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CHAPTER
257
Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813064-3.00009-0
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
9
Invasive Species in Freshwater
Ecosystems – Threats to
Ecosystem Services
R. Kiruba-Sankar, J. Praveen Raj, K. Saravanan,
K. Lohith Kumar, J. Raymond Jani Angel,
Ayyam Velmurugan, S. Dam Roy
ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India
1 INTRODUCTION
Geographical barriers to species distribution are being increasingly broken down by human
activities (Su et al., 2016) through intentional or unintentional introductions (Minchin et al., 2013)
as species were moved out of their area to relatively new region for recreation, trade, food and
other economic interests across world. In recent times, the redistribution of species is one type of
environmental change associated with global climate change. Consequently the combined effect
may blur the boundaries between native and non-native species providing enough chances for the
introduction of alien species into a new area. Moreover, a native species that may not have caused
problems in a native region could become invasive in another region. Conversely, with the change
of climatic parameters an invasive species may become less of a problem in the same region.
It is essential to clearly define the native and non-native species to understand the inva-
sion of new species into a new area. Non-native species, like native species can be beneficial,
harmful or negligible in their effect. When a non-native species causes harm of some sort, it
is viewed as invasive. In common parlance, invasive species refers to non-native species that
are producing negative consequences in the environment or producing effects that humans
don’t like and deem harmful. These ill effects are seen in three-manifestation viz., economic
harm, threats to human health and impacts on ecological services. Some species may cause
more than one type of harm, and/or the type of harm might change over time.
A large population of an invasive species can start from a very small number of individu-
als, and those individuals can be difficult to see, so they may easily go unnoticed. The tiny
258 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
young of invasive shellfish, an egg or juvenile, a fragment of an aquatic weed can be enough
to establish a population under favourable environmental conditions that could ultimately
cost millions of dollars to address. The longer infestations are allowed to progress, the more
extensive the damage and control costs and less efficient the control efforts. Non-native spe-
cies invade through a five-stage invasion process (Fig. 9.1). Eradication becomes increasingly
difficult, and eventually impossible, as the invasion advances. However, if populations are
detected early enough, eradication may still be possible. Though prevention is the best strat-
egy for managing invasive species, ‘early detection and rapid response’ efforts are the most
effective and cost-efficient responses to invasive species that become introduced and get
established aided by climate change/favourable conditions.
Alternatively a species causing just ecological harm at the outset may begin to produce eco-
nomic harm as time proceeds due to climate imposed ecological changes. With the impending
climate change affecting the tropical islands more than the continental countries the impact
of invasive species will apparently have a deleterious effect on native freshwaters fishes and
other aquatic lives. The tropical island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India has a long his-
tory of alien fish introduction for aquaculture (Rajan and Sreeraj, 2014). Till date the impact of
invasive species on native ecosystem in the context of climate change has not been adequately
documented vis-a-vis other tropical islands. Therefore, in this chapter, the impact of non-
native species on aquatic ecosystem in reference to habitat modification by means of climate
change is critically reviewed.
2 IMPACT OF INVASIVE SPECIES ON NATIVE ECOSYSTEM
Invasive alien species (IAS) have resulted in major impacts on biodiversity at a global scale,
where at least 39% of the species extinctions during the past 400 years are due to IAS (www.
indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/node/38152). Introduced non-native species particularly
FIGURE 9.1 Stages of biological invasion.
2 IMPACT OF INVASIVE SPECIES ON NATIVE ECOSYSTEM 259
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
fishes can cause considerable impacts on freshwater ecosystems (Copp et al., 2017) and are
problematic for managers because they are so unpredictable (Strayer, 2010). There is a ten-
dency for introduced aquatic organisms to adopt a niche that differs completely from that
occupied in native range (Cagauan, 2007). Sometimes positive effects of non-native species
have also been observed.
2.1 Negative Effect
Deliberate or accidental introduction of fish species is considered as most insidious threat
to fish conservation around the world Movement of aquatic fauna particularly fishes is of no
exception over the decades, several countries have already established invasive fish species
in their native waters, which may compete with native fishes for food, space and survival.
In general, introduction and spread of invasive species under changing climatic conditions
will produce unfavorable effects on three different aspects viz., environmental, wildlife and
public health and economic impacts (Table 9.1). It is not likely that a single species will bring
all the changes in any aquatic system rather it can be well adapt to the new environment. But
with the change in climate and the altered situation may convert these alien species as inva-
sive, which tend to dominate the ecosystem in due course of time. Like habitat destruction,
invasions of non-native fishes could also interrupt resource flows and have far reaching effect
in inter-connected ecosystems (Baxter et al., 2004).
Among Asian countries India possess the maximum number of endemic freshwater finfish
species (27.8%) followed by China, Indonesia and Myanmar (Lakra et al., 2010). The fresh-
water aquatic biodiversity is depleting alarmingly due to the introduction of exotic species
(Kumar, 2000), predation, parasitism and other anthropogenic activities. Exotic fishes are seen
as a threat to the introduced ecosystem, as it causes significant changes in the composition of
ecosystem, which make a native fauna to compete with exotics for food and space. Species
diversification in aquaculture has gained importance as a result, several species, which
are known for higher growth rate and increased production, were introduced all over the
world. Aquaculture is a major source of invasive aquatic species despite the fact that cultured
organisms often have low genetic diversity and tend to be maladapted to survive in wild
(Consuegra et al., 2011). As a result of this, alien species are recognised as one of the most
significant threat to the aquatic biodiversity (Raman et al., 2013). Such problems are not hap-
pening in a region or closed system but has global in consequences. Introduction of alien fish
TABLE 9.1 Impacts of Aquatic Invasive Species in the Native Ecosystem
Environmental effects Wildlife and public health Economic impacts
Predation Epidemics Commercial fishing
Parasitism Parasites Shipping
Competition Viral/bacterial Recreational activity
Introduce pathogens Health hazard Water supply
Cross breeding Ecosystem services Industrial water use
Habitat alterations Ecological value Mass extinction
260 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
species has also resulted in major global change, harming native species and communities
throughout the world (Rahim et al., 2013). In many aquatic systems of islands, the invasive
species are so strong that the native fauna has been displaced or in verge of threat due to
introduction of alien fish species.
2.2 Dichotomy of Alien Species
Sometimes introductions into the fishponds for aquaculture purposes will accidentally
expose the exotic fishes to native aquatic systems, which will proliferate and establish their
presence, which in turn will be a competitor for food and space with native fishes of eco-
system. Of the eight worst species listed by Cambray (2003), four of them are common in
India. Sultana and Hashim (2015) reports that eight common fishes including Carassius aura-
tus, Cyprinus carpio, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Oreochromis mossambicus, Poecilia reticulata, Salmo
salar, Salmo trutta and Salvelinus fontinalis are the invasive alien fishes in all continents except
Antarctica. In contrast, in several instances exotic fishes have also shown positive impact on
the aquaculture production and effective management. Though detrimental, alien fishes are
seen as important food fish contributing as source for livelihood of fishers in India except
Gambusia affinis, which is used familiarly for mosquito control programmes. Island ecosystem
on other hand being cut off from main land mostly remains biodiversity hot spot with high
level of endemism. The presence of surrounding marine environment and physical distance
from mainland limit the number of taxa of organisms that can naturally reach and colonise
islands (Reaser et al., 2007).
In India, two main island regions, which are located in the tropical water, are Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. Lakshadweep Islands lying in Arabian Sea are completely
marine based flat low lying islands, whereas Andaman and Nicobar Islands is predominantly
marine based, however, has endemic freshwater fishes and high demand towards freshwa-
ter fishes prompting fishers to import freshwater fishes from main India for culture and
consumption. Several freshwater fishes introduced in the islands have become established
populations comprising mainly of tilapia, catfishes, murrels and carps. Freshwater fishes of
Lakshadweep Islands were also studied by Sirajudheen and Khan (2014a,b) and found that
freshwater fishes were introduced in to Lakshadweep Islands more recently post 2008 and
16 species of freshwater fishes were reported from Lakshadweep Islands. Surprisingly the
islands being at a great distance from mainland has established populations of the exotic
fishes brought mainly for reasons like aquaculture, recreation, ornamental culture and inten-
tional/unintentional entry through import of seeds. Islands ecosystems are naturally fragile
and are vulnerable to any external influences either in form of invasive species or natural
disasters and hence it is utmost importance to understand the concepts of endemism, exotic
fishes and impacts on native species in island ecosystems.
2.3 Zoogeographic Pollution
Camray (2003) refers the fish introductions as zoogeographic pollution when the organ-
isms are moved out of their known home range and introduced into new areas by humans.
