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Lactoferrin level in breast milk: a study of 248 samples from eight regions in China
Abstract
Lactoferrin plays an important role in infant gastrointestinal health and immunity responses. This study measured the change of the lactoferrin level in breast milk over the lactation time in Chinese women, and explored potential influencing factors in terms of various maternal factors. 248 lactating women were recruited from eight different regions across China, covering 330 days of lactation. The nutrition information of each woman as well as the gender information of infants were collected. Breast milk lactoferrin level was determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). A twenty-four-hour maternal food recall was used to collect the dietary information. The lactoferrin level decreased progressively from day 1 to day 30 (p < 0.01), and remained constant from day 31 to day 330. Among the eight regions, the breast milk samples from Gansu contained the highest mean lactoferrin level (1.40 g L⁻¹) while the breast milk samples from Zhejiang contained the least mean lactoferrin level, 0.94 g L⁻¹ (p < 0.01). Dietary pattern and maternal BMI showed no correlation with the breast milk lactoferrin level. Maternal ethnicity and age were associated with the breast milk lactoferrin level. The breast milk samples collected from Tibetan ethnicity had 1.45 g L⁻¹ lactoferrin while those collected from Dai ethnicity had 1.02 g L⁻¹ lactoferrin. Women in the elder age group (30 years old and above) had 0.95 g L⁻¹ breast milk lactoferrin, which was significantly lower than the lactoferrin level (1.3 g L⁻¹) in the younger age group (20–25 years old) (p < 0.01). In conclusion, this study showed that lactoferrin levels in the breast milk of Chinese lactating women were influenced by lactation time. Besides, ethnicity and maternal age were two impact factors on the breast milk lactoferrin level.
... Besides that, among Chinese mothers, no significant associations were observed between intake of meat, dairy, eggs, and vegetables and milk lactoferrin content (20). However, in a randomized controlled trial among 120 Australian mothers, after a 6-week high-egg diet, milk ovalbumin was significantly higher, when compared to a low-egg and egg-free diet (0.20 vs. 0.05 vs. 0.05 ng/mL, p = 0.04), whereas no difference were observed after 2 and 4 weeks (21). ...
... Most studies assessed dietary intake either a few days before milk sampling or by habitual intake using (multiple) 24-h dietary recalls, dietary records, weighted food records or food consumption records. Some studies used two dietary assessments methods (18,20,29,32,(35)(36)(37)41), and some others assessed dietary intake during pregnancy instead of lactation and used FFQs and dietary questionnaires that represent usual intake (14,24,28,31,32,34). Studies scored higher points if they assessed diet during lactation, if the chosen assessment method was more appropriate, i.e., FFQ or at least three 24 h recalls or food records, and if the method was validated for the study population at hand. ...
... Most included studies mention the postpartum period during which the samples were obtained, but several studies chose a very broad period and/or included milk samples from different lactational stages (transitional and mature) ( Supplementary Table S3) (15,16,18,26,32,38,41,43), or obtained Frontiers in Nutrition 14 frontiersin.org samples at several timepoints, but did not specify which samples were used for association with dietary intake (20,23,39). Time postpartum is effecting all macro-and many micronutrients, with higher concentrations of (immune) proteins and lower concentrations of lactose in colostrum, compared to transitional and mature milk (52). ...
Context
Exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months after birth provides infants with the best start for life. A review by Bravi et al. summarized the importance of maternal diet as a determinant of human milk composition based on data up to 2015, but evidence on nutrient intake level was limited.
Objective
We updated the review by Bravi et al., critically assessed differences in study designs and sampling methods, and graphically visualized trends and associations.
Data sources
PubMed was systematically searched for articles published between January 2015 and March 2021.
Data extraction
Article screening, selection, and data extraction was done by two independent researchers, including a risk of bias assessment based on 11 criteria. Articles were eligible when including: quantitative information, commonly used effect estimates, healthy mother-infant dyads.
Results
Twenty seven observational and five intervention studies were identified (n = 7,138) and combined with results of Bravi et al. Fatty acids were still the most studied human milk components in relation to maternal diet (n = 17 studies) with maternal fish intake being predominantly positively associated with milk ALA (r = 0.28–0.42), DHA (r = 0.24–0.46), and EPA (r = 0.25–0.28) content. PUFAs from diet were generally positively correlated with their concentrations in milk, while SFA intake was negatively associated with several fatty acids in milk. Studies on associations with maternal diet and milk carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals were limited in number and varied in methods and results.
Conclusion
This updated review shows that evidence on the association between maternal diet and human milk fatty acids is rapidly increasing, but still diversified in methodology and results. Further studies, preferably intervention studies, assessing diet and milk carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals are needed to be able draw conclusions on the importance of maternal diet for human milk composition as a whole.
... Eating habits of mothers, types of breastfeeding, and nutrition during lactation are contributing factors for the development of important endocrine, metabolic, and immunological disorders in infants [3]. The dietary intake status of LMs impacts the nutrient content of breast-milk and maternal health [1,16,17]. Breast milk is an ideal food for infants, which provides multiple nutrients and protection from diseases [1,16,18]. Therefore, mother's diet needs to be well planned to ensure a sufficient supply of nutrients for infant's health [5]. ...
... The dietary intake status of LMs impacts the nutrient content of breast-milk and maternal health [1,16,17]. Breast milk is an ideal food for infants, which provides multiple nutrients and protection from diseases [1,16,18]. Therefore, mother's diet needs to be well planned to ensure a sufficient supply of nutrients for infant's health [5]. In 2016, the CNS added six recommendations to the "dietary guidelines for LMs," based on the dietary guidelines for the general population. ...
... In agreement with a previous study [1], we also argue that single recommendations for a huge country like China are not feasible considering its geographical, cultural, and socialeconomic diversity. With a population of more than 1.34 billion people, China has 56 different ethnic groups and substantially different dietary patterns [1,16]. The cultivation of complex food ingredients and eating habits may lead to an imbalance of nutrient intakes under specific conditions [34]. ...
Background:
The nutritional status of lactating mothers (LMs) is related to their own health and significantly impacts the secretion of breast-milk, and subsequently the growth and development of infants. Due to the influence of regional economy, traditional habits, and lack of nutrition knowledge, the problem of poor dietary nutrition among Chinese LMs is prominent. We aimed to evaluate and compare the dietary and nutrient intakes in LMs from urban and rural areas in China to provide baseline data for the implementation of relevant health guidance and strategies.
Methods:
A multi-stage sampling method was used to recruit urban and rural LMs from 13 provinces and municipalities in China. An online dietary record using food photographs was employed to keep track of what the LMs had eaten in 2 days in the form of face-to-face interview. A total of 954 participants were included in the final analysis. Data expressed as quartiles P50 (P25; P75) were compared using the Mann-Whitney U-test (level of significance: p < 0.05).
Results:
The consumption of staple food was higher in the rural (283.37 g/d) than in the urban areas (263.21 g/d). The consumption of vegetables, fruits, fish, shrimp, and shellfish, milk and dairy products was lower than the recommended amounts in both areas, and the insufficient intake of these food types was more serious in rural areas. While the energy intake of 83.8% of all LMs was lower than the estimated energy reference, it was comparable in the urban and rural areas. The intake of macronutrients (carbohydrates, protein, and fats) in rural areas was lower than in urban areas. The intake of some vitamins (VA, VB1, VB2, VB9 and VC) and minerals (calcium, magnesium, iodine and copper) was not ideal for LMs in both rural and urban areas.
Conclusions:
Overall, the dietary intake in LMs was lower than the recommended levels. Many essential nutrients failed to meet the recommended doses, both in the urban and rural areas. The deficiencies in micronutrients were more prevalent in rural compared to urban areas. Educating LMs about women's health and appropriate dietary intake is, therefore, essential.
... Several cohort studies, either longitudinal or cross-sectional, have been performed to evaluate the changing pattern of breast milk proteins and identify the underlying influencing factors. 9,[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27] One largely studied factor is lactation stage, which has been reported to influence the protein composition in breast milk. 21,23,25,27 In general, the concentrations of lactoferrin and α-lactalbumin decrease over the lactation period, whereas the β-casein concentration first increases and then returns back to the original value. ...
... The decrease in the concentration with the elongation of lactation period has previously been reported for lactoferrin, αlactalbumin, κ-casein and total protein. 1,3,20,21,24,26 A systematic review on the breast milk composition of Chinese women reported a decrease in protein content from colostrum (1.64±0.32 g/100 mL) to mature milk (1.22±0.12 ...
... We found higher κ-casein and lactoferrin concentrations in mothers who delivered a girl than a boy. However, these results were not in agreement with previous results, as some found no difference in the lactoferrin concentration, 24,25 and others reported a higher protein content in breast milk when infants were male. 38,39 Although there is not yet any agreement on the influence of infant gender, its stronger effect on colostrum might be related to hormonal differences in pregnant women caused by the gender of the fetus. ...
Background and objectives:
Breast milk proteins are essential to infants as they provide nutrition and protection. This study evaluated multiple factors that might influence breast milk proteins to identify the determinants that lead to inter-individual and longitudinal differences.
Methods and study design:
Five major breast milk proteins (β-casein, α-lactalbumin, lactoferrin, serum albumin and κ-casein) from breast milk samples collected from 55 mothers in three cities (Hohhot, Wuhan and Qingdao) in China were analyzed using a validated ultraperformance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method. Various factors were statistically evaluated for their associations with breast milk proteins: mother's age, parity, delivery mode, infant gender and infant birthweight.
