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Reports of Recovered Memories of Abuse in Therapy in a Large Age-Representative U.S. National Sample: Therapy Type and Decade Comparisons
Abstract
The potential hazards of endeavoring to recover ostensibly repressed memories of abuse in therapy have previously been documented. Yet no large survey of the general public about memory recovery in therapy has been conducted. In an age-representative sample of 2,326 adults in the United States, we found that 9% (8% weighted to be representative) of the total sample reported seeing therapists who discussed the possibility of repressed abuse, and 5% (4% weighted) reported recovering memories of abuse in therapy for which they had no previous memory. Participants who reported therapists discussing the possibility of repressed memories of abuse were 20 times more likely to report recovered abuse memories than those who did not. Recovered memories of abuse were associated with most therapy types, and most associated with those who reported starting therapy in the 1990s. We discuss possible problems with such purported memory recovery and make recommendations for clinical training.
... How suggestive psychotherapy can lead to false memory recovery Most research on false memory recovery has been predominantly driven by discussions surrounding potentially suggestive psychotherapies (Lindsay & Read, 1994). These discussions peaked in the 1990s, when an increasing number of patients in the USA (Patihis & Pendergrast, 2019a) and parts of Europe (Dodier et al., 2019) recovered purported memories of childhood sexual abuse during therapy Otgaar et al., 2019). This led to a growing body of research demonstrating that, under certain suggestive conditions, adults can develop alleged memories of childhood events that never occurred (Brainerd & Reyna, 2005;Brewin & Andrews, 2017;Loftus & Davis, 2006). ...
... Many of the more contemporary studies such as Patihis et al. (2014) focused on psychotherapists' beliefs regarding trauma, memory and the role of memory recovery, not so much on actual therapy practice. Thus, they contained only limited information on the step-by-step recovery process itself and how therapists handle recovered memories (Dodier et al., 2019;Patihis & Pendergrast, 2019a). However, Zappalà et al. (2023), which was published after the data collection of the current study had been finished, had a slightly different focus, and included some items on the recovery of purported memories in practice. ...
... Furthermore, consistent with findings based on patient surveys (Patihis & Pendergrast, 2019a), emotional abus and neglect were reported most often. These memory recoveries may refer to existing memories that were newly labelled or interpreted differently during psychotherapy. ...
We report on a survey of 258 psychotherapists from Germany, focusing on their experiences with memory recovery in general, suggestive therapy procedures, evaluations of recovered memories, and memory recovery in training and guidelines. Most therapists (78%) reported instances of memory recovery encompassing negative and positive childhood experiences, but usually in a minority of patients. Also, most therapists (82%) reported to have held assumptions about unremembered trauma. Patients who held these beliefs were reported by 83% of the therapists. Both therapist and patient assumptions reportedly occurred in a minority of cases. Furthermore, 35% of participants had used therapeutic techniques at least once to recover presumed trauma memories. Only 10% reported assuming trauma in most patients and recovering purported memories in a majority of the attempts. A fifth believed memory recovery was a task of psychotherapy. This belief correlated with trauma assumptions, memory recovery attempts, and recovery frequency. Psychodynamic therapists more often reported to assume trauma behind symptoms and agreed more with problematic views on trauma and memory. No differences showed regarding suggestive behaviour in therapy. Most participants expressed interest in receiving support on dealing with memory recoveries. This interest should be taken up, ideally during therapist training.
... therapists, students and legal professionals) continue to endorse the idea of repressed memory. Also, research has shown that a significant minority of respondents from the general population indicate that their therapist discussed the possibility of repressed memories during treatment Patihis and Pendergrast, 2019). ...
... Simultaneously, other surveys have questioned patients regarding whether their therapists discussed repressed memories with them. For example, Patihis and Pendergrast (2019) surveyed an age-representative sample of 2,326 adults in the USA and found that of the 1,082 who had received therapy, 20.1% (n ¼ 217) reported that their therapist discussed the possibility that they might have been abused during childhood but had repressed the memories. Similarly, in a French survey of 1,312 participants, Dodier et al. (2019) found that among those who had received therapy (n ¼ 551), 10.5% (n ¼ 58) reported that their therapist suggested them the possibility that they had repressed memories of child abuse. ...