The introduction pathway analysis of Sultana and Hashim (2015) shows that aquaculture
contributes major percentage of reasons for introduction in South America, North America,
3 ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF NON-NATIVE FISHES 261
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
Europe, Australia and Africa. Many species introduced by humans for social and economic
benefits have invaded new ranges by escaping from captivity (Liu and Li, 2009). Alien fishes
introduced for aquaculture purposes have great potential to move out of their enclosures
particularly species like catfishes. Even in Brazil, Britton and Orsi (2012) reports that non-
native such as C. carpio, O. niloticus in Brazil are highly potential invasive and deleterious
species to native fish diversity as per ecological risk assessment studies. In Aceh, Indonesia,
10 introduced species are reported of which O. mossambicus is most widely distributed
(Muchlisin, 2012). In case of Malaysia, there is no restriction on the spread of alien fishes in
natural habitat, however, the negative impact of alien fishes on native fauna is very early to
conclude (Rahim et al., 2013).
Another form of important invasion is through ornamental fish industry as freshwa-
ter ornamental sector is a flourishing business across world. The Northern snakehead
fish Channa argus, a native of China was reported in MA, USA and experts believed that
snakehead entered the waters through aquarium and live fish food trade (Robinson, 2007).
Channa sp. generally having burrowing ability in moist soil makes it difficult to eradicate
(Cagauan, 2007) should be a real concern.
3 ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF NON-NATIVE FISHES
Asia is one of the most leading aquaculture producing regions with several introduc-
tions of fishes, which is source of livelihood for millions of people. Several exotic fishes were
being brought into India for sport fishing and culture activities. Exotic fishes are being intro-
duced into Asia for variety of reasons. Sultana and Hashim (2015) reports that the major
introduction pathways in Asia are mainly contributed by aquaculture (21%), aquarium trade
(19%) and live food trade (17%). In Asia, introductions of Gambusia sp., Poecilia sp., Channa
sp., C. carpio, Ictalurus punctatus and few more for reasons such as mosquito control, orna-
mental purposes and food consumption (Cagauan, 2007). During the last several decades,
over 300 species of exotic fishes have been brought into India for experimental aquaculture,
sport fishing, mosquito control and aquarium keeping (Kumar, 2000). Some of the important
exotic introductions in India include Carassius Carassius, C. carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella,
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and tilapia. De Silva et al. (2006) reports that tilapias, catfish,
Chinese and Indian major carps (IMC) are significant in Inland aquaculture sector of Asia.
They too record that introduction of tilapia is seen too most beneficial as they have great con-
sumer preference. In Indonesia, Inland culture is dominated by alien production of common
carp, which fetchs high income for the native people (De Silva et al., 2006). In Philippines,
exotic aquatic organisms are primarily used for ornamental species (76%), followed by food
(21%) and biological control (2%) (Cagauan, 2007).
Aquarium trade is an important and rapidly growing vector for introduced species in the
United States (Chang et al., 2009). Majority of exotic fishes present in Florida waters came
through ornamental aquarium fish industry (Courtenay et al., 1974). In Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, many of the introduced alien fish serve as a good source of protein and fetches very
good market price. The species like O. mossambicus, Heteropneustes fossilis, Clarias magur, Ch.
striata and Anabas testudineus fetches a very high price in the look market and considered as
a great delicacy among the native settlers. Tilapia due to its proliferative breeding behavior
262 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
has established its population strongly in native waters of India. Silver carp introductions
caused significant effect to native populations of Catla catla in India due to the fact that both
are surface feeders and Silver carp competing for food and space with Ca. catla. The deleteri-
ous effect of climbing perch (A. testudineus) observed by Paliwal and Bhandarkar (2014) as
it is known to kill reptile, waterfowl and fishes preying on it. The effects of introduction of
Cl. gariepinus in India was discussed by Krishnakumar et al. (2011) in natural water bodies
of Kerala particularly Vembanad Lake. Cl. gariepinus introduction in Brazil was also found to
pose serious potential for impact on the native fish fauna as these fishes were introduced as
escapees from ponds built for recreational angling (Vitule et al., 2006). Illegal introductions
of Aristichthys nobilis, Cl. gariepinus, Pangasianodon hypothalamus, O. niloticus, Pygocentrus nat-
terei and Piaractus brachypomus was reported by Singh and Lakra (2011a,b). Landward move-
ments of alien fishes throughout India make it difficult to control their expansion as fishes
are brought illegally from nearby countries and within country. Possibilities of introduction
of new diseases also cannot be ruled out in such conditions. Though strict enforcement of law
can be strengthened further, the extent of damage has already incurred in the freshwater eco-
systems of India and further aggravation of the deleterious effects could only be controlled if
strict guidelines and framework of alien fish introduction are formulated as region specific.
4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND NON-NATIVE FISHES
Climate change is emerging as one of the main challenges that humankind will have to
face for years to come (Dam Roy et al., 2017a). Climate change and invasive species are two
of the most pervasive aspects of global climate change (Rahel and Olden, 2008). Climate
change and invasive species are two complex phenomenons that offer threat to biodiversity
and livelihood, however the impact of climate change events and their mitigation strategies
has gained more importance over invasive species around world. Climate change and bio-
logical invasions are key processes affecting global biodiversity yet their effects have usually
considered separately (Walther et al., 2009). The link between climate change and biological
invasions is key process in understanding the expansion or decline of an introduced species
in a particular geographic region. The observed and projected climate change under different
Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) shows that climate change affects pathways of
species introduction, establishment of non-native species, moderate the effect of deliberate
change (Fig. 9.2). Biological invasions coupled with climate change drives changes in marine
biodiversity (Holopainen et al., 2016) and probably in freshwater ecosystem too.
The success of an introduced alien species in to a new system vastly depends on climate
change events, which may influence their food, reproduction, survival and expansion.
Climate change can facilitate IAS through change in species hierarchies, invasive pathways
through climate-induced stress (Masters and Norgrove, 2010) and also their possible migra-
tions. Climate suitability was commonly used as the most important factor for predicting
the potential distribution of invasive species (Liu and Li, 2009), which shows how important
influence could climate change events have on invasive species. Though introduction and
establishment of invasive species are of global concern (Chandra and Gerhardt, 2008) their
impact on native ecosystem and the influence of climate change pattern prevailing and their
effect on introduced species is important. Climate change enhances the habitat disturbance,
4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND NON-NATIVE FISHES 263
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
which facilitates establishment of invasive species (Chown et al., 2015). Fish introduction and
climate change could be an interesting link as climate change events such as rainfall pattern,
storms, tsunamis, cyclones and drought are all having an interlink with the aquatic biodiver-
sity. Climate change will likely affect on fish physiology, water chemistry, quality and flow
regimes, which will have changes on fish population (Ficke, 2005). Alterations in climate and
extreme weather events are likely to result in future changes of marine and brackish water
alien species (Minchin et al., 2013) in British coast.
The influence of climate change events is more pronounced in islands due to their small
area, landscape and coastal populations. Wetlands play significant role in livelihood of island
population, as fisheries and tourism being backbone of island economy will be depending
on wetlands. Wetlands have significant value to tropical islands owing to their significance
in terms of biodiversity, coastal protection and economic values (Dam Roy et al., 2017b).
In Andaman and Nicobar Islands the freshwater fisheries are a major source of livelihood
for thousands of fishing communities. Aquaculture sector is facing major pressure due to
increasing population and high demand owing to which freshwater fishes were introduced
FIGURE 9.2 Impacts of climate change on aquatic systems.
264 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
for species diversification and increased production. Interestingly over the decade, the island
faced severe events such as increased sea surface temperature, cyclones, storms, tsunami,
earthquakes, rainfall pattern variations and drought which all had an impact on aquatic eco-
systems of islands. Sea surface temperature and storms has created damages to coral reef
ecosystems (Krishnan et al., 2011, 2012), mangrove stands has been affected due to tsunami
(Dam Roy and Krishnan, 2005) and sea grass medows due to cyclones (Sachithanandam
et al., 2014). Reaser et al. (2007) states that the intrinsic resilience of island ecosystems is deter-
mined by ecological factors and extrinsic resilience dictated by natural disasters and socio
economic forces. Many of the impacts of climate change in Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
studied on marine ecosystems wherein the freshwater bodies and their response to climate
change events are rare. Given that human activity and temperatures are expected to increase
in future aquatic fauna of the islands will show responses either physical or biological, which
needs to be studied to establish relation between climate change and alien fish fauna in Inland
ecosystems.