Results:
Although decreased in concentrations, the proportions of β-casein and α-lactalbumin increased from colostrum (33.8% and 26.8%) to mature milk (40.3% and 31.6%), respectively. Mothers of older age were found to produce a lower concentration of total protein. Compared with vaginal delivery, caesarean section was associated with lower concentrations of κ-casein, lactoferrin and β-casein in mature milk. Infant gender influenced breast milk proteins in colostrum: mothers who delivered a girl tended to produce more κ-casein, lactoferrin and total protein. Furthermore, regional differences were found, and mothers from Hohhot produced significantly higher concentrations of α-lactalbumin and lactoferrin than those from Qingdao and Wuhan. This regional difference might be linked to the different dietary patterns of these mothers among cities.
Conclusions:
Our study deepens the understanding of breast milk protein dynamics in Chinese population and provides evidence on potential determinants, which can serve as guidance for infant nutrition optimization.
... Lactoferrin (LF) is a glycoprotein that binds non-heme iron and is found in the secretions of mammary glands and other exocrine fluids [1,2]. The quantities of LF in milk differ depending on genetic, environmental, age, breed, and other unknown factors [3]. ...
... Moreover, other studies demonstrated that LF is an eminent ironbinding protein found in various body fluids counting saliva, digestive fluid, reproductive fluid, breast milk, and serum [6]. Studies have found that the average levels of human LF in colostrum, transitional, and mature milk are 3.85, 1.58, and 1.13 g/L, respectively [1]. The LF levels in normal cows' milk varied between 31.78 and 485.63 μg/mL [7]. ...
Lactoferrin (LF) is a protein found in several bodily fluids, such as milk. This protein has a diverse range of functions and is evolutionarily conserved. Lactoferrin is a multifunction protein with distinct biological abilities affecting mammals' immune structures. Reports indicated that the daily uptake of LF from dairy products is unsatisfactory in detecting further health-promoting abilities. Research has shown that it protects against infection, mitigates cellular senescence, and improves nutritional quality. Additionally, LF is being studied as a potential treatment for various diseases and conditions, including gastrointestinal issues and infections. Studies have also demonstrated its effectiveness against various viruses and bacteria. In this article, we'll look closer at the structure of LF and its various biological activities, including its antimicrobial, anti-viral, anti-cancer, anti-osteoporotic, detoxifying, and immunomodulatory properties. More specifically, the protective effect of LF against oxidative DNA damage was also clarified through its ability to abolish DNA damaging issues without interfacing with host genetic material. Fortification with LF protects mitochondria dysfunction syndromes via sustaining redox status and biogenesis and suppressing apoptosis and autophagy singling. Additionally, we'll examine the potential benefits of lactoferrin and provide an overview of recent clinical trials conducted to examine its use in laboratory and living models.
... Regardless of the adequate nutritional intake of mothers, this was not associated with lactoferrin concentration. Consistent with this result, Cai et al. found no significant correlation between lactoferrin concentration in mature human milk with the various food intake of mothers [28]. Several studies also specifically reported that maternal protein intake did not affect lactoferrin content in human milk [27][28][29]. ...
... Consistent with this result, Cai et al. found no significant correlation between lactoferrin concentration in mature human milk with the various food intake of mothers [28]. Several studies also specifically reported that maternal protein intake did not affect lactoferrin content in human milk [27][28][29]. Therefore, consumption of food sources of protein such as meat, soy or milk was not necessarily associated with lactoferrin concentration [27]. ...
... The prebiotic lactoferrin (LF) is an iron-binding glycoprotein that is related to the transferrin family which plays an important role in antimicrobial activity functions due to its unique structure [7], and it possesses immunomodulatory activities [8]. Moreover, LF has previously been shown to improve the performance of poultry [9]. ...
... These findings are supported by Cai et al. [7] who clarified the importance of LF in breast milk for the development of immunity and growth in infants. Whereas Edde et al. [34] suggested that LF may act with other natural peptides, such as lysozyme, or may prime macrophages to kill E. coli in vivo. ...
Background and aim:
Increased multidrug resistance in Escherichia coli has created challenges for the poultry industry. Consequently, new antimicrobial agents should preferentially be utilized for the prevention and treatment of E. coli outbreaks. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of lactoferrin (LF) as a prebiotic on broiler chicks challenged with multidrug-resistant E. coli in comparison with antibiotics.
Materials and methods:
A total of 70 diseased flocks from Egypt were collected for E. coli isolation and identification, serotyping, and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern determination. E. coli was isolated and characterized phenotypically and one isolate that showed multidrug-resistance was selected. A challenge trial was performed to evaluate the effectiveness of LF as a prebiotic on the isolated multidrug-resistant E. coli. Liver samples were collected from the experimental chicks and subjected to E. coli enumeration to illustrate the effectiveness of LF on the liver cells and bacteria using an electron microscope. Serum samples were also collected to estimate lysozyme and nitric oxide (NO) concentrations.
Results:
After isolation of E. coli with a percentage of 54.3% from the diseased broilers, the strain was serotyped (identified serotypes: O2, O18, O55, O78, O86a, O111, O125, O126, O127, O157, O159, and O166). Multi-antibiotic resistance was found to be harbored in a high percentage among 11 antibiotic discs. The LF in the prophylactic and treated groups was found to have a significant effect in comparison with the group treated with the drug of choice (ciprofloxacin). Furthermore, a significant difference in the NO (one of non-specific immune response) and a non-significant difference in lysozyme concentrations were reported in the group fed on rations with LF in comparison with the non-fed group.
Conclusion:
LF was thus identified as an effective prebiotic that can improve chick performance, help them to overcome multidrug-resistant E. coli and stimulate immunity.
... mg/mL, respectively (Singh et al., 2023). In human milk, colostrum contains the highest concentration of lactoferrin (3.85 mg/ mL) followed by transitional milk (1.58 mg/mL) and mature milk (1.13 mg/mL) (Cai et al., 2018). ...
... Recent advancements in research have provided a deeper understanding of the chemical composition and distinctive characteristics of camel milk, shedding light on its potential therapeutic properties and offering insights into its mode of action (Mihic et al., 2016 andSingh et al., 2017). Lactoferrin, a glycoprotein belonging to the transferrin family, that binds non-heme iron and is present in the secretions of mammary glands and various exocrine fluids (Cai et al., 2018). Lactoferrin consists of 708 amino acids arranged into two globular lobes in length with a molecular around 80 kDa (Özer and Yaman 2014). ...
... In addition, 2 other studies reported that BM in overweight and obese mothers was higher in insulin compared with BM of normal-weight mothers 16,59 However, no association was found in 3 studies. 13,14,62,74 Other hormones No significant association was reported for BM levels of ghrelin, 13,59,69,74,76,79 resistin, 13,67,74 and lactoferrin 80,81 with maternal weight and/or BMI. However, 1 study reported a positive correlation between lactoferrin and prepregnancy BMI at 1 month postpartum. ...
Context
Breast milk composition is influenced by many factors, ranging from maternal nutritional status to infant sex. Previous studies have explored the relationship between maternal body mass index (BMI) and breast milk composition; however, the findings have been inconsistent and controversial.
Objective
To systematically review the evidence on the association of maternal weight and BMI with breast milk composition.
Data Sources
The PubMed and Scopus databases were searched up to May 3, 2023, using the following search strategy: (“maternal weight” OR “maternal BMI” OR “mother’s weight” OR “mother’s BMI”) AND (“maternal milk” OR “human milk” OR “breast milk”).
Data Extraction
A total of 83 publications, involving data from more than 11 310 lactating women, were identified. All extracted data were compiled, compared, and critically analyzed.
Data Analysis
Overall, maternal BMI was associated with higher levels of leptin and insulin, and the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in breast milk. However, no conclusive associations were found between maternal BMI and the levels of energy, macronutrients, micronutrients, and other components of breast milk.
Conclusions
This systematic review provides robust evidence supporting a positive correlation between maternal BMI and breast milk concentrations of leptin, insulin, and the omega-6 to omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio. Nevertheless, disparities in findings are noticeable for other constituents of breast milk. To comprehensively grasp the influence of maternal weight and BMI on breast milk composition, further research endeavors are imperative.
Systematic Review Registration
PROSPERO registration no. CRD42023458667.
... Additionally, this temporal pattern of change in Lf concentration in HM (between rst and next months) parallels that observed for total protein content through postpartum period. It also must be stressed that in our study the collection of HM samples was standardized (morning sampling time, pre-and post-feed samples), whereas in other studies [25][26][27] the XXX procedure of milk expression was not speci ed which may impact HM protein content and thus, also Lf concentration. Studies which aimed to analyze the effect of various factors (geographical location, maternal socio-demographic data, perinatal parameters) on Lf level in HM, mainly found no signi cant impacts [14,15]. ...
Background
The aim of this study was to investigate factors affecting total, true protein and lactoferrin (Lf) concentrations in human milk (HM) and to evaluate the changes in protein concentrations over the course of lactation (first to sixth month postpartum).