... Therefore, we surveyed a sample of Italian CB therapists and trainees regarding their beliefs concerning traumatic memories. In line with previous research Patihis and Pendergrast, 2019), we expected many participants to embrace various controversial aspects of traumatic memory (e.g. unconscious blockage of traumatic memories) and that such beliefs would be linked with their practices with their patients. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate cognitive behavior therapists and trainees’s beliefs about various aspects of traumatic memory and to investigate cognitive behavior therapists’ practices in relation to alleged traumatic experiences and whether they are linked with their beliefs about various aspects of traumatic memory.
Design/methodology/approach
In the current study, the authors surveyed, by a questionnaire (in Italian), certified Italian cognitive behavioral (CB) therapists and trainees with respect to their beliefs in traumatic memories and whether they discussed about the possibility of repressed memory with their patients.
Findings
The majority of participants held strong beliefs about many controversial aspects related to traumatic memory, such as the mind being able to block out of consciousness memories of traumatic experiences. Also, more than half of CB therapists stated that they sometimes discussed about the importance of traumatic events in the genesis of their patient’s disorder and half of them sometimes talked with patients about memories for traumatic events of which they may be unaware. Such practices could lead to false memories of abuse
Originality/value
One particularly novel finding relates to the evidence that therapists reported that they had discussed with patients the importance of traumatic events in the genesis of their illness and frequently noted that they talked about the possibility of repressed memories with them. In turn, patients may be induced to recall traumatic experiences from their lives, thereby producing false memories which may tear families apart and could even lead to wrongful convictions.
... Despite the emotional damage caused by "repressed memories" there has been continued encouragement to explore these unreliable memories as a therapeutic treatment. A US study conducted in 2019 showed 9% of patients reported their therapists discussed the possibility of repressed memories during treatment, and 5% of patients reported recovering new repressed memories during their therapy sessions [8]. The vast majority (93%) of memories 'discovered' during therapy are expected to be false, yet 40% of patients discovering these memories discontinued contact with families and altered personal relationships as a result of these repressed experiences [8]. ...
... A US study conducted in 2019 showed 9% of patients reported their therapists discussed the possibility of repressed memories during treatment, and 5% of patients reported recovering new repressed memories during their therapy sessions [8]. The vast majority (93%) of memories 'discovered' during therapy are expected to be false, yet 40% of patients discovering these memories discontinued contact with families and altered personal relationships as a result of these repressed experiences [8]. ...
... Scheinerinnerungen können entstehen, wenn sich Menschen auf die Suche nach Erklärungen für psychisches Leiden machen, dabei die Überzeugung entwickeln, ein bislang nichterinnerliches Trauma erlebt zu haben und anschließendggf. unter Zuhilfenahme imaginativer Techniken -Bilder und im weiteren Verlauf ganze mentale Episoden ausbilden, die sie fälschlicherweise für Erinnerungen halten (zum Ganzen Volbert, 2018;Patihis & Pendergrast, 2019). Ein solcher Prozess ist gekennzeichnet von einem diskontinuierlichen Erinnerungsverlauf, wie er sich in den Daten von Nick et al. (2018) abzeichnet, also einem langen Nicht-Erinnern, bevor eine aktive Suche nach Erinnerungen beginnt, vermeintliche Erinnerungen entstehen und immer detaillierter werden. ...