5 SOME CASE EXAMPLES FROM TROPICAL ISLANDS
As discussed earlier in this chapter, invasive species are now considered to represent the
greatest threat to island biodiversity and habitat loss. There are two main factors worth men-
tioning here. Firstly, many of the tropical islands are particularly valuable centres of biodi-
versity. Their physical isolation from the continental mainland, and the dynamics of natural
colonisation and local evolutionary adaptation that result, often leads to the development
of unique biotas. Endemism is a common feature of the flora and fauna of islands. Secondly,
islands appear to be particularly vulnerable to the impact of invasive species. A number of
reasons have been cited for this such as, low density of indigenous species providing for
greater vacant niche space and less competition than would be found on the mainland, the
small size of island populations rendering them prone to extinction, evolutionary effects of
isolation on island species leading, for example, to loss of defensive behaviours and conse-
quent vulnerability to introduced predators. Other factors that have been cited as increasing
the impact of invasive species on islands include release of introduced species from natural
enemies resulting in absence of predators and competitors that regulate their numbers in con-
tinental populations, and patterns of human exploitation of islands. In the following sections,
some of the unique invasions and its consequences with reference to Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Pacific Ocean islands and Caribbean regions are discussed.
5.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andaman and Nicobar Islands is bestowed with unique freshwater biodiversity with high
level of endemism. Very few studies were conducted on freshwater ecosystems on par with
marine and still the actual diversity of freshwater fishes in Andaman and Nicobar Islands
is poorly understood. Though the islands possess coastline of 1912 km and about 1/4th
of exclusive economic zone with marine fisheries being emphasised in view of livelihood,
the freshwater diversity too possesses its own significance. Their contribution to the rural
livelihood of Andaman and Nicobar Islands is significant with many fishers dependent the
5 SOME CASE EXAMPLES FROM TROPICAL ISLANDS 265
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
freshwater ecosystem to meet part of their livelihood. Any significant impact due to invasive
species linked to climate change will be detrimental to the island ecosystem.
5.1.1 Status of Aquatic System
Over the years, many research and development efforts were pressed in marine fisheries
sector and freshwater fish diversity is ignored on large ground in terms of biodiversity, inva-
sions and status of native fauna. It has been observed that habitat loss and destruction or dis-
turbance to the freshwater system is more than terrestrial ecosystem (Sala et al., 2000). At the
same time, the freshwater system is unique and limited by size and extent particularly with
reference to small islands. It is stated that invasions by non-indigenous species have been rec-
ognised as the second most important threat to global biodiversity particularly in island eco-
system after loss of habitats and landscape fragmentation (Allendorf and Lundquist, 2003).
In this regard, intense demand on inland aquaculture at Andaman Islands can possess a great
threat to the freshwater biodiversity of these pristine islands.
Freshwater aquaculture plays a very important role in livelihoods of local communities.
Currently, the freshwater ponds in Andaman and Nicobar Islands are more than 2500 in addi-
tion to tanks, reservoirs and small rivers. Many ponds are basically irrigation ponds and
not built on context of fish farming. The production of aqua cultured freshwater fishes in
Andaman Islands is said to be 85 tonnes (Rajan and Sreeraj, 2014). At present, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands consists of more than 2500 minor irrigation ponds with total water spread
area of 114.35 ha used for pisciculture purpose and 367 ha of reservoir area (7 numbers).
According to fisheries at a glance 2011, the main fish culture areas practice are concentrated
in Port Blair, South Andaman (488 ponds, 26.13 ha) and in Diglipur, North Andaman (473
ponds, 28.97 ha) and due to higher demand and for harvesting rain water number of ponds
are increasing day by day. Further, freshwater fishes are known to survive in seasonal stream
not so big in this island except few rivers in Great Nicobar Island. IMC, catfishes and fresh-
water prawn mainly contribute to the total fresh water fish production in the islands. On an
average Andaman and Nicobar Island produces about 100–120 t/year of freshwater fishes,
which includes aquacultured fishes as well.
Introduction of predatory and air breathing fishes like Cl. gariepinus, Ch. striata, Notopterus
notopterus and Pa. hypothalamus and characins like Pi. brachypomus to meet the specific con-
sumption demand of the settlers. A farm visit conducted to check alien species has revealed
that 90% of the fish farmers culturing IMC and exotic carps illegally farms Pi. brachypomus
and N. notopterus in a non-biosecured manner by doing free stocking in natural ponds, wet-
lands, which will provide great chance of escaping in the natural water bodies to a great level.
The island has a previous history of culture of air breathing fishes like H. fossilis on experi-
mental trial with seeds sourced from natural waters (Sarangi et al., 1995), which indicates
and proves the establishment of natural breeding population of this air breathing fishes in
the island habitat.
5.1.2 Diversity
Studies on freshwater fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are scarce and information
on fish fauna, their distribution and status is scanty and not compiled. Few studies on faunal
diversity were made by early workers like Day (1870), Mukerji (1935) and Sen (1975) with
the focus on Gobiids. Most comprehensive work was done by Herre (1939) who recorded 112
266 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
species of freshwater and littoral fishes. A checklist of freshwater fish species was produced
by Palavai and Davidar (2009) recording 33 species and a comparison was made with Herre’s
checklist (1939). It showed that, freshwater fish diversity of Andaman Islands is limited due
to the remoteness from mainland concluding that only eight species are known to inhabit
pure freshwater and rest are euryhaline probably due to adaptation.
Major introductions of exotic fishes in Andaman and Nicobar Islands are believed to
date back British rule (Rajan and Sreeraj, 2014). These alien fishes had been introduced to
Andaman Islands owing to their significance as culturable food fish. Mukerji (1935) reported
introduction of Labeo rohita fingerlings from Calcutta for culture in the ponds at Port Blair and
he also believes that species like Rasbora daniconius, Panchax panchax (now as Aplocheilus pan-
chax), Ap. melastigma (now as Oryzias carnaticus) and Ophicephalus gachua (now as Ch. gachua)
were brought to these islands unknowingly along with the shipment of L. rohita fingerlings
from mainland. Herre (1939) also suspects the introduction of Or. melastigma current name
(Or. carnaticus) in the shipment of carp spawns from mainland.
Some species are introduced into Andaman and Nicobar Islands for consumption pur-
poses including IMC (Catla, Rohu and Mrigal), Chinese carps (Silver carp, grass carp and
common carp) and catfishes (Magur, Singhi), which are established thoroughly in aquacul-
ture systems of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These alien species has played an impor-
tant role in development of freshwater aquaculture in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In fact,
globally the alien fish introductions are mainly for aquaculture purpose. Palavai and Davidar
(2009) listed five species of freshwater fishes, which have been introduced deliberately or
accidently since Herre’s (1939) survey. They also reported few undescribed species of genus
Sicyopterus and Schismatogobius based on their survey of freshwater streams of Andamans in
2009 indicating the unexplored status of freshwater faunal diversity of these islands. There is
also a confusion on the accurate origin of the some species existing in these islands since so
many alien species have been introduced, which really renders one to conclude a fish species
whether it is native or non-native.
More recently, a systematic survey to document native and alien fishes of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands was conducted during the year 2015–16, which yielded many new records
of native and alien fishes. The inland fishes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are represented
by 8 families, 23 genera comprising of 34 species. Plate 9.1 shows some of the collected indig-
enous freshwater fishes. Gobiidae was the predominant order with 10 genera and 16 species
followed by Eleotridae with 5 genera and 10 species. A total of 18 species of fishes and 1 spe-
cies of freshwater prawn are documented in the study. Eight species of introduced fishes are
well established in the native waters and rest being widely cultivated in the south, middle,
north Andaman and Great Nicobar Islands (Plate 9.2). Table 9.2 shows checklist of the fresh-
water fishes known to exist in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In general, most of them are
introduced, carnivorous having bottom or column feeding behaviour. It has great implica-
tion for the native herbivorous species. This point to the fact that most of the introduced
species are aggressive and tend to establish themselves at the cost of native species. Further,
the native six species viz., Eleotris andamensis, Microphis insularis, Aplocheilus sp., Rasbora sp.,
Esomus sp. and Channa sp. might face severe threat from eight species viz., H. fossilis, Ch.
striata, N. notopterus, O. mossambicus, A. testudineus and Anabas cobojius, which are exotic to
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and documented in the streams and creeks of South, Middle
and North Andaman.
5 SOME CASE EXAMPLES FROM TROPICAL ISLANDS 267
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
Great Nicobar Island located close to Sumatra, Indonesia recorded two introduced species
O. mossambicus, A. testudineus in the streams and man-made ponds. This could be a possible
human introduction by the new settlers or as a result of human activities. In Car Nicobar
the freshwater source of island is mainly rainwater and it is of flat terrain. There is only a
report on introduction of Gambusia sp. by Sunish et al. (2015) for control of malaria. During
recent surveys, Redigobius oyensi a freshwater goby is reported for the first time from a stream
at Car Nicobar Island, as it is the first record of R. oyensi to Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Andaman islands are already have a good breeding population of O. mossambicus, which
was introduced in the year 1970 for local consumption and after the 2004 tsunami these fish is
said to have penetrated even creeks and other water bodies (Rajan and Sreeraj, 2013). Survey
of freshwater bodies resulted in identification of good breeding population of Ch. striata, A.
testudineus, Cl. batrachus in the ponds, creeks and dams of South Andaman, which was well
established in the native waters.