Methods
HM samples were collected from 33 exclusively breastfeeding mothers during six time periods (1–6 months postpartum). Sampling time was in the morning between 7.00 and 9.00. The concentrations of total and true protein in HM were determined using the MIRIS human milk analyzer (HMA). The assessment of HM protein content was also performed in skim HM samples and quantified by bicinchoninic methods with the Bicinchoninic Acid Protein Assay Kit. In turn, Lf content in skim HM samples was determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in accordance with a slightly modified procedure.
Results
In the first and the sixth months postpartum total HM protein concentration was 1.35 ± 0.24 and 1.02 ± 0.16 g/100 mL, respectively, whereas Lf concentration was 4.9 ± 2.0 g/L and 4.4 ± 1.4 g/L, respectively. In the first month of lactation total protein concentration was negatively correlated with maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (r = -0.397; p = 0.022), whereas in the third month postpartum, positive correlation with maternal age was found (r = 0.399; p = 0.021). Considering Lf concentration, in the first month of lactation, it was positively correlated with baby’s birth weight (r = 0.514; p = 0.002). In the next months (from second to sixth) no relationships between Lf concentration and maternal and infants’ factors were observed.
Conclusions
The concentration of protein and Lf in HM changes dynamically throughout lactation. Maternal and infant characteristics may impact the HM protein and Lf content, especially in the first month postpartum.
... Lactoferrin is a prebiotic iron-binding glycoprotein belonging to the transferrin family. It has antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties (Badr et al., 2021;Cai et al., 2018). The molecule has an average molecular weight of 80 kDa and is found in numerous mammalian excretions. ...
Poultry is thriving across the globe. Chicken meat is the most preferred poultry worldwide, and its popularity is increasing. However, poultry also threatens human hygiene, especially as a fomite of infectious diseases caused by the major foodborne pathogens (Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Listeria). Preventing pathogenic bacterial biofilm is crucial in the chicken industry due to increasing food safety hazards caused by recurring contamination and the rapid degradation of meat, as well as the increased resistance of bacteria to cleaning and disinfection procedures commonly used in chicken processing plants. To address this, various innovative and promising strategies to combat bacterial resistance and biofilm are emerging to improve food safety and quality and extend shelf‐life. In particular, natural compounds are attractive because of their potential antimicrobial activities. Natural compounds can also boost the immune system and improve poultry health and performance. In addition to phytochemicals, bacteriophages, nanoparticles, coatings, enzymes, and probiotics represent unique and environmentally friendly strategies in the poultry processing industry to prevent foodborne pathogens from reaching the consumer. Lactoferrin, bacteriocin, antimicrobial peptides, cell‐free supernatants, and biosurfactants are also of considerable interest for their prospective application as natural antimicrobials for improving the safety of raw poultry meat. This review aims to describe the feasibility of these proposed strategies and provide an overview of recent published evidences to control microorganisms in the poultry industry, considering the human health, food safety, and economic aspects of poultry production.
... The concentration of Lf in breastmilk is related to the duration of lactation, with 5∼7 g/L of Lf in colostrum, then decreasing to 2∼3 g/L in mature milk (89). Using ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), Cai et al. measured Lf levels in the breast milk of 248 lactating women from eight different regions in China, and the results showed that Lf levels gradually decreased from day 1 to day 30 (p < 0.01) and remained constant from day 31 to day 330 (90). Thus, Lf gene expression is also spatiotemporally specific. ...
Lactoferrin (Lf), existing widely in human and mammalian milk, is a multifunctional glycoprotein with many functions, such as immune regulation, anti-inflammation, antibacterial, antiviral, and antioxidant. These extensive functions largely attribute to its ability to chelate iron and interfere with the cellular receptors of pathogenic microorganisms and their hosts. Moreover, it is non-toxic and has good compatibility with other supplements. Thus, Lf has been widely used in food nutrition, drug carriers, biotechnology, and feed development. Although Lf has been continuously explored and studied, a more comprehensive and systematic compendium is still required. This review presents the recent advances in the structure and physicochemical properties of Lf as well as clinical studies on human diseases, with the aim of providing a reference for further research of Lf and the development of its related functional products.
... Lf is a well-known iron-binding protein found in mammalian fluids, including breast milk, saliva, and serum. 6 Cai et al. 7 reported to inhibit rotavirus infectivity in vitro. 9 Research on authentic SARS-CoV-2 is restricted to biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratories, which impedes the progress of COVID-19 vaccine development and antiviral drug evaluation. ...
Breast milk has been found to inhibit coronavirus infection, while the key components and mechanisms are unknown. We aimed to determine the components that contribute to the antiviral effects of breastmilk and explore their potential mechanism. Lactoferrin (Lf) and milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) inhibit SARS-CoV-2 related coronavirus GX_P2V and SARS-CoV-2 trVLP in vitro and block viral entry into cells. We confirmed that bovine lactoferrin (bLf) blocked the binding between human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) and SARS-CoV-2 spike protein by combining receptor binding domain (RBD). Importantly, bLf inhibited RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) activity of both SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in vitro in the nanomolar range. So far, no biological macromolecules have been reported to inhibit coronavirus RdRp. Our result indicated that bLf plays a major role in inhibiting viral replication rather than viral entry, which has been widely explored. bLf treatment reduced viral load in lungs and tracheae and alleviated pathological damage. Our study provides evidence that bLf prevents SARS-CoV-2 infection by combining SARS-CoV-2 spike protein RBD and inhibiting coronaviruses' RdRp activity, and may be a promising candidate for the treatment of COVID-19.
... LF and sIgA are among the most extensively studied bioactive proteins which confer immunity on the baby. 8 A study by Lis-Kuberka et al. comparing the LF and SIgA concentration of mothers with and without gestational diabetes showed that there was no significant difference between the two groups. From the first to the fifteenth day of lactation, the concentrations of LF and SIgA were negatively correlated with milk maturation of hyperglycaemic (r = -0.37 and r = -0.48, ...
Background and objectives: Mothers’ breastmilk is the best source of nutrition for infants; hence, its nutritional adequacy is essential. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the total protein, secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) and lactoferrin (LF) concentrations of breastmilk from lactating mothers in Jakarta and analyse their correlation with average daily calory, macronutrient and vitamin C and E intakes. Methods and study design: A cross-sectional study was conducted in two primary health centres in Jakarta, Indonesia. The breastmilk’s total protein concentration was measured with the Warburg–Christian method, while sIgA and LF concentrations were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Macronutrient and vitamin C and E intake was assessed through 24-hour food recall and a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), respectively. Results: Thirty-six lactating women were recruited. The mean plasma protein was 8.17 g/dl, breastmilk protein was 3.36 g/dL, sIgA was 4.37 g/L and LF was 14.36 g/L. The total energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat and vitamin C and E daily intakes were 1828.61 kcal/day, 234.76, 71.15, 72.31 gram/day, 109.7 mg/day and 5.60 mg/day, respectively. Neither plasma and breastmilk total protein nor sIgA and LF concentrations were correlated with total energy, macronutrients or vitamin C and E daily intake. Conclusions: The plasma total protein, breastmilk total protein, sIgA and LF concentrations of lactating women in Jakarta were within the normal range. These biochemical profiles were shown to be not significantly correlated with daily calory, macronutrient or vitamin C or E intake. Keywords: breastmilk protein; secretory immunoglobulin A; lactoferrin; macronutrients; vitamins
... Premature infants exhibit immature brain development, and innate nutrition deficiency is more likely to cause neurodysplasia or damage. Breastfeeding can provide the highest levels of Lf [149], reduce the risk of infection [2,150,151], and provide a good environment for the development of the brain and nerves in preterm infants [45]. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is not only associated with an increased risk of perinatal mortality but also compromises brain development and increases the risk of later mental and psychomotor developmental complications [152]. ...
Central nervous system (CNS) diseases are currently one of the major health issues around the world. Most CNS disorders are characterized by high oxidative stress levels and intense inflammatory responses in affected tissues. Lactoferrin (Lf), a multifunctional iron-binding glycoprotein, plays a significant role in anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, reactive oxygen species (ROS) modulator, antitumor immunity, and anti-apoptotic processes. Previous studies have shown that Lf is abnormally expressed in a variety of neurological diseases, especially neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, the promotion of neurodevelopment and neuroprotection by Lf has attracted widespread attention, and Lf could be exploited both as an active therapeutic agent and drug nanocarrier. However, our understanding of the roles of Lf proteins in the initiation or progression of CNS diseases is limited, especially the roles of Lf in regulating neurogenesis. This review highlights recent advances in the understanding of the major pharmacological effects of Lf in CNS diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, cerebrovascular disease, developmental delays in children, and brain tumors.
... Little is known about the external factors that influence the level of LF in human milk. Previous studies identified lactation stage [62], maternal age [63], and ethnicity [64] as the main factors regulating variation in the level of milk LF. Our research identifies maternal anxiety as yet another factor. ...