Zusammenfassung: Unter ritueller sexueller Gewalt werden Formen organisierten sexuellen Missbrauchs verstanden, die ideologisch geprägt sind und von mehreren Täter_innen über längere Zeiträume ausgeübt werden. Üblicherweise wird in Verbindung mit dem Phänomen von Prozessen absichtlicher Persönlichkeitsspaltung, induzierten Amnesien und Instruierbarkeit der Opfer ausgegangen. Im Zuge eines Projekts, das durch die Unabhängige Kommission zur Aufarbeitung sexuellen Kindesmissbrauchs aus Mitteln des Bundesministeriums für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend gefördert worden ist, wurden mehrere Veröffentlichungen erstellt, darunter eine Online-Umfrage an 165 selbst-definierten Betroffenen ( Nick et al., 2018 ; https://doi.org/10.21706/TG-12-3-244 ). Der vorliegende Beitrag setzt sich insbesondere mit der Ergebnisinterpretation der Studie von Nick et al. kritisch auseinander. Angesichts umfangreicher empirischer und theoretischer Literatur sind drei Punkte festzuhalten: 1) Sowohl die Angaben zu Amnesie als auch zum Wiedererinnern erscheinen gedächtnispsychologisch unplausibel. 2) Die Angaben über erlittenen rituellen sexuellen Missbrauch sind alternativ durch suggestive Prozesse erklärbar. 3) Es liegen keine belastbaren Belege für Phänomene wie die intentionale Persönlichkeitsspaltung vor. Angesichts der möglichen Gefahren für Betroffene (Bestärkung suggerierter Scheinerinnerungen, nicht-hilfreiche Therapie / Beratung) ist ein vorsichtiger Umgang mit Behauptungen über die Existenz von ritueller sexueller Gewalt geboten, auch im Rahmen öffentlich geförderter Projekte.
... Moreover, there is evidence showing that therapists continue to discuss the existence of repressed memory with their patients. For example, Patihis and Pendergrast (2019) surveyed 2,326 US citizens and asked them whether they had ever undergone therapy and if so, whether their therapist discussed that they had a repressed memory. Nine percent of the sample indicated to have a therapist discussing the possibility of a repressed memory. ...
Purpose
This study aimed to examine beliefs in repressed memory and dissociative amnesia from a cross-cultural perspective.
Design/methodology/approach
Chinese ( n = 123) and Belgian student participants ( n = 270) received several statements tapping into various dimensions of repressed memory and dissociative amnesia. Participants provided belief ratings for each of these statements. Because the field of psychoanalysis is less well developed in China, it was expected that Chinese participants would believe less in repressed memory and dissociative amnesia than their Belgian counterparts.
Findings
Overall, beliefs in repressed memory and dissociative amnesia were high among all participants. Although confirmatory analyses revealed that most belief ratings concerning statements did not statistically significantly differ between the two samples, Chinese participants did statistically believe less that therapy can recover lost traumatic memories than Belgian participants. Also, exploratory analyses showed that Chinese participants were more critical towards the idea that traumatic memories can be unconsciously repressed and that these memories can be accurately retrieved in therapy than Belgian participants. Many participants also confused repressed memory with plausible memory mechanisms such as ordinary forgetting.
Originality/value
The current study extends previous surveys on repressed memory and dissociative amnesia by comparing their beliefs in different cultures.
... B. Bublitz, 2021;Fegert et al., 2018;Haas, 2022). Da einerseits bekannt ist, dass nach wie vor sehr häufig ein falscher Verdacht von Fachpersonen sowohl an Kinder und Jugendliche als auch an vulnerable erwachsene Klient:innen (Brewin & Andrews, 2017;Howe et al., 2018;Korkman, et al., 2019 4 ;Patihis & Pendergrast, 2019;Schemmel & Volbert, 2021) herangetragen 5 wird, und andererseits überwunden geglaubte Konzepte aus den 1980er und 1990er Jahren seit einiger Zeit eine Renaissance erfahren (Gallwitz & Gubi-Kelm, 2022;Greuel, 2022;Steller, 2018Steller, , 2020, gilt es in Sexualstrafverfahren zu fundierten Beurteilungen zu gelangen, um Fehlurteile und eine Wiederholung der Geschichte zu vermeiden. In diesem Sinne sind im Zusammenhang mit in Frage stehenden Sexualstraftaten insbesondere die folgenden fünf Faktoren zu beachten: ...