PLATE 9.1 Some of the native freshwater fishes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. (A) Microphis insularis,
(B) Glossogobius giurus, (C) Ophiocara porocephala, (D) Giurus margaritacea, (E) Channa sp., (F) Ambassis urotaenia,
(G) Rasbora sp., (H) Eleotris melanosoma and (I) Eleotris andamanensis.
268 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
PLATE 9.2 Some of the exotic fish species in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. (A) Catla catla, (B) Hypopthal-
michthys molitrix, (C) Labeo rohita, (D) Channa striata, (E) Heteropneustes fossilis, (F) Clarias batrachus, (G) Piaractus
brachypomus, (H) Anabas cobojius, (I) Anabas testudineus, (J) Ctenopharyngodon idella, (K) Oreochromis mossambicus,
(L) Barbynomus gonionotus and (M) Notopterus notopterus.
5 SOME CASE EXAMPLES FROM TROPICAL ISLANDS 269
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
TABLE 9.2 List of Freshwater Aquatic Fauna of Native, Introduced and Unknown Origin From Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Sl. No. Family/scientific name Native Introduced Local habitat
Known feeding
strata
Known feeding
behavior
ANGUILLIDAE
1. Anguilla bicolor (McClelland, 1844)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
2. Anguilla bengalensis (Gray, 1831)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
APLOCHEILIDAE
3. Aplocheilus sp. (McClelland, 1839)•Brackish and freshwater Surface Omnivorous,
insectivore
CYPRINIDAE
4. Rasbora sp. (Bleeker, 1859) •Freshwater Surface Omnivorous
5. Esomus sp. (Swainson, 1839) •Freshwater Surface Omnivorous
6. Esomus danrica (Hamilton, 1822) Freshwater Surface Omnivorous
7. L. rohita (Hamilton, 1822)•Freshwater Column Omnivorous
8. Barbonymus gonionotus (Bleeker, 1849)•Freshwater Column Omnivorous
9. Pu. sophore (Hamilton, 1822)•Freshwater Column Omnivorous
10. C. idella (Valenciennes, 1844) •Freshwater Column Herbivorous
11. C. carpio (Linnaeus, 1758)•Freshwater Bottom Omnivorous
12. Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton, 1882) Freshwater Bottom Omnivorous
13. Hypophthalmicthys molitrix(Valenciennes,
1844)
•Freshwater Surface Planktivorous
14. Catla catla (Hamilton, 1822) Freshwater Surface Planktivorous
15. Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822)•Freshwater All strata Omnivorous
POECILIDAE
16. Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard, 1853) •Brackish and freshwater All strata Omnivorous,
larvivorous
ADRIANICHTHYIDAE •
17. Oryzias sp. (Jordan and Snyder, 1906) Brackish and freshwater All strata Omnivorous
(Continued)
270 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
Sl. No. Family/scientific name Native Introduced Local habitat
Known feeding
strata
Known feeding
behavior
GOBIIDAE
18. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton, 1822)•Marine, brackish and
freshwater
All strata Carnivorous
19. Psammogobius biocellatus(Valenciennes, 1837)•Marine, brackish and
freshwater
All strata Carnivorous
20. Glossogobius celebius(Valenciennes, 1837)•Marine, brackish and
freshwater
Bottom Carnivorous
21. Exyrias puntag (Bleeker, 1851)•Freshwater and brackish
water
Bottom Carnivorous
22. Pseudogobiopsis oligactis (Bleeker, 1875)•Brackish and Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
23. Sicyopterus sp. (Gill, 1860)•Freshwater Bottom Omnivorous
24. S. microcephalus (Bleeker, 1855)•Freshwater Bottom Omnivorous
25. Bathygobius fuscus (Ruppell, 1830)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
26. R. tambujon (Bleeker, 1854)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
27. R. bikolanus (Herre, 1927)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
28. R. oyensi (de Beaufort, 1913)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
29. Schismatogobius sp. (de Beaufort, 1912)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
30. Awous grammepomus (Bleeker, 1849)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
31. Aw. ocellaris (Broussonet, 1872)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
32. Gobiopterus sp. (Bleeker, 1874)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
ELEOTRIDAE
33. Op. porocephala (Valenciennes, 1837)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
34. Gi. margaritacea (Valenciennes, 1837)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
35. E. fusca (Forster, 1801)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
36. E. melanosoma (Bleeker, 1853)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
37. E. andamanesis (Herre, 1939)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
38. Butis amboinensis (Bleeker, 1853)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
39. B. butis (Hamilton, 1822)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
TABLE 9.2 List of Freshwater Aquatic Fauna of Native, Introduced and Unknown Origin From Andaman and Nicobar Islands (cont.)
5 SOME CASE EXAMPLES FROM TROPICAL ISLANDS 271
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
Sl. No. Family/scientific name Native Introduced Local habitat
Known feeding
strata
Known feeding
behavior
40. B. gymnopomus (Bleeker, 1853)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
41. Belobranchus belobranchus(Bleeker, 1857)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
42. Be. segura (Keith et al., 2012)•Brackish and freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
CLARIDAE
43. Cl. batrachus (Linnaeus, 1758)•Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
44. Cl. gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) •Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
HETEROPNEUSTIDAE
45. H. fossilis (Bloch, 1974)•Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
CHANNIDAE
46. Ch. striata (Bloch, 1973)•Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
47. C. punctata (Bloch, 1973)•Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
48. Channa sp. (Scopoli, 1777)•Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
NOTOPTERIDAE
49. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas, 1769)•Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
CICHLIDAE
50. O. mossambicus (Peters, 1852)•Brackish and Freshwater All strata Omnivorous
ANABANTIDAE
51. A. testudineus (Bloch, 1792)•Brackish and Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
52. Anabas cobojius (Hamilton, 1822)•Brackish and Freshwater Bottom Carnivorous
SYNGNATHIDAE
53. Mi. insularis (Hora, 1925)•Brackish and Freshwater Surface and column Planktivorous
SERRASALMIDAE
54. Pi. brachypomus (Cuvier, 1818)•Freshwater Column and
bottom
Omnivorous
55. Pa. hypophthalmus (Sauvage, 1878)•Freshwater Bottom Omnivorous
PALAEMONIDAE
56. Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man, 1879)•Brackish and Freshwater Bottom Omnivorous
OTHERS
57. Hoplabatrachus tigrinum (Tiger frog) •Freshwater Surface Carnivorous
272 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
Similarly breeding population of Ch. striata, Cl. batrachus and H. fossilis have been observed
in a natural water body flowing into a creek at chouldhari village, South Andaman. Vitule
et al. (2005) reports that the potential problems created by the Cl. gariepinus invasion as in the
case of problems created by the walking catfish Cl. batrachus, which is a very discouraging
fact, that Cl. batrachus. The main reason is that they are highly priced and in high demand in
local markets of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Ch. striata an air breather and an ambush
predator (Kottelat et al., 1993) are capable of invasion and of great biological risk to the ecol-
ogy of the islands as they are carnivorous, feeding on insect’s prawns, frogs and other fishes
(Mohsin and Ambak, 1983).
5.2 Lakshadweep Islands
In case of Lakshadweep Islands, India located in the Arabian Sea, among 16 introduced
fish species. Perciformes and Cyprinodontiformes are dominant followed by Cypriniformes,
Siluriformes and Characiformes (Sirajudheen and Khan, 2014a). Further analysis by them
showed that the introductions were mainly for ornamental fish culture, aquaculture and
mosquito control. Sirajudheen and Khan (2014b) also reported that there are no native fresh-
water fishes in islands, all were introduced, and hence there is no report of threat to native
fish fauna. G. affinis and tilapia is already discussed as worst invasive species and their
impact and interaction with other aquatic organisms and ecosystem needs to be studied.
The presence of alien fishes in the native waters of these islands may possess a great threat
to the native aquatic fauna depending on its food, habitat and other adaptation features.
5.3 Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is an Island nation and is biologically diverse, due to variations in topography
and climate. Natural ecosystems and habitats include forests and grasslands, freshwa-
ter and marine wetlands, rivers, streams, mangroves and coral reefs. In Sri Lanka, many
alien species imported for agriculture have established in the wild in low numbers, often
with few recorded effects on local ecosystems. The national list of invasive alien fauna
(Table 9.3) identified from this risk assessment includes seven species of freshwater fish,
two species of rodents, one species of large mammal and species of molluscs. In addi-
tion, 16 species have been identified as alien fauna with a potential to become invasive
(Marambe et al., 2011).