Citation: Ziomkiewicz, A.; Apanasewicz, A.; Danel, D.P.; Babiszewska, M.; Piosek, M.; Orczyk-Pawiłowicz, M. Maternal Distress and Social Support Are Linked to Human Milk Immune Properties. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1857. Abstract: Possible alterations of maternal immune function due to psychological stress may reflect immunoactive factor levels in breast milk. This study aimed to assess the association between maternal distress and breast milk levels of secretory IgA (SIgA), IgM, IgG, and lactoferrin (LF). We hypothesized that this association is moderated by maternal social support achieved from others during lactation. The study group included 103 lactating mothers and their healthy five-month-old infants. Maternal distress was determined based on the State Anxiety Inventory and the level of salivary cortisol. Social support was assessed using the Berlin Social Support Scales. Breast milk samples were collected to test for SIgA, IgM, IgG, and LF using the ELISA method. Milk immunoactive factors were regressed against maternal anxiety, social support, salivary cortisol, and infant gestational age using the general regression model. Maternal anxiety was negatively associated with milk levels of LF (β = −0.23, p = 0.028) and SIgA (β = −0.30, p = 0.004), while social support was positively associated with milk IgG (β = 0.25, p = 0.017). Neither anxiety nor social support were related to milk IgM. No association was found between the level of maternal salivary cortisol and immunoactive factors in milk. Our results suggest that maternal psychological wellbeing and social support may affect milk immune properties.
... Little is known about the external factors that influence the level of LF in human milk. Previous studies identified lactation stage [62], maternal age [63], and ethnicity [64] as the main factors regulating variation in the level of milk LF. Our research identifies maternal anxiety as yet another factor. ...
Possible alterations of maternal immune function due to psychological stress may reflect immunoactive factor levels in breast milk. This study aimed to assess the association between maternal distress and breast milk levels of secretory IgA (SIgA), IgM, IgG, and lactoferrin (LF). We hypothesized this association is moderated by maternal social support achieved from others during lactation. The study group included 103 lactating mothers and their healthy 5-months-old infants. Maternal distress was determined based on the State Anxiety Inventory and the level of salivary cortisol. Social support was assessed using Berlin Social Support Scales. Breast milk samples were collected to test for SIgA, IgM, IgG, and LF using the ELISA method. Milk immunoactive factors were regressed against maternal anxiety, social support, salivary cortisol, and infant gestational age using the general regression model. Maternal anxiety was negatively associated with milk levels of LF (β=-0.22, p<0.05) and SIgA (β=-0.29, p<0.01), while social support was positively associated with milk IgG (β=0.25, p<0.05). Neither anxiety nor social support was related to milk IgM. No association was found between the level of maternal salivary cortisol and immunoactive factors in milk. Our results suggest that maternal psychological well-being and social support may affect milk immune properties.
... The literature screening process is shown in Figure 1. The included studies are listed in Table 3 (Affolter et al., 2016;Bruun et al., 2018;Cai et al., 2018;Chen, 2007;Chen et al., 1986;Dai & Guan, 1985;Dou et al., 1986;Elwakiel et al., 2019;Han et al., 2010;Hsu et al., 2014;Jackson et al., 2004;Jiang, 2017;Jiang et al., 1999;Liu et al., 1994Liu et al., , 2018 Min, 1989;Sha et al., 2019;Shan et al., 2011;Shi et al., 2011;Urwin et al., 2013;Wang et al., 2012;Wang, 1987Wang, , 2012Wang & Lin, 1997;Wei & Pan, 1991;Wu et al., 1995;Yang et al., 2018;Yuen et al., 2012). The included studies covered 23 out of 34 provinces in China. ...
This systematic review aimed at investigating longitudinal changes in human milk bioactive protein concentrations in Chinese population. Both English and Chinese databases were searched. The data were pooled into six defined lactation stages. Weighted means of protein concentrations in each stage and the statistical significance of means of different lactation stages were calculated. The data of 11 bioactive proteins were retrieved. Concentrations of sIgA, IgM, and IgG decreased sharply during the first 14 days of lactation. The levels of α‐lactalbumin, lactoferrin, and β‐casein also decreased throughout lactation. Conversely, lysozyme levels increased over lactation. The changing patterns of the serum albumin, osteopontin, and bile salt‐stimulated lipase (BSSL) were not conclusive. This study represents the most comprehensive summary of bioactive proteins in Chinese human milk. In the future, mass spectrometry‐based analysis of human milk proteomics may be used to investigate the longitudinal changes of many more bioactive proteins.
... Another important issue that deserves to be highlighted in this manuscript is that the combination of PEL and LAT exerted higher antimicrobial activity than LAT alone, well-known to be important during breast feeding [19]. PEL+LAT were able to statistically reduce S. aureus and E. coli growth, effect that was longer than that observed for penicillin/streptomycin. ...
Lactoferrin (LAT), a multifunctional protein involved in numerous physiological functions, and the medicinal plant Pelargonium sidoides DC (PEL) have been described for their anti-inflammatory properties. Because the main advantage of natural products consists in administering them in combination rather than as single compound, we aimed to understand whether the combination of PEL and LAT, herein PELIRGOSTIM, could still prove beneficial or additive/synergistic activities during inflammatory conditions. To pursue this goal, we used macrophagic cells (J774.1) and treated them with PEL and LAT in a concentration-dependent manner. We found that PELIRGOSTIM was able to reduce the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrite, effects that were correlated to the release of lower levels of IL-1β after LPS treatment. In addition, the combination of PEL and LAT showed bacteriostatic activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli which had limited growth starting from 5 hours up to 20 hours. This effect was stronger than that observed for penicillin/streptomycin.
Our results provide PELIRGOSTIM as an innovative combination of natural products capable to prevent inflammation-, oxidative stress- and microbial-related disorders.
... A recent study analyzed additional factors besides ethnicity, by measuring Lf levels in milk from Chinese women: body mass index and diet did not influence Lf concentration, although ethnicity and age did. 35 Although previous analyses on tears 36 showed that Lf is significantly upregulated in samples from females, and similar conclusions were obtained by analyzing other human specimens, such as saliva, 37 no statistically significant differ- ence in MD was observed in this study between genders. This result is in line with others that reported no difference at all. ...
Purpose:
To evaluate the potential of lactoferrin (Lf) as a diagnostic biomarker for ocular diseases using a meta-analytic approach.
Methods:
All original studies reporting an estimate of the average Lf concentration in healthy subjects and those affected by ocular diseases were searched up to March 2020. The DerSimonian and Laird method was used to calculate the random effects pooled mean difference and the corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) in Lf concentration between healthy subjects and those affected by dry eye (DE), Sjögren syndrome (SS), and diabetic retinopathy, separately. The presence of between-study heterogeneity was evaluated using the Cochran's Q test and the I2 index. Stratified analyses were performed to assess potential sources of heterogeneity and influence and cumulative analyses to evaluate the robustness of the results obtained. Publication bias was also evaluated using funnel plot and the Egger's test.
Results:
The pooled mean differences in Lf concentrations between healthy subjects and those with DE, Sjögren syndrome, and diabetic retinopathy were respectively 0.62 (95% CI, 0.35-0.89) for DE, 3.78 (95% CI, -6.64 to 14.17), and 0.19 (95% CI, -4.00 to 4.39). Regarding DE, the stratified analysis showed that geographical area (P value Q test < 0.0001) and sample size (P < 0.0005) were sources of heterogeneity. Moreover, no study substantially influenced the results obtained and the pooled mean difference became statistically significant after a sample size of 220. Publication bias may affect the results of DE.
Conclusions:
The results of the current meta-analysis suggest that Lf level in tears is a good candidate as dry eye syndrome diagnostic biomarker.
... Discussion LF, a vital whey protein in milk, plays a critical role in regulating the immune responses and barrier function, among other functions. 9,18,19 However, its potential protective effect on the intestinal cells is unclear, especially on the small intestinal cells which are the first to participate in the inflammatory responses and physiological processes. 13 Understanding the protective effects of LF in the small intestinal cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms is vital to its application in pigs and humans. ...
Lactoferrin (LF) plays critical roles in various physiological processes. However, its protective effects on small intestinal epithelial cells remain poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate its protective effects and underlying mechanisms in vitro on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2 cells). The IPEC-J2 cells were treated with or without LPS and LF for 24 h and analyzed with various assays. The results indicated that the LPS treatment induced the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8, and TNF-α], increased cell permeability, and enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. The LF treatment decreased the secretion and gene expression of IL-1β and downregulated the phosphorylation levels of NF-κB, IκB, P38, and ERK1/2 in LPS-challenged cells. Moreover, the LF treatment decreased cell permeability, enhanced the expression of claudin-1 protein, and inhibited expression of the myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) protein in LPS-challenged cells. It also reduced the ROS and MDA production as well as upregulated the GSH-Px activity and the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) protein. Taken together, these results suggested that LF alleviated the LPS-induced cellular inflammation through attenuation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)/mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) pathway, maintaining cellular barrier integrity, and mitigating the oxidative stress.
... Discussion LF, a vital whey protein in milk, plays a critical role in regulating the immune responses and barrier function, among other functions. 9,18,19 However, its potential protective effect on the intestinal cells is unclear, especially on the small intestinal cells which are the first to participate in the inflammatory responses and physiological processes. 13 Understanding the protective effects of LF in the small intestinal cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms is vital to its application in pigs and humans. ...