In der Vergangenheit haben die Psychowissenschaften mit empirischen Forschungserkenntnissen dazu beigetragen, fehlerhafte Beurteilungen und Entscheidungen in Strafverfahren zu vermeiden. Seit einiger Zeit gibt es jedoch Entwicklungen, welche die Errungenschaft der Jahrtausendwende, dass eine deutliche Wissenschaftsorientierung Einzug in das Sexualstrafverfahren hielt, wieder rückgängig zu machen drohen. Fünf rückwärtsgewandte Entwicklungen werden aufgezeigt. Anhand dreier Beispiele wird illustriert, wie die Entwicklungen zusammenwirken können und insbesondere eine vermeintliche Erklärung für fehlende Erinnerungen an erlebten Missbrauch bieten. So entsteht ein Nährboden für die Ausbildung von Scheinerinnerungen, die sowohl in der Psychotherapie als auch im Strafverfahren Leiden verursachen und das Risiko für fehlerhafte Entscheidungen in Sexualstrafverfahren im deutschsprachigen Raum deutlich erhöhen.
... Verdrängte Erinnerungen (repressed memories) würden sich in einer Vielzahl psychischer und somatischer Symptome manifestieren, das Implizite könne aber durch geeignete therapeutische Techniken wieder explizit werden, dass heißt, verdrängte könnten zu wiederentdeckten Erinnerungen (recovered memories) werden (vgl. Otgaar et al., 2021;Otgaar et al., 2019;Patihis & Pendergrast, 2018;Volbert, 2011). ...
Zusammenfassung Im aktuellen aussagepsychologischen Diskurs sind aus unterschiedlichen Gründen insbeson-dere die folgenden drei Themenbereiche in den Fokus geraten: (1) die Kritik an der Nichtbe-rücksichtigung psychotraumatischer Erkenntnisse im Prozess von Glaubhaftigkeitsbegutach-tungen, (2) die Rolle des Sachverständigen in audiovisuellen ermittlungsrichterlichen Verneh-mungen und (3) die Durchführung informatorischer Gespräche im Rahmen aussagepsycholo-gischer Begutachtungen. Über die Herleitung der Aktualität der jeweiligen Thematik und der Darlegung der Fakten-beziehungsweise Forschungslage sowie der juristischen Vorgaben wer-den die jeweiligen Aspekte hinsichtlich einer fachgerechten inhaltichen und methodischen Ar-beitsweise in Begutachtungen diskutiert. Als Ergebnis wird eine theoretische, methodische so-wie praktische Handlungsanleitung angeboten. Abstract In the current discourse on statement validity assessment, there are three popular topics that have increasingly come into focus for various reasons. The following paper looks at these topics, namely: (1) the criticism of desregard of psychotraumatic findings in the process of statement validity assessment, (2) the role of the expert witness in audiovisual investigative judicial interrogations, and (3) the conduct of informational interviews in the context of statement validity assessments. By deriving the relevant timeliness of the respective subject matter and presenting the factual and research situation as well as legal requirements, the respective aspects are discussed with regard to a professional substantive as well as methodolog-ical approach in the expert opinion. As a result we outline a theoretical, methodic and practical guideline for action.
19 reportpsychologie ‹49› 02|2024
Einleitung
Obwohl die aussagepsychologische Begutachtung der Glaubhaftigkeit von Zeuginnen-/Zeugenaussagen in Sexualstrafverfahren seit Jahrzehnten im deutschen Rechtswesen fest etabliert, hinsichtlich ihrer Grundlagen empirisch belegt und durch die höchstrichterliche Rechtsprechung wiederholt normativ bestätigt worden ist, lassen sich erneut Entwicklungen feststellen, welche (1) die aussagepsychologische Methodik insbesondere beim Verdacht auf Vorliegen schwerster Traumatisierungen infolge sexualisierter, organisierter und/oder ritueller Gewalterfahrungen infrage stellen und (2) darauf aufbauend eine Abkehr von fundamentalen rechtsstaatlichen Positionen fordern. Der Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über die Datenlage und setzt sich kritisch mit dem Narrativ des rituellen sexuellen Missbrauchs auseinander.