5.3.1 Direct Exploitation/Destruction of Native Species
The clown knifefish (Chitala ornata) is a large predator introduced in 1994. Subsequently,
there have been decreases in the abundance of native fish such as Aplochielus dayi, A. parvus,
Horadandia athukorali, Puntius bimaculatus, Rasbora daniconius and Amblypharyngodon meletti-
nus (Gunawardena, 2002). The predatory walking catfish (Cl. batrachus) also has direct effects
on native species (Weerawardane and Dissanayake, 2005). As in the case of other tropical
islands the guppy (P. reticulata) was introduced to control mosquito larvae based on its larvi-
vorous feeding habits, but now guppy feeding habits have become more carnivorous and the
species is now feeding on the eggs of amphibians (Bambaradeniya, 1999).
5 SOME CASE EXAMPLES FROM TROPICAL ISLANDS 273
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
TABLE 9.3 List of Invasive Alien Fauna and Their Summary Status in Sri Lanka
Species
Mode of
introduction Spread Nature of threat Control
Plecostomus
catfish/Tank
cleaner Sucker
mouth catfish
(Hypostomus
plecostomus)
1994; Negligence;
Ornamental fish
trade
Coastal flood
plain, mainly
around Colombo,
Gampaha, Kandy
and Kalutara
districts
Superior
competitors for
resources
Scrape feeding
habits-change the
habitat quality
Not available
Mosambique tilapia
(O. mossambicus)
1952; Deliberate;
Commercial
fishery
Island wide Superior
competitors for
resources
Not available
Clown knife fish
(Chi. ornata)
1994; Neglect;
Ornamental fish
trade
Coastal flood plain
Streams and
reservoirs – wet
zone
Direct exploitation
or destruction of
native species
Not available
Guppy (P. reticulata) 1930; Deliberate;
Mosquito control
Lowland wet zone,
and more riverine
areas – upper
catchments of
Mahaweli and
Kelani rivers
Direct exploitation
or destruction of
native species
Not available
Walking catfish (Cl.
batrachus)
Negligence;
Ornamental fish
trade
Marshes and
streams – lowland
wet zone
Direct exploitation
or destruction of
native species
Not available
Western mosquito
fish (G. affinis)
Deliberate;
Mosquito control
Marshes, ditches
and streams of
the lowland wet
zone
Not known Not available
Carp (C. carpio) 1915; Deliberate;
Commercial
fishery
Headwater streams
1500 m a.s.l.
elevation
Superior
competitors for
resources; feeding
habits-change the
habitat quality;
direct exploitation
or destruction of
native species
Not available
Giant African snail
(Lissachatina
fulica)
1840; Negligence,
research/hobby
Island wide
distribution
in natural
and managed
terrestrial habitats
Pest of agricultural
landscapes
Chemical control –
metaldehyde
Source: Adapted from Marambe, B., Silva, P., Ranwala, S., Gunawardena, J., Weerakoon, D., Wijesundara, S., Manawadu, L., Atapattu, N.,
Kurukulasuriya, M., 2011. Invasive alien fauna in Sri Lanka: National list, impacts and regulatory framework. In: Veitch, C.R., Clout, M.N.,
Towns, D.R. (Eds.), Island Invasives: Eradication and Management. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, pp. 445–450.
274 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
5.3.2 Competitors for Resources
In Sri Lanka, Mosambique tilapia (O. mossambicus) is non-selective in its diet and breeds
prolifically, enabling it to colonise tanks, reservoirs and slow flowing rivers while displac-
ing native inhabitants such as L. porcellus and L. dussumieri (Pethiyagoda, 1999). The diet
of small tilapia comprises zooplankton, which are food resources for indigenous fish. The
endemic red-fin labeo (L. lankae) overlaps in distribution with tilapia and has been driven to
near extinction, possibly due to this competition (Pethiyagoda, 1999). Mozambique tilapia also
occupies the same habitats as the indigenous cichlid Etroplus suratensis, and the two species
probably compete for nesting space. The listing of M. tilapia as an IAS was challenged by
aquaculture specialists who claimed that endemic fish species do not exist in the reservoirs
where tilapias are abundant (Amarasinghe et al., 2006). Populations of M. tilapia that estab-
lished in some non-flowing habitats showed little significant dietary overlap with indigenous
fish species. These contradictory views indicate that the impact of co-occurring populations
of tilapia and indigenous fish is not clear and further assessment is warranted (Marambe
et al., 2011).
In recent times, increased fishery pressure and the adoption of harmful fishing practices
(i.e. small-meshed gill nets) to catch exotics such as tilapia and carp (C. carpio) have impacted
non-target species such as freshwater turtles in the dry zone reservoirs (Pethiyagoda, 1999).
5.4 Pacific Island Countries
Freshwater fishes, amphibians and crustaceans have been introduced to Pacific islands for
aquaculture, sport, improvement of wild stock, the aquarium trade and biological control.
A total of 86 species of fish have been introduced into fresh (some brackish) waters in the
Pacific and Hawaiian islands; not all of these introductions have been successful. A total of
72 fish species have been introduced into the Hawaiian islands, and 59 have been observed
or established since 1982. 20 of the 59 are aquarium species. Papua New Guinea has received
30 species with 19 being considered established. Werry (1998) reported four species recently
(between 1993 and 1997) introduced to Papua New Guinea for stock enhancing (Colosoma
bidens, Tor putitora, Acrossothedus hexagonocheilus and Schizothorax richardsonii); they are not
yet established. Guam and Fiji each have 24 species introduced, 12 species established on Fiji
and 17 species established on Guam. New Caledonia has eight established species; three pre-
viously reported are no longer found. Several species of the families Cichlidae (tilapia) and
Poeciliidae (livebearers) have been introduced and many have become naturalised (Fig. 9.3).
Comments pertaining to these families are separated below, since many of the above-listed
ecological impacts have been reported for these species.
In addition to the fishes, the marine or cane toad occurs naturally from southern Texas
and western Mexico to central Brazil (Zug and Zug, 1979). Because of their large size and
wide adaptability, these toads were thought to be good biological control agents, primar-
ily for insects. They have been introduced throughout much of the Pacific area during the
past 50 years and are now considered one of the most widespread terrestrial vertebrates
(Easteal, 1981). A small frog Litoria fallax (Peters, 1881) was first found in the central court-
yard of the then Guam International Airport in 1968 (Eldredge, 1988). This species, native
to southern Queensland, has spread throughout Guam and is associated with wetlands
(McCoid, 1993).
5 SOME CASE EXAMPLES FROM TROPICAL ISLANDS 275
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
Another hylid frog, the green and golden bellfrog (Litoria aurea; Lesson, 1830) was also
introduced to New Caledonia more than a century ago, several amphibians have been
introduced to the Hawaiian islands. Bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) Shaw (1802), were initially
brought to Hilo, Hawaii, between 1879 and 1899 as a source of food and as a biological con-
trol agent for introduced aquatic invertebrates (McKeown, 1996). The freshwater crustaceans
of the Pacific islands have not been comprehensively investigated. The giant Malaysian
prawn Macrobrachium lar (Fabricius, 1798) and the giant freshwater prawn (Ma. rosenbergii
(De Man, 1879)) belong to the crustacean family Palaemonidae. Their distribution is restricted,
Ma. lar being found in the Indo–Pacific. Specimens of Ma. rosenbergii were imported to Hawaii
to develop mass rearing techniques, beginning with 36 individuals from Malaysia in 1965.
Similarly the freshwater crayfish (red swamp crawfish) Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852) was
first introduced into Hawaii in 1923 and 1927 (Brock, 1960).
5.5 Caribbean Islands
The Caribbean region is regarded as one of the world’s biodiversity ‘hotspots’ (Myers et al.,
2000). The occurrence of invasive species problems in the Caribbean region has increased in
recent years, and is likely to increase further, as a consequence of expanding global trade
and increased international movement of humans, biological material and other commodi-
ties. However, capacity to tackle invasive species issues at a national level varies consider-
ably amongst the countries of the insular Caribbean. The list of species reported alien, or
naturalised/invasive was dominated by terrestrial species, which includes 479 alien, 390
naturalised or invasive. Marine species made the smallest contribution to the list (16 species
naturalised/invasive, 4% of the total naturalised/invasive list). Among different groups there
were 34 fishes described as exotic and 35 are naturalised and/or invasive. Table 9.4 provides a
list of invasive/exotic freshwater fishes found in the Caribbean islands (Kairo and Ali, 2009).
FIGURE 9.3 Introduction of non-native species into Pacific islands.