The suckling stage is a critical window time for the development of human and animal neonates. Our previous study found that an early-life galactooligosaccharides (GOS) intervention could improve the growth status of suckling piglets, however, the difference in the metabolic status between different treatment groups remains still unclear. In the present study, sixty neonatal piglets were used to illustrate the effects of early-life GOS intervention on the hepatic metabolic profiles of piglets. In the first week after birth, the piglets in the GOS and control (CON) groups were fed with GOS solution (10 mL 1g/kg body weight per day) and physiological saline, respectively. On days 8 and 21, six piglets from each group were euthanized for sampling. Compared with the CON piglets, the GOS piglets showed a lower total serum cholesterol concentration on day 8, but a higher concentration of serum HDL-C and albumin on day 21. Principal component analysis and partial least square discriminant analysis showed a dramatic difference in the composition of hepatic metabolic profiles between the two groups. The GOS intervention mainly affected the lipid and amino acid metabolism of the piglets. Meanwhile, the mRNA levels of CPT-1 and PCG1α increased in the GOS piglets’ liver. Additionally, with the accumulation of antioxidant-related metabolites in GOS piglet liver, the hepatic mitochondrial antioxidant capacity increased, and the phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase and the protein expression levels of nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 and haem oxygenase-1 were also upregulated in the liver. In conclusion, our findings provide new insights into the effects of galactooligosaccharides on the growth of suckling piglets.
Background: Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional glycoprotein found in human milk and body fluids, which has been shown to play a vital role in regulating the immunity and supporting the intestinal health of infants. Aim: This study evaluated the association between maternal/parturient factors and LF concentration in the breast milk of Chinese mothers. Methods: 207 breast milk samples were collected from healthy mothers with in the first year of lactation. Maternal and parturient information was collected for these participants through questionnaires. The content of lactoferrin in breast milk was detected by liquid chromatography, and macronutrient concentration in breast milk was measured by human milk analyzer in only 109 samples. Results: Our findings demonstrated that the LF content was much higher within the first month of lactation than it was after that period (p < 0.05). When compared with normal and lean mothers, the LF content of obese mothers was considerably higher (p < 0.05). The parity and LF content showed a favorable correlation. The proportion of LF to total protein tended to decrease as lactation progressed. Protein, fat, dry matter, and energy content were significantly positively correlated with LF content (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Early breast milk tends to have a higher level of LF, and the change of LF concentration in breast milk is associated with the parity and body mass index of the mother.
The aim of this study was to investigate factors affecting total, true protein and lactoferrin (Lf) concentrations in human milk (HM) and to evaluate the changes in protein concentrations over the course of lactation (first to sixth month postpartum). HM samples were collected from exclusively breastfeeding mothers during six time periods (1–6 months postpartum); 198 breast milk samples were collected in total. The concentrations of total and true protein in HM were determined using the MIRIS human milk analyzer (HMA). The assessment of HM protein content was also performed in skim HM samples and quantified by bicinchoninic methods with the Bicinchoninic Acid Protein Assay Kit. In turn, Lf content in skim HM samples was determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in accordance with a slightly modified procedure. In the first month of lactation total protein concentration was negatively correlated with maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (r = − 0.397; p = 0.022), whereas in the third month postpartum, positive correlation with maternal age was found (r = 0.399; p = 0.021). Considering Lf concentration, in the first month of lactation, it was positively correlated with baby’s birth weight (r = 0.514; p = 0.002). In the next months (from second to sixth) no relationships between Lf concentration and maternal and infants’ factors were observed. The concentration of protein and Lf in HM changes dynamically throughout lactation. Maternal and infant characteristics may impact the HM protein and Lf content, especially in the first month postpartum.
Breastfeeding is the most effective strategy for meeting the nutritional demands of infants, whilst infant formulae are manufactured foods that mimic human milk and can be safely used to replace breastfeeding. In this paper, the compositional differences between human milk and other mammalian milk are reviewed, and thus nutritional profiles and compositions of standard bovine milk-based formulae as well as special formulae are discussed. Differences between breast milk and other mammalian milk in composition and content affect their digestion and absorption in infants. Characteristics and mimicking of breast milk have been intensively studied with the objective of narrowing the gap between human milk and infant formulae. The functions of the key nutritional components in infant formulae are examined. This review detailed recent developments in the formulation of different types of special infant formulae and efforts for their humanization, and summarized safety and quality control of infant formulae.
Colostrum is the basic nutrient that is secreted after birth and meets all the needs of the newborn. Colostrum is rich in nutritional micro and macronutrients and bioactive substances such as antimicrobial and growth factors, which are necessary for the development of the newborn's digestive and immune systems. Colostrum differs from mature milk in terms of appearance, amount, and content. It has higher levels of immunoglobulin A, growth factors, and other protective components. Colostrum has a lesser energy, protein, and carbohydrate composition than mature milk, but a higher fat content. This review summarizes the available information on the composition of human colostrum. Furthermore, it provides an overview of growth factors and immune factors found in colostrum.
This work studies the concentrations of proteins in human milk (HM) at different lactation periods and explores the influence of maternal-infant factors on the dynamics of HM proteins in a Chinese cohort. The cohort contained 153 mother-infant pairs, and 12 main proteins of 376 HM samples were analyzed. The result showed that physiological factors (age and pre-pregnancy BMI), demographic factors (education and occupation), endogenous factors (cesarean section), and exogenous factors (lactation period and area) could explain the dynamics of HM proteins, including the total protein, true protein, whey protein, β-casein, lactoferrin, IgA, and IgM (R2 > 0.3). Factor analysis explained the dynamic changes in the IgM content by the highest degree of 49.5%. This study aimed to find the mother-infant factors that affected the dynamic changes in HM proteins, in order to optimize HM proteins and improve the long- and short-term health of infants (registration number: NCT02658500).
Objective
Lactoferrin supplementation is a promising strategy to prevent infections in neonates. Exploring whether maternal nutritional status in early pregnancy and maternal diet during lactation are associated with lactoferrin concentrations in mature human milk can provide early warning and allow timely adjustment.
Research Methods & Procedures
In this follow-up cohort study, 206 subjects were recruited at Peking University People's Hospital from June 2018 to June 2019. The levels of albumin and thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH) were determined as nutritional indicators during early pregnancy. Information on maternal diet during lactation was collected with a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, and the lactoferrin concentrations in breast milk were examined at around 42 days postpartum.
Results
The median level (interquartile range) of lactoferrin in breast milk was 2844.2 (2568.1, 3103.1) μg/mL. Overall, 5.5% of participants had lower albumin (<40 g/L) and 21.6% had elevated TSH (>2.5 mIU/L), respectively. The concentration of lactoferrin was higher (216.8 [13.4, 420.2] μg/mL) among women with lower albumin levels than in those with normal levels and elevated TSH had no effect. A 1 g increase in egg intake led to a 0.3 (0.0, 0.6) μg/mL increase in lactoferrin concentration. Lactoferrin levels were also affected by intake of energy, protein, cholesterol, and vitamin A.
Conclusions
Mothers with lower albumin levels in early pregnancy had higher levels of lactoferrin in mature milk. TSH was not related to lactoferrin levels. Intake of energy, protein, cholesterol, and vitamin A may have contributed to lactoferrin concentrations in milk. And egg intake was positively associated with lactoferrin.
Background
Almost 60% of the infants are relying on infant formulas (IFs) in the world. There remain large differences in the fat composition and structure between IFs and breast milk, which will affect the gastrointestinal fate and biological functions of milk fat.
Scope and approach
This review mainly covers the recent progress and trends in emulsifying ingredients for the stabilization of IF emulsions. Depending on formulations, fat in IFs is stabilized with various emulsifying ingredients including milk proteins, plant proteins, protein hydrolysates, milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) enriched materials and commercial emulsifiers. The interfacial properties of each emulsifier and their interactions in different combinations at interface and in bulk were thoroughly discussed versus the interfacial structure, physicochemical stability and technological properties of IF emulsions under various processing conditions.
Key findings and conclusions
Destabilization of IF emulsions during processing (high-pressure homogenization, heat treatment, spray-drying, salt supplementation and pH adjustment) mainly included creaming, coalescence, flocculation and coagulation which significantly affected the powder quality of spray-dried IFs and the physical stability of liquid formulas. The stability of IF emulsions was mainly determined by the intermolecular interactions at interfaces and in bulk plus the inter-droplet interactions and interface-bulk exchange which were closely related to the physicochemical properties (including multicomponent composition, solubility, charge and surface hydrophobicity) of emulsifying ingredients in different formulations. Limited/selective hydrolysis and protein blends could effectively improve the performance of plant proteins in IFs. Of note: bio-functional MFGM materials are promising emulsifying ingredients to improve the lipid composition and structure of IFs.
Breast milk is the preferred food for preterm infants. In recent years, the role of breast milk in the brain development of preterm infants has attracted more and more attention. Studies have shown that the effect of breastfeeding on neurodevelopment and long-term cognitive outcome of preterm infants may persist into childhood, adolescence, and even adulthood. The nutrients in breast milk, such as oligosaccharides, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and lactoferrin, play an important role in this process. This article reviews the latest research advances in the role of breast milk nutrients in the brain development of preterm infants and elaborates on the concept and function of each nutrient.
Lactoferrin is a nutrient classically found in mammalian milk. It binds iron and is transferred via a variety of receptors into and between cells, serum, bile, and cerebrospinal fluid. It has important immunological properties, and is both antibacterial and antiviral. In particular, there is evidence that it can bind to at least some of the receptors used by coronaviruses and thereby block their entry. Of importance are Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans (HSPGs) and the host receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), as based on other activities lactoferrin might prevent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from attaching to the host cells. Lactoferrin (and more specifically enteric-coated LF because of increased bioavailability) may consequently be of preventive and therapeutic value during the present COVID-19 pandemic.