Recovered memories of trauma are memories of traumatic events experienced generally during childhood, but of which the persons were unaware until they retrieved it. Legal decisions are sometimes based on such recovered memories, the validity of which is often questioned. Yet, people can recover genuine traumatic memories of childhood abuse. In this paper, we present and further discuss the idea that recovered traumatic memories can be interpreted in the context of the autobiographical memory framework. Specifically, we argue that recovered memories may be accessed after exposure to incidental cues that initiate unexpected spontaneous memory retrieval. Thus, we relate the recovered memory phenomenon to involuntary autobiographical memories and argue that it is an example of highly stressful, emotionally negative, and intense involuntary memories that were yet never recalled. This novel, evidence-based perspective leads us to reconsider the examination of the validity of eyewitness testimony as a continuum ranging from the least valid form (i.e., memories recovered in highly suggestive context facilitating its factitious reconstruction) to the most valid form (i.e., memories that were triggered by cues without any person’s voluntary engagement), and this in relation with how internal (e.g., age and internal cue) or external (e.g., suggestion in therapy, suggestion during investigative interview, and contextual cue) factors may influence memory retrieval. Finally, we propose several recommendations for experts that may be useful in assessing the validity of a testimony based on recovered memories.
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a popular treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. However, little is known about the memory effects of EMDR. Using a misinformation paradigm, we examined whether lateral eye movements, as used in EMDR, enhance susceptibility to false memories. Undergraduates (N = 82) saw a video depicting a car crash. Subsequently, participants either performed eye movements or held their eyes stationary. Afterward, all participants received misinformation in the form of an eyewitness narrative. The results indicate that eye movement participants were less accurate and were more susceptible to the misinformation effect than controls. Our finding suggests EMDR may have risky drawbacks in an eyewitness context and therefore urgently needs follow-up research.
Motivated forgetting is the idea that people can block out, or forget, upsetting or traumatic memories, because there is a motivation to do so. DePrince et al. (2012) cited directed forgetting studies using trauma-related words as evidence for the theory of motivated forgetting of trauma. In the current article subjects used the list method directed forgetting paradigm with both trauma-related words and positive words. After one list of words was presented subjects were directed to forget the words previously learned, and they then received another list of words. Each list was a mix of positive and trauma-related words, and the lists were counterbalanced. Later, subjects recalled as many of the words they could, including the ones they were told to forget. Based on the theory that motivated forgetting would lead to recall deficits of trauma-related material, we created six hypotheses. High dissociators, trauma-exposed, sexual trauma-exposed, and high dissociators with trauma-exposure participants were hypothesized to show enhanced forgetting of trauma words. Results indicated only one of seven hypotheses were supported: those higher on dissociation and trauma recalled fewer trauma-words in the to-be-forgotten condition, compared to those low on dissociation and trauma. These results provide weak support for differential motivated forgetting.
The debate regarding the relationship between dissociation and trauma has raised questions regarding the validity of measures of dissociation. Dalenberg et al.'s (2012) meta-analysis included studies using the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES II), but excluded the DES-Comparison (DES-C) scale, claiming that it lacked validity as a measure of dissociation. Lynn et al. (2014) contended that omitting those studies might have skewed the results. In the current study, we compared the psychometric properties of both measures in two nonclinical US adult (student, general population) samples to evaluate the convergent and discriminant validity of the scales. We found support for the DES-II as a measure of dissociation as well as the validity and reliability of the DES-C, which compares well to the DES II. Compared with studies in Dalenberg et al., we found lower correlations between trauma and dissociation. No empirical basis exists to exclude studies using the DES-C in literature reviews. Copyright
This book offers a comprehensive overview of the concept of repressed memories. It provides a history and context that documents key events that have had an effect on the way that modern psychology and psychotherapy have developed. Chapters provide an overview of how human memory functions and works and examine facets of the misguided theories behind repressed memory. The book also examines the science of the brain, the reconstructive nature of human memory, and studies of suggestibility. It traces the present-day resurgence of a belief in repressed memories in the general public as well as among many clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, “body workers,” and others who offer counseling. It concludes with legal and professional recommendations and advice for individuals who deal with or have dealt with the psychotherapeutic practice of repressed memory therapy.