276 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
TABLE 9.4 A List of Species Reported Exotic, Naturalised or Naturalised and Invasive in the Caribbean
Species name Common names Exotic in Naturalised and invasive in
Betta sp. – Dominican Republic (DR),
Haiti
–
Betta splendens Betta, Siamese fighting fish Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Copello arnoldi Splashing tetra Trinidad Trinidad
C. carpio Carpa (DR) Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Dorosoma petenense Threadfin Shad Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
G. affinis Pez mosquito (DR),
western mosquito fish
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
G. holbrooki Pez mosquito (DR), eastern
mosquito fish
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
I. punctatus Pez gato (DR), Channel
Catfish
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Lebistes reticulatus Guppy Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Micropterus salmoides Lobina-truche (DR),
Largemouth Bass
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
O. mykiss Trucha arco iris (DR),
rainbow trout and
steelhead trout
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
O. aurea Tilapia aurea (DR), Blue
tilapia
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
O. hornorum Tilapia hornorum (DR) Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
O. mossambicus Tilapia mossambica (DR) Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
O. niloticus Tilapia nilotica (DR) Dominican Republic, US
Virgin Islands
Dominican Republic
Oreochromis sp. Tilapia rojo (DR) Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
O. urolepis Tilapia, Rufigi tilapia Bahamas Islands Bahamas Islands
P. latipinna Sailfin molly Dominican Republic,
Bahamas Islands
Bahamas Islands,
Dominican Republic
P. reticulata Guppy Dominican Republic, Haiti Dominican Republic, Haiti
P. sphenops, Liberty Molly Trinidad Trinidad
Salmo gairdneri Rainbow trout Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Oreochromis
mossambicus
Tilapia mosambica (DR) Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Sarotherodon niloticus Tilapia nilotica (DR) Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Serrasalmus natterei Black piranha Barbados
Tilapia sp. Tilapia Dominican Republic, Haiti Dominican Republic, Haiti
Trichopodus
trichopterus
Gurami (DR), Blue
Gourami
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Xiphophorus helleri Colaspada (DR) Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
Xi. maculatus Platy Dominican Republic Dominican Republic
O. placidus Black tilapia Barbados Barbados
6 IMPACT OF INVASIONS 277
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
(Exotic = known to be present in the Caribbean in cultivation, captivity or in the wild.
Naturalised = known to be established in the wild in at least one Caribbean country.
Invasive = established in the wild and reported to be spreading, and/or regarded as a threat
to a native species, ecosystem or causing a socioeconomic impact.)
Eradication programmes are expensive and in many cases very difficult as for as islands
are concerned due to its unique ecosystem. Therefore, early detection and control of species
invasions are more likely to prove effective and sustainable. There is a need to build on exist-
ing facilities wherever possible, and to broaden the scope of regulations and their implemen-
tation beyond purely agricultural concerns.
Global experience suggests that two particular obstacles in such a process are a lack of
baseline information on invasive species, and a low level of awareness of the threats that they
represent. Awareness needs to be raised at all levels of society, from public to policy-makers.
A particular challenge arises from the fact that many of the major pathways for species intro-
ductions are critical to national economies.
6 IMPACT OF INVASIONS
6.1 Aquatic Diseases
Invasive species and intentional species introduction may cause potential transmission of
diseases, which may be new to the ecosystem. They also possibly carry new parasitic infesta-
tions, which may also establish in the ecosystem. The Ch. striata are also a well known carrier
of EUS and experimental demonstration of the cohabitation of an infected specimen along
with healthy ones induced EUS had been demonstrated by Cruz-Lacierda and Shariff (1995).
Ch. striata is also a carrier of virus and potentially harmful pathogens like Birna viruses had
been isolated from it by Saitanu et al. (1986). The Ch. striata, which is well established in South
Andaman and North Andaman were collected from stream flowing into creeks from a par-
ticular location in South Andaman. This could be a potential danger for the fishes and prawns
inhabiting creeks and also for euryhaline species.
The carnivorous Cl. gareipinus (African catfishes) cultured by some farmers in South and
North Andaman could be a top most predator in the native waters. In the mainland India,
the union agriculture ministry has issued order to kill the fish by angling but this has proved
ineffective to control them. When non-native species are introduced into a new range then
their parasite fauna can also be introduced and there is a chance of potentially spilling-over
into native hosts (Williams et al., 2013). The monogenean parasites with direct lifecycles
with no intermediate hosts can invade the native species and colonise them (Jimenez-García
et al., 2001). All the listed air breathing fishes like Ch. striata, A. testudineus, H. fossilis, Cl.
batrachus and Ch. punctata are known carriers of trematodes like Astiotrema reniferum and
Genarcopsis goppo as reported by Puinyabati et al. (2010). Biu and Akorede (2013) conducted
a study on prevalence of endoparasites of Cl. gariepinus using standard parasitological meth-
ods in Nigeria and found that 38% of examined fishes were infected with parasites such as
nematodes, cestodes and protozoa. Invasive species may introduce novel pathogens to a colo-
nised area (Bacela-Spychalska et al., 2012). A list of pathogens from exotic fishes is discussed
in Table 9.5. Also a data on freshwater fish and prawn diseases reported in Andaman and
278 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
TABLE 9.5 Freshwater Fish and Prawn Introduced in ANI and the Diseases Reported in Mainland India
Species
Disease
type Reported diseases References
Indian
major
carps
Bacterial BKD, dropsy, fin and tail rot, ulcerative
disease, edwardsiellosis, columnaris,
bacterial gill disease
Karunasagar et al., 1986; Mastan
and Ahmed, 2013; Mukherjee
et al., 1994; Verma and
Rathore, 2013; Vineetha and
Abraham, 2009; Swain et al., 2003
Fungal EUS, saprolegniasis, gill rot and
mycotic infections
Gopalakrishnan, 1966; Jhingran and
Pullin, 1985; Pachade et al., 2014;
Pradhan et al., 2014
Parasitic Argulosis, lerneaosis, myxoboliasis,
gyrodactylosis, dactylogyrosis,
trichodiniasis, costiasis,
ichthyophthiriasis, whirling disease,
black spot disease, acanthocephalan
infestation, nematode and
chilodonella infestation
Dash et al., 2015a; Ganapati and
Rao, 1962; Maheswari, 1986;
Mukherjee, 2002; Ramudu
et al., 2016; Vineetha and
Abraham, 2009
Chinese
major
carps
Bacterial Eye disease, gill hyperplasia syndrome,
haemorrhagic septicaemia and fin rot
Harikrishnan et al., 2003; Khatri
et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 1986;
Parvez and Mudarris, 2014; Shah
and Tyagi, 1986
Fungal Gill rot, saprolegniasis Jhingran and Pullin, 1985; Khatri
et al., 2009
Parasitic Black spot disease, ichthyophthiriasis,
costiasis, argulosis, trichodiniasis,
myxoboliasis, acanthocephalan
infestation, nematode and
chilodonella infestation,
monogenean, piscinoodinium
and copepod parasite infestations,
epistylis, vorticella and
zoothamnium infestations
Dash et al., 2015b; Kaur and
Katoch, 2016; Khatri et al., 2009;
Mukherjee, 2002; Ramesh
et al., 2000; Singh and Kaur, 2014;
Tantry et al., 2016
Catfishes Bacterial Haemorrhagic septicaemia, columnaris
and dropsy and edwardsiellosis
Lipton, 1994; Prasad et al., 2011;
Sahoo et al., 1998; Singh and
Lakra, 2011a,b
Fungal EUS, saprolegniasis, fusarium infection,
mycosis and mycotic infections
Bisht et al., 2000; Khulbe et al., 1994;
Mastan, 2015; Pachade et al., 2014;
Pradhan et al., 2014
Parasitic Trichodiniasis, myxoboliasis,
trypanosomiasis, intestinal cestode
infestation, acanthocephalan
infestation, gyrodactylosis,
dactylogyrosis and nematode
infestation
Bose and Sinha, 1985; Gambhir, 2014;
Mukherjee, 2002; Singh
and Kaur, 2012; Singh and
Lakra, 2011a,b; Singh and
Lakra, 2012; Tandon and Joshi, 1973
Murrels Bacterial Eye disease, haemorrhagic septicaemia
and vibriosis
Ganesh et al., 2012; Jhingran, 1991;
Parvez and Mudarris, 2014
6 IMPACT OF INVASIONS 279
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
Species
Disease
type Reported diseases References
Fungal EUS, saprolegniasis, fusarium infection
and mycotic infections
Bisht et al., 2000; Mukherjee, 2002;
Pachade et al., 2014; Shrivastava
and Shrivastava, 1977
Parasitic Trematode infestation,
ichthyophthiriasis, myxoboliasis,
trypanosomiasis, acanthocephla
infestation and cestode infestation
Gupta and Jairajpuri, 1982;
Kaur et al., 2012; Kaur and
Shrivastav, 2012; Kalavati and
Narasimhamurti, 1985; Lipton
and Lakshmanan, 1985; Reddy
and Benarjee, 2011; Shareef and
Abidi, 2012
Cichlids Bacterial Haemorrhagic septicaemia,
edwardsiellosis and vibriosis
Bhanumathi et al., 2010;
Miyashita, 1984
Fungal Fusarium infection, mycotic infections Mastan, 2015; Pillai and Freitas, 1983
Parasitic Trypanosomiasis, nematode, cestode,
trematode, piscinoodinium and
acanthocephalan infestations
Mandal, 1976; Nimbalkar et al., 2010;
Ramesh et al., 2000
Freshwater
prawn
Viral White tail disease and white spot
syndrome
Hossain et al., 2001; Sudhakaran
et al., 2007; Walker and
Winton, 2010
Bacterial Vibriosis and shell disease Jayasree et al., 1999; Khuntia et al.,
2008
Fungal Mycotic infections Shah et al., 1977
Parasitic Zoothamnium, epistylis, gregarina,
amphileptus, dileptus, myxobolus,
chilodonella, balladyna, gozia,
rhabdochona, indocucullanus,
procamallanus, acineta, vorticella,
gregarines, cucullanus, cestode,
nematode and isopod infestations
Jayasree et al., 2001; Paul et al., 2010
Ornamental
fishes
Viral Carp edema virus infection and
cyprinid herpesvirus-2 infection
Sahoo et al., 2016; Swaminathan
et al., 2016
Bacterial Haemorrhagic septicaemia, dropsy,
fin and tail rot, ulcerative disease,
columnaris, myxobacterial infection
and streptococcal infection
Citarasu et al., 2011; Chidambaram
et al., 2014; Sreedharan et al., 2013;
Verma et al., 2015
Parasitic Ichthyophthiriasis, trypanosomiasis,
arguluosis, trichodiniasis,
dactylogyrus, gyrodactylus,
procamallanus and cucullanus
infestation
Chanda et al., 2011; Gupta et al., 2003;
Saha and Bandyopadhyay, 2016
ANI, Andaman and Nicobar Islands; BKD, Bacterial kidney disease; EUS, epizootic ulcerative syndrome.