Metal-protein complexes, specifically lactoferrin, an iron-binding glycoprotein found naturally in milk and several other body fluids play a pivotal role in all living organisms. Due to the involvement of these...
This study investigated the effect of smoking, mother's age, body mass index (BMI), and parity number on density, lipids, proteins, and secreted immunoglobulin A (SIgA) of human milk.
Transitional and mature milk samples were collected from 23 nursing smoker mothers and 43 nursing nonsmoker mothers. Proteins, lipids, and SIgA concentrations were determined as well as the milk density and the general protein profile.
Our investigation showed that the milk of smokers contained less lipids and proteins (statistically significant 26% and 12% decrease, respectively), whereas milk density was unchanged. SIgA concentration was 27% lower in milk from smokers, but the decrease was not statistically significant. The general protein profile showed no significant smoking-associated changes in the four identified proteins (β-casein, immunoglobulin A heavy chain, serum albumin, and lactoferrin). Mothers' age and residential area showed noticeable but statistically nonsignificant differences in some of the measured parameters. However, parity number, lactation stage, and BMI were associated with a significant modification of milk composition. Mature milk contained more lipids and less protein, whereas the increase of parity number was associated with an increase in lipid concentration. The group of overweight mothers showed lower milk protein concentration in comparison with the normal group. Multivariate analysis showed a statistically significant interaction effect of the variables (smoking, parity number, lactation stage, age, and BMI) on lipids and between some of them on proteins and SIgA.
Our study showed that smoking was associated with lower milk lipid and protein concentrations and that the parity number and BMI were associated with a change in milk lipids and proteins content, respectively.
A method was developed for the quantification of cow milk adulteration in goat milk, based on solvent separation of whey proteins followed by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-MS). The presence of cow milk was determined using beta-lactoglobulin whey protein as the molecular marker. The adulterants were identified using both retention time and molecular mass derived from multiply charged molecular ions. Standard solutions containing cow and goat milk in different volume ratios were prepared and analyzed. Good linearity covering cow milk content from 5% and above was obtained. The proposed method identifies the adulterants using accurate molecular masses for protein identification and detects the addition of cow milk to goat milk at levels as low as 5%.
Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended till 6 months age. Factors regulating the breastmilk iron and lactoferrin levels are incompletely known. Considering high prevalence of nutritional anemia in lactating mothers, we studied the iron status of lactating mothers, their breastmilk iron and lactoferrin levels to determine any relationship between them.
Prospective study with 6 months follow-up.
Tertiary care referral hospital.
Hundred nonanemic and 100 anemic mothers with their babies recruited at birth. Fifty-two nonanemic and 50 anemic mothers and their babies completed the 6-month follow-up.
Hemoglobin (Hb), total iron binding capacity (TIBC), percent transferrin saturation (%TS), serum iron (SI) and serum ferritin measured on day 1 and 6 months postpartum. Breastmilk iron and lactoferrin measured on day 1, 14 weeks and 6 months after delivery.
Breastmilk iron decreased progressively from day 1 to 14 weeks and at 6 months in both groups, but no significant difference was noted between nonanemic and anemic mothers (P>0.05). Significant decline in breastmilk lactoferrin concentration from day 1 to 14 weeks in nonanemic and anemic mothers (P<0.001) noted. Hemoglobin, TIBC, %TS, SI and serum ferritin of both groups had no correlation with breastmilk iron and lactoferrin concentration on day 1, 14 weeks and 6 months after delivery.
Breastmilk iron and lactoferrin concentration had no relationship with the mother's Hb and iron status.
Human milk contains a wide variety of proteins that contribute to its unique qualities. Many of these proteins are digested and provide a well-balanced source of amino acids to rapidly growing infants. Some proteins, such as bile salt–stimulated lipase, amylase, β-casein, lactoferrin, haptocorrin, and α1-antitrypsin, assist in the digestion and utilization of micronutrients and macronutrients from the milk. Several proteins with antimicrobial activity, such as immunoglobulins, κ-casein, lysozyme, lactoferrin, haptocorrin, α-lactalbumin, and lactoperoxidase, are relatively resistant against proteolysis in the gastrointestinal tract and may, in intact or partially digested form, contribute to the defense of breastfed infants against pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Prebiotic activity, such as the promotion of the growth of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria, may also be provided by human milk proteins. This type of activity can limit the growth of several pathogens by decreasing intestinal pH. Some proteins and peptides have immunomodulatory activities (eg, cytokines and lactoferrin), whereas others (eg, insulin-like growth factor, epidermal growth factor, and lactoferrin) are likely to be involved in the development of the intestinal mucosa and other organs of newborns. In combination, breast-milk proteins assist in providing adequate nutrition to breastfed infants while simultaneously aiding in the defense against infection and facilitating optimal development of important physiologic functions in newborns.
Lactoferrin (LF) is a breast milk glycoprotein with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects. Its beneficial properties in infants, especially in those born preterm, are currently being studied in clinical trials. However, the maternal and nursing infant factors that may affect the LF concentration in breast milk are still not clear. We conducted a systematic review to investigate the factors that may affect LF concentration. We used a two-step approach to identify the eligible studies according to the inclusion/exclusion criteria and to determine which studies would be considered. We included 70 qualified articles from 29 countries with publication dates ranging from 1976 to 2015. We described the correlation between LF concentration in breast milk and lactation stage, 10 maternal factors, such as race, parity, among others, and 2 infant factors, infections and prematurity. Colostrum has the highest LF levels, which decrease with days postpartum. No other factor has been consistently associated with LF concentration. A major limitation of the majority of the published studies is the small sample size and the different methods used to measure LF concentration. Therefore, there is a need for large, multicenter studies with standardized study design, sample collection, and LF measurement methods to identify clinically significant factors associated with LF expression in breast milk, which will help promote exclusive breastfeeding in preterm infants.
The aim of this study was to investigate associations between pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and adverse pregnancy outcomes among Chinese pregnant women. A prospective population-based cohort study was performed using data collected as part of the China-Anhui Birth Cohort Study or C-ABCS. A total of 13,121 pregnant women who received the first prenatal visit were enrolled from November 2008 to October 2010. Logistic regression analysis was used to calculate associations between pre-pregnancy BMI and pregnancy outcomes. Results indicated that the increased pre-pregnancy BMI was associated with a number of adverse pregnancy outcomes such as hypertensive disorder (adjusted relative risk (ARR) 2.3, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.5-3.6), gestational diabetes (ARR 3.5, 95% CI 2.3-5.2), caesarean delivery (ARR 2.0, 95% CI 1.6-2.4), and medically indicated preterm delivery (ARR 1.8, 95% CI 1.1-2.9). Women with pre-pregnancy BMI above the normal range pose an increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes.
Lactoferrin is the second most abundant whey protein in human milk and is known for its functional benefits, particularly antimicrobial activities. We report a comprehensive evaluation of the published literature on quantitative changes in lactoferrin in term and preterm human milk through the course of lactation. We also considered methods used to quantify lactoferrin. We critically evaluated 94 articles on human milk with 52 meeting study inclusion criteria (2724 women). A descriptive analysis of the data was performed. Lactoferrin concentration was highest during early lactation and rapidly declined to remain relatively unchanged from 1 month to 2 years of lactation. The unweighted mean of mean (±SEM) concentrations of lactoferrin in early milk (<28 days lactation) was 4.91 ± 0.31 g/L (range of means 0.34-17.94 g/L; median 4.03). For mature milk, the mean of means was 2.10 ± 0.87 g/L (range of means 0.44-4.4 g/L; median 1.91). The majority of data were derived from Europe with fewer studies from Africa and South America. There was a paucity of data on preterm milk. This comprehensive dataset explains in detail the longitudinal changes of lactoferrin concentrations in human milk throughout the world and briefly describes factors that may influence these concentrations.
Maternal nutrition has little or no effect on many nutrients in human milk; for others, human milk may not be designed as a primary nutritional source for the infant; and for a few, maternal nutrition can lead to substantial variations in human milk quality. Human milk fatty acids are among the nutrients that show extreme sensitivity to maternal nutrition and are implicated in neurological development. Extensive development occurs in the infant brain, with growth from ∼350 g at birth to 925 g at 1 y, with this growth including extensive dendritic and axonal arborization. Transfer of n-6 (omega-6) and n-3 (omega-3) fatty acids from the maternal diet into human milk occurs with little interconversion of 18:2n-6 to 20:4n-6 or 18:3n-3 to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and little evidence of mammary gland regulation to maintain individual fatty acids constant with varying maternal fatty acid nutrition. DHA has gained attention because of its high concentrations and roles in the brain and retina. Studies addressing DHA intakes by lactating women or human milk amounts of DHA at levels above those typical in the United States and Canada on infant outcomes are inconsistent. However, separating effects of the fatty acid supply in gestation or in the weaning diet from effects on neurodevelopment solely due to human milk fatty acids is complex, particularly when neurodevelopment is assessed after the period of exclusive human milk feeding. Information on infant fatty acid intakes, including milk volume consumed and energy density, will aid in understanding of the human milk fatty acids that best support neurological development.
The objective of this study was to measure and compare the macro- and micronutrient composition of breast milk in urban and suburban lactating mothers living in Shanghai, China.
Primiparous women residing in three urban regions (n= 30/region) and a suburban area of Shanghai (n= 30) were recruited. Breast milk samples were collected 8-10 days postpartum and dietary intake was determined.
