Major elements, Ba, Sr, Y, Zr,
Be, Sc, and V, were analyzed using an ICP (Varian 735 ICPOES) and all other elements by an inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (ELAN 9000). Loss on ignition was determined by heating powdered samples for 2 h at
1050C. Nineteen international rock standards of variable compositions were analyzed simultaneously and the values
obtained for them are available with the corresponding author on request. Further details of analytical techniques are given
in http://www.actlabs.com.
Zircon UePb Dating
The zircon grains were separated using standard procedures including crushing (in steel mortar and pestle), sieving
(375e75 mm), tabling, heavy liquid separation (bromoform and methylene iodide), and magnetic separation at Indian
Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, India. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of polished zircon
grains were obtained using a FEI Quanta 450 field emission gun scanning electron microscope attached with a Gatan Mono
CL4þCL system at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources (SKLGPMR), China
University of Geosciences, Wuhan. UePb dating of zircon grains was conducted by laser ablation ICP-MS at SKLGPMR
(data in Table 30.2). Detailed operating conditions for the laser ablation system and the ICP-MS instrument and data
reduction are the same as described by Liu et al. (2008, 2010a,b). Laser sampling was performed using a GeoLas 2005 with
a beam diameter of 32 mm. An Agilent 7500a ICP-MS instrument was used to acquire ion-signal intensities. Off-line
selection and integration of background and analyte signals, and time-drift correction and quantitative calibration for
UePb dating were performed by ICPMSDataCal (Liu et al., 2008, 2010a).
Zircon 91500 was used as external standard for UePb dating and was analyzed twice for every five analyses. Time-
dependent drifts of UeThePb isotopic ratios were corrected using a linear interpolation (with time) for every five analyses
according to the variations of 91500 (i.e., 2 zircon 91500 þ5 samples þ2 zircon 91500) (Liu et al., 2010a). Preferred
UeThePb isotopic ratios used for 91500 are from Wiedenbeck et al. (1995). Concordia diagrams and weighted mean
calculations were made using Isoplot/Ex_ver3 (Ludwig, 2003).
Zircon Hf Isotope Analysis
The analyses were conducted using a Neptune Plus multicollector (MC) ICPeMS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Germany)
and a Geolas 2005 excimer ArF laser ablation system (Lambda Physik, Göttingen, Germany) at the SKLGPMR. All data
from zircon in this study were acquired in the single-spot ablation mode at a spot size of 44 mm put either on the same spot
as that of UePb analysis on an adjacent, similar domain as defined by CL imaging. Each measurement consisted of 20 s of
acquisition of the background signal followed by 50 s of ablation signal acquisition. The operating conditions for the laser
ablation system and the MCeICPeMS instrument and the analytical method are the same as those described in detail by
Hu et al. (2012). Off-line selection and integration of analyte signals and mass bias calibrations were performed using
ICPMSDataCal (Liu et al., 2008, 2010a). The zircon standards JG-1 and TEMORA were simultaneously analyzed as
Early Crustal Evolution as Recorded in the Granitoids of the Singhbhum and Western Dharwar Cratons Chapter | 30 783
unknowns, which yielded weighted average
176
Hf/
177
Hf values of 0.282016 0.000006 (n ¼31) and 0.282697
0.000047 (n ¼30), respectively. These values are similar to the reported values of 0.282015 0.000019 for JG-1 (Elhlou
et al., 2006) and 0.282680 0.000024 for TEMORA (Woodhead et al., 2004).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
SD acknowledges Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India research grant MoES/P.O.(Geosci)/45/2015. AM and AT have received
doctoral research fellowships from IIT (ISM), Dhanbad. We thank Elis Hoffmann, Victoria Bennett, and Martin Van Kranendonk for inviting us
to contribute this paper. We also acknowledge very efficient editorial handling by Martin Van Kranendonk. The laboratory facilities in the
Department of Applied Geology, IIT(ISM), funded through DST FIST Level II project No. SR/FST/ESII-014/2012(C), are also acknowledged.
The research was also supported by the MOST Special Fund of the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources
(MSFGPMR01) to YL.
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FURTHER READING
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792 SECTION | V Filling the Gaps