TABLE 9.5 Freshwater Fish and Prawn Introduced in ANI and the Diseases Reported in Mainland India
(cont.)
280 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
Nicobar Islands and adjoining nations is given in Table 9.6. It is known that Andaman and
Nicobar Islands is known to be free from much aquatic disease. To increase the aquaculture
production and local consumption, freshwater fishes are regularly brought to Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Therefore, Singh and Lakra (2011a,b) recommended that effective quarantine
TABLE 9.6 Freshwater Fish and Prawn Diseases Reported in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Adjoining
Nations
Aquatic animal
diseases IndonesiaaThailandbMalaysiacSri LankadMyanmareIndiaf
Andaman
and Nicobar
Islandsg
Viral diseases
KHV disease + + + # × × ×
SVC × × × × × × ×
White tail
disease
+ + + # # + ×
Bacterial diseases
Haemorrhagic
septicaemia
+ # + + + + ×
Abdominal
dropsy
+ + # + + + +
Edwardsiellosis + + + # # + ×
Parasitic diseases
Ich or white spot
disease
+ + + + # + ×
Trichodiniasis + + + + # + ×
Lernaesis + + + + + + ×
Argulosis + + + + + + +
Gill and skin
fluke infection
+ + + + + + ×
Fungal diseases
EUS + + + + + + ×
Saprolegniasis + + # + + + ×
+, Disease reported; ×, disease not reported; #, information not available; EUS, epizootic ulcerative syndrome; KHV, Koi
herpesvirus; SVC, spring viremia of carp.
a Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005; Chitmanat et al., 2005; Maskur, 2013; Muchlisin et al., 2014; Sunarto et al., 2004.
b Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005; Chitmanat et al., 2005; Chukanhom and Hatai, 2004; Kanchanopas-Barnette et al., 2009; Kasornchandra
et al., 1987; Kumnerdphol and Purivirojkul, 2009; Leong et al., 1987; Tasawar et al., 2009; Willoughby et al., 1995.
c Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005; Bu and Seng, 1997; Lourelle and Oldewage, 2009; Musa et al., 2009; Sayuthi, 1993; Son et al., 1997.
d Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005; Costa and Wijeyaratne, 1989; Karunarathne and Sundharabarathy, 2011; Mukherjee, 2002; Thilakaratne
et al., 2013; Vinobaba, 1991.
e John and George, 2012; Kitancharoen et al., 1995; Mohan and Phillips, 2005; Roberts, 1997.
f Bhuiyan et al., 2008; Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005; Hameed et al., 2004.
g Shome, 1999; Shome et al., 1996.
7 CONSERVATION 281
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
measures are required to prevent exotic pathogens and parasites as aquarium fish trade and
fish introductions are likely to increase in future.
6.2 Food Source
As most of the island hill streams, rivulets and ponds are almost maintaining perennial
flow due to heavy rainfall, there is more risk of this species invading all water bodies and
completely eradicating the native aquatic biodiversity as they can instinctively move to a
new body of or across land once food becomes scarce, which puts all waters at risk for inva-
sion. The introduced Pi. brachypomus was said to be introduced from Bangladesh at Kolkata,
Mainland India in the year 2003 and 2004 (Chattarjee and Mazumdar, 2009). In the mainland
India, aquaculture of this species is been carried out under the name ‘Red pomfret or freshwa-
ter pomfret’ and had paved way for its establishment of population in various rivers across
India viz., Tripura (Datta and Nandeesha, 2006), Maharashtra (Singh and Lakra, 2011a,b) and
Chalakuddy river, Kerala (Dahanukar et al., 2011). Now aquaculture of this species is being
carried out in the South and North Andamans as well. These species possesses powerful den-
tition that can cause serious bites to humans and fishes (Robins et al., 1991). Because of the
unregulated aquaculture practices and import of illegal fish seeds from Kolkatta by farmers,
the fate of the island ecosystem is really under threat. There are less than 300 exotic species
traded in India and there is a lack of data of their impact on ecology (Knight, 2010).
The introduced Pu. sophore can also have an habitat threatening situation since the finger-
ling stage of it prefers mostly picoplanktonic food of animal origin and the adult stage gut
content analysis shows Chlorella, pico-planktonic biota, zooplanktonic biota, broken fish and
prawn (Banik and Saha, 2013), this feeding behaviour of the barb can deprive of the food
available for the native genus like of Gobiidae where they dominate 70% of freshwater fish
families found in Andaman and their gut content analysis shows zooplanktons, small insects,
invertebrate and other fish fries. This situation of biological invasion will definitely have an
impact on the food chain of the native species. Even the Nicobar Islands has the reports of
large scale introduction of G. affinis for mosquito control at the Car Nicobar Island, which is a
part of Nicobar Island group (located at 9.16°N, 92.75°E) by the Malaria Research Centre under
the aegis of Indian Council of Medical Research, India (Sunish et al., 2015). The Gambusia sp.
in many instances turns to be a predator (Rinne, 1995) and its introduction threatened many
native cyprinodonts in Europe and North America (Elvira, 1990). G. affinis also shown to com-
pete strongly with endemic species in several water bodies of Greece (Economidis, 1995). A
list of introduced fishes and their possible impacts has been discussed in Table 9.7.
7 CONSERVATION
Biological invasions are increasingly influencing ecosystems all over the world (Velde
et al., 2009) and their impacts are to be studied on priority for conservation and management
of biodiversity. Alternatively some of the alien species in the new aquatic environment may
be a good source of food and provide other useful services to the ecosystem. This aspects
needs to be considered because many of the existing species might have come from elsewhere
during the evolutionary period.