Women from the suburban area were of lower socio-economic status as indicated by levels of education, occupation and income. With the exception of carbohydrates, mothers in all urban areas had significantly higher macronutrient intake levels than suburban area mothers. Sodium, potassium, phosphorus and calcium intake levels were significantly lower in suburban compared to all urban women. Concentrations of protein, lipids, copper, sodium, potassium, chlorine, zinc, manganese, phosphorus and iron were all significantly lower in milk obtained from suburban compared to urban women. Concentrations of carbohydrates in milk from suburban women were significantly higher than concentrations in than two of the three urban groups. Offspring from women in Chongming county gained significantly less weight between birth and 6 months than did offspring born to women from the three other counties.
In summary, there were significant differences in macro- and micronutrient intake levels and breast milk concentrations between women from urban and suburban Shanghai. These differences may have important implications for the growth and development of breastfed infants.
Until relatively recently, the only significant source of lactoferrin in the diet was human lactoferrin, provided in breast milk. Today, however, bovine lactoferrin, isolated by dairy technology, as well as recombinant human lactoferrin are commercially available and can be added to foods and clinical products with perceived benefits to the consumer. In this review, the potential biological functions of dietary lactoferrin are described and critically examined.
Ingested lactoferrin has been suggested to exert antibacterial and antiviral activities in the intestine, in part through a direct effect on pathogens, but possibly also affecting mucosal immune function. The latter function is most likely mediated by lactoferrin being taken up by cells via a unique receptor-mediated pathway and affecting gene transcription. Lactoferrin has also been shown to enhance iron status of infants and pregnant women, possibly also via the receptor-mediated pathway. In addition, lactoferrin can stimulate intestinal cell proliferation and differentiation, causing expansion of tissue mass and absorptive capacity. On the contrary, lactoferrin has been shown to inhibit carcinogenesis. Recent findings also suggest that oral lactoferrin treatment may have an anti-inflammatory effect on pregnant women, reducing pregnancy complications.
Lactoferrin treatment may have beneficial preventive and therapeutic effects on infection, inflammation, and cancer as well as enhancing iron status and growth in vulnerable groups.
A simple chromatographic separation of the different molecular forms of human milk lactoferrin according to their iron contents is described. The appropriate conditions were developed with a Mono-S cation-exchange column linked to an automated Urtrochrom GTi system. The pure lactoferrin with different iron binding (apolactoferrin, monoferric lactoferrin and diferric lactoferrin) separated into three peaks. The three peaks were eluted from the Mono-S column with 0.88, 0.97 and 1.05 M sodium chloride in 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0).
Total casein subunits as well as whey proteins were quantitated in human milk samples during lactation. Two independent methods were used: precipitation at pH 4.3 in the presence of Ca2+ followed by Kjeldahl analysis and polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis (PAGGE) followed by densitometric scanning. Both methods yielded similar results: casein synthesis is low or absent in early lactation, then increases rapidly and subsequently decreases. The concentration of whey proteins decreases from early lactation and continues to fall. These changes result in a whey protein/casein ratio of about 90:10 in early lactation, 60:40 in mature milk and 50:50 in late lactation. These observations indicate that the synthesis and/or secretion of caseins and whey proteins is regulated by different mechanisms. In addition, the relative proportion of the different beta- and kappa-casein subunits was found to vary throughout lactation.
Milk lactoferrin (LF), lysozyme (LZ), and secretory IgA (sIgA) were measured cross-sectionally in 127 Zaïrean mothers, lactating greater than or equal to 18 mo. The 54 urban mothers were of marginal nutrition status [body mass index (BMI) 22.6 +/- 2.6 kg/m2 and albumin 33.1 +/- 4.5 g/L]. The neighboring rural mothers were of significantly (P less than 0.001) poorer nutrition status (BMI 20.5 +/- 2.2 kg/m2 and albumin 27.7 +/- 5.4 g/L). In both urban and rural mothers, as lactation progressed LF decreased by 33% and 55% whereas sIgA remained unchanged and LZ steadily increased. There was more LZ and sIgA in rural milk, contrasting with the poorer maternal nutrition. As calculated from individual milk yields, the urban infants were fed daily with twice as much LF and sIgA but with similar amounts of LZ as were the rural infants. In the early stage of lactation, the milk of both groups of Zaïrean mothers contains more sIgA than that of a group of west European (Belgian) mothers (n = 20), but the LF and LZ contents were rather similar.
The composition of human milk can be affected by the diet consumed by the lactating woman. The influence of the maternal diet on milk composition varies in magnitude between nutrients; for some nutrients no effect at all has yet been documented. Concentrations of fatty acids, fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins in milk are, in general, significantly affected by the levels of these nutrients in the diet. Protein concentration may be affected under some conditions, although the magnitude of this change appears relatively limited. Lactose, mineral, trace element and electrolyte concentrations seem comparatively resistant to varying maternal intakes. Although there has been significant progress in this research area in the past decade, many early studies are difficult to interpret due to limitations in the study design and analytical methods. This review demonstrates a distinct need for carefully controlled studies on the effects of both nutrient deficiencies and supplements on milk composition. Interactions among nutrients, homeostatic mechanisms and energy balance (weight loss) are factors that need to be studied further. Information from such research will suggest strategies for nutrition intervention in areas of poor nutrition and provide dietary guidelines for lactating women.
Sequential samples of colostrum, transitional and mature milk from 47 women were investigated to determine the concentrations of 11S IgA, IgG, IgM, alpha 1-antitrypsin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, B1A globulin (C3) and B1E globulin (C4) by single radial immunodiffusion. These were all found to be high in colostrum with a decline in concentration as lactation proceeds although a wide variation in concentration was noted between different individuals at any given post-partum time interval. For each time interval considered, parity, age and maturity of pregnancy did not appear to influence significantly the variation in protein concentrations. Statistical analyses of the results obtained from samples taken during the first four days of lactation, when protein concentrations were highest, showed that parity and age did influence the variation in antimicrobial protein concentrations when examined using an analysis of variance but significantly higher concentrations of protective proteins were not consistently seen in the milk from any one or more parity or age groups. Mean concentrations of all proteins excluding IgA were found to be greater in those women delivering before their expected date of confinement during the first four days of lactation. This was statistically significant for C3 and C4 and approaching significance (p less than 0.08) for alpha 1-antitrypsin.
Lactoferrin was measured in breast milk from Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Australian women using an enzyme immunoassay. There was no diurnal variation in lactoferrin concentration or change in concentration between the beginning and end of a feed. Lactoferrin levels were significantly higher in the first 15 days postpartum than in the period after the 15th day. Regression analysis showed that in milk from Aboriginal women less than 15 days postpartum, higher concentrations of lactoferrin were associated with weight for height (WFH) greater than 90% and with increased parity. Comparable data were not available for Caucasian women. For Aboriginal and Caucasian women more than 15 days postpartum, lactoferrin concentrations were higher in women greater than 90% WFH. Other variables, such as parity, were not significant in the regression.
The fatty acid composition of samples of breast milk obtained from 51 mothers (26 Malay, 15 Chinese, 10 Indian) residing in Penang, Malaysia was determined by gas chromatography. Despite living in close physical proximity the mothers from the three racial groups showed distinct cultural differences in dietary intake. These differences were reflected in differences in the fatty acid composition of breast milk samples. The milk of Chinese mothers was generally less saturated (41%) than that of Malay and Indian mothers (52 and 50% respectively). The milk of Chinese mothers was also richer in linoleic acid (17%) than that of Malay and Indian mothers (9% and 11% respectively). Overall the level of individual fatty acids fell within the range of values reported for Western mothers on well nourished diets and pointed to breast milk of high standard despite large variations in the diet of Malaysian mothers.
Milk samples were collected from 10 mothers by a standardised technique with complete expression of both breasts at each feed for 24 hours. Samples were obtained at 8 intervals during the first 36 days of lactation. Analyses were performed for trichloroacetic acid-precipitable protein, total protein, lactose, triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, energy, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, pH, and osmolality. The results give a comprehensive picture of the development of milk composition from transitional to mature milk. The most striking feature of the results was the high degree of variation observed both between samples from the same mother and between samples from different mothers on the same day of lactation.
The effect of lactoferrin (Lf) on bacterial growth was tested by measuring conductance changes in the cultivation media by using a Malthus-AT system and was compared with the magnitude of 125I-labeled Lf binding in 15 clinical isolates of Escherichia coli. The binding property was inversely related to the change in bacterial metabolic rate (r = 0.91) and was directly related to the degree of bacteriostasis (r = 0.79). The magnitude of Lf-bacterium interaction showed no correlation with the MIC of Lf. In certain strains, Lf at supraoptimal levels reduced the bacteriostatic effect. Thus, the Lf concentration in the growth media was critical for the antibacterial effect. The cell envelopes of Salmonella typhimurium 395MS with smooth lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and its five isogenic rough mutants revealed 38-kDa porin proteins as peroxidase-labeled-Lf-reactive components in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and Western blot (ligand blot) analysis. However, in the whole cell binding assay, parent strain 395MS demonstrated a very low interaction with 125I-Lf. On the other hand, Lf interaction gradually increased in correspondence with the decrease in LPS polysaccharide moiety in the isogenic rough mutants. Conductance measurement studies revealed that the low-level-Lf-binding (low-Lf-binding) strain 395MS with smooth LPS was relatively insusceptible to Lf, while the high-Lf-binding mutant Rd was more susceptible to Lf. These data suggested a correlation between Lf binding to porins and the Lf-mediated antimicrobial effect. The polysaccharide moiety of LPS shielded porins from the Lf interaction and concomitantly decreased the antibacterial effect.