Topics featured in this text include:
• The modern diagnosis of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) (once called MPD)
• The “Satanic Panic” of the 1980s and its relation to repressed memory therapy.
• The McMartin Preschool Case and the “Day Care Sex Panic.”
• A historical overview from the Great Witch Craze to Sigmund Freud’s theories, spanning the 16th to 19th centuries.
• An exploration of the cultural context that produced the repressed memory epidemic of the 1990s.
• The repressed memory movement as a religious sect or cult.
The Repressed Memory Epidemic will be of interest to researchers and clinicians as well as undergraduate and graduate students in the fields of psychology, sociology, cultural studies, religion, and anthropology.
There are very few case series of patients with acute psychogenic memory loss (also known as dissociative/functional amnesia), and still fewer studies of outcome, or comparisons with neurological memory-disordered patients. Consequently, the literature on psychogenic amnesia is somewhat fragmented and offers little prognostic value for individual patients. In the present study, we reviewed the case records and neuropsychological findings in 53 psychogenic amnesia cases (ratio of 3:1, males: females), in comparison with 21 consecutively recruited neurological memory-disordered patients and 14 healthy control subjects. In particular, we examined the pattern of retrograde amnesia on an assessment of autobiographical memory (the Autobiographical Memory Interview). We found that our patients with psychogenic memory loss fell into four distinct groups, which we categorized as: (i) fugue state; (ii) fugue-to-focal retrograde amnesia; (iii) psychogenic focal retrograde amnesia following a minor neurological episode; and (iv) patients with gaps in their memories. While neurological cases were characterized by relevant neurological symptoms, a history of a past head injury was actually more common in our psychogenic cases (P = 0.012), perhaps reflecting a 'learning episode' predisposing to later psychological amnesia. As anticipated, loss of the sense of personal identity was confined to the psychogenic group. However, clinical depression, family/relationship problems, financial/employment problems, and failure to recognize the family were also statistically more common in that group. The pattern of autobiographical memory loss differed between the psychogenic groups: fugue cases showed a severe and uniform loss of memories for both facts and events across all time periods, whereas the two focal retrograde amnesia groups showed a 'reversed' temporal gradient with relative sparing of recent memories. After 3-6 months, the fugue patients had improved to normal scores for facts and near-normal scores for events. By contrast, the two focal retrograde amnesia groups showed less improvement and continued to show a reversed temporal gradient. In conclusion, the outcome in psychogenic amnesia, particularly those characterized by fugue, is better than generally supposed. Findings are interpreted in terms of Markowitsch's and Kopelman's models of psychogenic amnesia, and with respect to Anderson's neuroimaging findings in memory inhibition. © The Author (2017). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved.
Psychological scientists draw inferences about populations based on samples—of people, situations, and stimuli—from those populations. Yet, few papers identify their target populations, and even fewer justify how or why the tested samples are representative of broader populations. A cumulative science depends on accurately characterizing the generality of findings, but current publishing standards do not require authors to constrain their inferences, leaving readers to assume the broadest possible generalizations. We propose that the discussion section of all primary research articles specify Constraints on Generality (i.e., a “COG” statement) that identify and justify target populations for the reported findings. Explicitly defining the target populations will help other researchers to sample from the same populations when conducting a direct replication, and it could encourage follow-up studies that test the boundary conditions of the original finding. Universal adoption of COG statements would change publishing incentives to favor a more cumulative science.