As a first step in localizing the regions of human lactoferrin involved in binding to bacterial lactoferrin receptors, N-lobe and C-lobe fragments were assessed for binding to receptors on Neisseria meningitidis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis. Preparations of N-lobe and C-lobe were obtained by tryptic digestion of iron-loaded human lactoferrin followed by separation of the two lobes by gel exclusion chromatography in 10% acetic acid. Solid phase binding studies demonstrated that the isolated C- and N-lobe preparations were capable of binding to membranes from iron-deficient N. meningitidis, N. gonorrhoeae and M. catarrhalis. The binding of the individual C- and N-lobes was confirmed by an analytical SDS-PAGE binding method in which the membrane-associated polypeptides were identified by prior biotinylation and subsequent binding of labelled streptavidin. This contrasts with bacterial transferrin receptors, which only bind to C-lobe fragment of human transferrin, indicating that the bacterial lactoferrin and transferrin receptors differ in their interaction with their respective glycoprotein ligands and may differ in the mechanism of iron removal.
The fatty acids of milk samples obtained from 51 Hong Kong Chinese and 33 Chongqing Chinese (Si Chuan Province, China) were analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography. Compared with those of published data for Canadian and other Western countries, the Chinese milk from both Hong Kong and Chongqing contained higher levels of longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (20:4n-6). In contrast, the content of trans fatty acids in the Chinese milk was lower compared with those for Canadian and other Western countries. Longitudinally, the concentrations of 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 gradually decreased when lactation progressed from colostrum (week 1) to mature (week 6). Over the same interval, linoleic acid (18:2n-6) remained unchanged in Chongqing Chinese but significantly increased in Hong Kong Chinese. Unlike 18:2n-6, linolenic acid (18:3n-3) increased in Chongqing Chinese but remained unchanged in Hong Kong Chinese throughout the study. The total milk fat also increased with the duration of lactation. In addition, the milk of Chongqing Chinese had higher total milk fat than that of Hong Kong Chinese and Canadians. The content of erucic acid (22:1n-9) increased with the progression of lactation in Chongqing Chinese, indicating that there was a switch in dietary consumption from fats of animal origin to rapeseed oil when lactation reached week 6. The present study showed that Hong Kong and Chongqing Chinese had a different fatty acid profile in many ways, which largely reflected a different dietary habit and life-style in these two places.
A complex interplay of maternal homeostatic mechanisms influences nutrient transfer to nursing infants, and with a few exceptions, excess maternal intake or a moderate deficiency in the maternal diet does not appreciably alter nutrient transfer to infants unless it has persisted for some time. Milk vitamins D and K contents, even in apparently well-nourished women, may not always provide adequate amounts for infants. Investigations provide evidence that human milk possesses many unique characteristics and that maternal and environmental influences are stronger than previously recognized and appreciated. A complete body of knowledge does not exist to serve as a basis for dietary recommendations to ensure optimal nutrition for mothers and infants. The success of lactation usually is measured in terms of infant performance, and cost and consequence to the mother are seldom considered. Human milk feeding is recommended for the entire first year of life, but few studies focus on the nursing dyad for more than 3 months' duration. Continued study is needed so that nutritional adequacy may be maintained and appropriate dietary guidance can be provided. When human milk feeding is not practiced, modern and reliable data on human milk constituents and their significance to infants also are essential for the preparation of formulas, especially those not based on bovine milk. The adequacy of human milk substitutes cannot be predicted from compositional analysis because of possible differences in compartmentalization and molecular form of nutrients, and such preparations must be evaluated using specific indices of nutrient use, together with traditional anthropometric measures in infants.
Lactoferrin (Lf), a major iron-binding protein in human milk, has been suggested to have multiple biological roles such as facilitating iron absorption, modulating the immune system, embryonic development, and cell proliferation. Our previous binding studies suggested the presence of a specific receptor for Lf (LfR) in the small intestine of newborn infants, which may facilitate iron absorption. We here report the cloning and the functional expression of the human intestinal LfR and the evidence of its involvement in iron metabolism. The entire coding region of the LfR cDNA was cloned by PCR based on amino acid sequences of the purified native LfR (nLfR). The recombinant LfR (rLfR) was then expressed in a baculovirus-insect cell system and purified by immobilized human Lf (hLf) affinity chromatography where binding of hLf to the rLfR was partially Ca(2+) dependent. The apparent molecular mass was 136 kDa under nonreducing conditions and 34 kDa under reducing conditions. 125I-hLf bound to the rLfR with an apparent K(d) of approximately 360 nM. These biochemical properties of the rLfR are similar to those of the nLfR. RT-PCR revealed that the gene was expressed at high levels in fetal small intestine and in adult heart and at lower levels in Caco-2 cells. PI-PLC treatment of Caco-2 cells indicated that the LfR is GPI anchored. In Caco-2 cells transfected with the LfR gene, 125I-hLf binding and 59Fe-hLf uptake were increased by 1.7 and 3.4 times, respectively, compared to those in mock-transfected cells. Our findings demonstrate the presence of a unique receptor-mediated mechanism for nutrient uptake by the newborn.
Changes in the lactoferrin and lysozyme concentration of human milk during lactation were determined by microparticle-enhanced nephelometric immunoassays of 360 milk samples collected from 64 lactating volunteers. These 360 samples were colostrum from days 1 to 5 postpartum (142 samples), transitional milk from days 6 to 14 (106 samples), and 112 mature milk samples obtained from days 15 to 28 (34 samples), from days 29 to 56 (50 samples) and from days 57 to 84 postpartum (28 samples). The concentration and percentage of lactoferrin vs. total protein were found to be significantly higher in colostrum (5.8 g/L, 27%) than in transitional milk (3.1 g/L, 22%) or day 15 to 28 mature milk (2.0 g/L, 19%), then increased in day 29 to 56 mature milk (2.2 g/L, 22%) and day 57 to 84 mature milk (3.3 g/L, 30%). The concentration of lysozyme decreased from colostrum (0.37 g/L) to transitional milk (0.27g/L) and day 15 to 28 mature milk (0.24 g/L), then increased in day 29 to 56 mature milk (0.33 g/L) and was highest in day 57 to 84 mature milk (0.89 g/L). The percentage of lysozyme vs. total protein was found to be always rising during lactation: colostrum, 2%; transitional milk, 2%; days 15 to 28, 2%; days 29 to 56, 3%; and days 57 to 84 mature milk, 8%.
Long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC‐PUFAs) are essential dietary nutrients required for the optimal growth and development of infants, particularly of the brain and retina. It is important for exclusively breastfed infants to receive milk of a correct balance between ω ‐6 and ω ‐3 fatty acids. In this study, we compared the composition of LC‐PUFAs in the diet and milk of mothers and their infants' growth between Chinese and Swedish. Twenty‐three and 19 mother‐term infant pairs from a rural area of northern Beijing, China, and Stockholm, Sweden, who were 3 mo old and exclusively breastfed, were studied. The Chinese diet was higher in carbohydrate (17% of energy) but lower in protein (4% of energy) and fat (12% of energy) than the Swedish diet. The intake of Chinese mothers contained more linoleic acid (LA, C 18:2 ω‐6 ) and less arachidonic acid (AA, C 20.4 ω‐6 ), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C 20:5 ω‐3 ) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C 22:6 ω‐3 ) than that of Swedish mothers. The breast milk of the Chinese mothers had significantly higher LA and lower EPA and DHA levels than that of the Swedish mothers. However, in Chinese breast milk the AA level was significantly higher than that in Swedish breast milk. The recommended ranges of the ratios of LA to α ‐linolenic acid (LNA, C 18:3 ω‐3 ) and of AA to DHA in human milk are 5–10 and 0.5–1 compared with 23.0 and 3.1 in the Chinese breast milk, and 7.5 and 1.6 in the Swedish breast milk, respectively.
Conclusion: The diet of the studied Chinese mothers is less balanced with regard to the levels of ω ‐6 and ω ‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) than that of the Swedish mothers, which is also mirrored in the breast milk of these mothers. The clinical relevance of the difference between the levels of LC‐PUFAs in the breast milk of Chinese and Swedish mothers may be elucidated by a follow‐up study of the cognitive and visual functions of the infants involved.
The susceptibility of Enterobacter sakazakii, a food-borne pathogen, to several metal-bound forms of bovine lactoferrin (LF), pepsin-hydrolyzed LF (LF-hyd), and LF-derived peptide lactoferricin B (LFcin B) was tested. MIC and MBC testing revealed that 4 strains of E. sakazakii show susceptibility to apo- and Cu-LF, LF-hyd, and LFcin B, but not to Fe-LF, similarly to Escherichia coli. A growth curve test indicated that E. sakazakii was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by apo-LF at 0.5 to 8 mg/ml. Even after being heated at 80 degrees C, LF at above 1 mg/ml inhibited the bacterial growth. These results suggest that bovine LF-related compounds may be useful for the inhibition of E. sakazakii in foods.
- Rainard
General Report on Nutrition and Health Status in China - 2002 National Nutrition and Health Survey , People's Medical Publishing House
- L Wang
- Wang