282 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
TABLE 9.7 Impact of Introduced Alien Fishes in India
Species Native
Purpose of
introduction Case location Impact References
G. affinis, G. holbrooki
(mosquito fish)
Italy To control
mosquito larvae
Maharashtra Lake
Nainital
Feeding on eggs of fish
eggs, competition for
food and space and
affecting the population
of native fishes
Knight, 2010; Nirmal
and Gupta 2016;
Praveenraj, 2014
Pterygoplichthys pardalis
(sucker mouth catfish)
South America Ornamental fish
trade
Telangana, Kerala Habitat modification,
siltation and voracious
feeder
Biju Kumar; Rao and
Sunchu, 2017
Cl. gariepinus Africa Illegal introduction
for aquaculture
Kerala, Telangana Voracious feeder, threat
to native fish, bird and
reptile diversity
Krishnakumar, 2011;
Mahender 2015
Oreochromis sp. (tilapia) Africa Aquaculture Telangana, Kerala Prolific breeder, compete
for food and space
Biju Kumar, 2013;
Mahender, 2015
Hy. molitrix (silver carp) Hong Kong Aquaculture Gobindsagar
Reservoir
(Himachal
Pradesh)
Has completely replaced
the native fish C. catla
FAO Technical
Paper 345
Hybrid tor species (orange
fin Mahseer)
India
(translocated)
Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu
(Cauvery river)
Replace the native
humpback (bluefin
mahseer) Tor khudree
A.J.T. Johnsingh,
NCF, Mysore and
WWF, India
Exotic trout United
Kingdom
Angling and
aquaculture
Jammu and
Kashmir
Replace the native Indian
snow trout’s
P. reticulata (guppy) South America Aquarium and
mosquito control
Maharashtra Feeding on eggs of fish
eggs, competition for
food and space and
affecting the population
of native fishes
Knight, 2010;
Praveenraj, 2014
A. testudineus
(climbing perch)
Thailand – Maharashtra Destruction of native
fish, bird and reptile
biodiversity
Paliwal, 2014
7 CONSERVATION 283
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
7.1 Alternative Ways of Management
It is reported that overall alien finfish species have done little ecological harm to native
flora and fauna (De Silva et al., 2006). Alien finfishes have also shown tremendous impact on
the livelihood of Asian fishers. However, they may have a short-term positive effect on liveli-
hood sector and a long-term harm on native ecosystem. In Chile, the aquaculture production
is mainly contributed by exotic salmon (Gajardo and Laikre, 2003). In India too, alien fishes
has brought both positive and negative effects to the nature and livelihood. In Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, the livelihoods of many fishers were depending on the introduced alien
fishes and still the marketing communities are hugely dependent on the fishes being brought
from mainland to satiate the local demand and their livelihood. Hence, in present context it’s
very difficult to eradicate the alien fish population. However enforcement of strict screen-
ing through routes, certification from transporting authorities, stringent laws in bringing live
alien fishes, quarantine check, unintentional introductions can be checked thoroughly.
The freshwater fish fauna of Andaman represent mainly Gobiids, which have a great
potential for freshwater aquaculture and aquarium hobby. The families like Eleotrids are
capable of growing to 20 cm (FAO, fact sheets) and sought after by the natives of Andaman
Islands. There is a great scope for induced breeding trails of this native gobies as done on
other goby species like Oxyeleotris marmorata (marble goby) in the South East Asian coun-
tries, which is considered as a high value fish (Tan and Lam, 1973) necessitating conserva-
tion. Similarly the species like Glossogobius giurius, Gl. celebius, Giuris margaritacea, Ophiocara
porocephala may evolve as a good candidate species for the island freshwater aquaculture as
well as for ornamental trade. Ninety percent of the freshwater ornamental fishes exported
from India are wild caught indigenous species (Silas et al., 2011). Similarly the native species
like Gi. margaritacea, Sicyopterus microcephalus, Channa sp., R. tambujon, R. bikolanus, R. oyensi,
Stenogobius gymnopus, Scatophagus argus, Schismatogobius sp. and Toxotes jaculator has a good
aquarium value and currently being traded. Breeding of this species will evolve as a good
source of income for the local people and this may indirectly contribute in the conservation of
the species. A very good example of this fact is some of the fish species traded in the aquarium
hobby are highly threatened in wild but are well established in the aquarium trade since
many of such species are mass bred in various farms across the world. A typical example for
this is Epalzeorynchus bicolor and Yasuhikotakia sidthimunki (Kottelat et al., 2012). Similarly the
Sahyadriya denisonii (Red line torpedo barb) from India, which is assessed endangered by Ali
et al. (2015) are commercially bred and are being exported from Indonesia and Singapore
(Mittal, 2009). The native freshwater prawns belonging to the family Atyidae also have a
very good ornamental value and gaining popularity in the aquarium industry over the years
(Heerbrandt and Lin, 2006). The Caridina spp. is known for its coloration and an excellent
scavenger of unwanted algae in a planted aquarium tanks (Thomas and Jayachandran, 2007)
and prawns like Macrobrachium latimanus, Ma. Gurudeve, Ma. Ornatus, Ma. Idella and Caridina
Natarajani are also been introduced in aquarium by Jayachandran (2006a,b) for ornamental
purpose. The Andaman Islands with a reported seven species of Caridina and six species of
Macrobrachium, can be potential candidate animals for ornamental hobby and aquaculture.
Interestingly alien fishes are also seen as reliable indicator of river health with some provi-
sos (Kennard et al., 2005) and invasions by exotic species does not necessarily lead to extinc-
tion or imperilment of many native species (Gido and Brown, 1999). Many times exotic fishes
284 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
are introduced just by virtue of their production capabilities, wherein their influence on the
ecosystem, interaction with the species and biology is not clearly known. For these reasons
it is wise to conserve either in the field or aquarium some of the harmless species for eco-
nomic benefit.
7.2 Quarantine and Biosecurity
Much of attention on introduction and ill effects of alien species were realised in recent
days. In case of India, the mode of entry is multiple and is difficult to control the spread of
fishes in a territory. However, an island ecosystem is completely cut-off through sea where
modes are through air or water. These modes of transport can be effectively managed and
could be kept in control. A quarantine and biosecurity system can be established, which can
screen the exotics, the diseases probably spread by them and other parasites and amphibians
associated in the transport. Strictly controlled introductions (Raman et al., 2013) would best
possible way to control further expansion of alien species in islands. Control techniques avail-
able for aquatic invasive species are time and labour intensive, expensive and often lethal for
non-target species (Kapuscinski and Sharpe, 2014). Hence formulating best possible ways to
mitigate further spread could be best followed rather than attempts to eradicate invasive fish
species.
Nicobar group of islands like many other tropical islands is cut-off from larger island
groups and transport routes are through sea depending on weather and other conditions.
Though the effects of alien fishes could be irreversible in many islands, in several isolated
islands like Great Nicobar and Lakshadweep could still be contained and controlled since
the freshwater fish farming is not an major livelihood activity since the islanders are pri-
marily tribals and their livelihood are depending on plantation crops and marine fisheries.
Industrial and domestic pollution are known as most serious factor threatening freshwater
fishes but in several tropical islands major industrial activities are limited and discharge
of effluents into freshwater are negligible. Domestic pollution also could not be seen as a
major threat considering the level of urbanisation in these islands. The one major threat to
indigenous freshwater fishes will only be the invasive alien fishes coming to islands for
food and business.
7.3 Aquarium and Labeling
The Inland waters and freshwater diversity is a treasure house for valuable natural
resource, in terms of cultural, educational, aesthetic, and scientific and economics (Dudgeon
et al., 2006). But, invasive non-native species represent a major threat to biodiversity world-
wide (Tinsley et al., 2015). Singh, (2014) suggests that aquarium fish trade is undeniably a vec-
tor activity that has role in introduction, dispersal and invasion of exotic species. Therefore, it
is very important to protect and save the biodiversity to sustain them on a long run. Though
management and control of non-indigenous species is biggest challenge for any conservation
biologists (Allendorf and Lundquist, 2003), the best measure is to save the vanishing native
species by breeding and reintroduction.
Another worst scenario is chances of hybridisation between alien and native species, which
could lead to genetic erosion of native taxa (Pliszko and Zalewska-Galosz, 2016). Particularly
8 CONCLUSIONS 285
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
in islands, hybridisation with IAS can be threat to rare species thereby diluting the native
gene pool to point of extinction (Reaser et al., 2007). The conservation of aquatic germplasm
resources is to be taken on priority in the present global scenario where more fish species are
being reported to be endangered or threatened (Lakra et al., 2010). Alien species pose several
challenges for future management of freshwater ecosystems (Strayer, 2010) and immediate
measures are to be addressed to control further aggravation of the issue. Considering the
negative impact of exotic fishes on aquatic biodiversity, stringent regulations are to be framed
regarding the import of non-native species (Kumar, 2000).
Import risk analysis and the hazard analysis critical control point are measures sug-
gested by Cagauan (2007) to control invasive species. Such import risk analysis could be
very relevant in island ecosystems and managing the entry points also will be easier. Islands
normally will have limited resources in terms of agricultural, animal and fishery products
for consumption and they will be mainly dependent on adjoining countries import. Though
indigenous fishes are available, they do not contribute for consumption purposes and in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands the consumption requirement is completely managed by
introduced fishes. Other than the natural phenomenon, which displaces the fish popula-
tion from one region to other, introduction of alien exotics intentionally creates severe issue
with permanent damage. Many times their consequences are not visualised by the farmers
who introduce them in their aquaculture ponds in name of diversification without under-
standing the biology and behavior of species. Transfers and introduction of species from
one hydrographical location to other is increasing and with risk of introduced diseases is
also manifesting with all ferocity (Raman et al., 2013). On the other hand nothing can be
done to eliminate the already established exotics that have a much localised distribution
(Courtenay et al., 1974). Controlling invasive species could be a very tough task though
some interesting concept of genetic biocontrol is yet to be put in practice (Kapuscinski and
Sharpe, 2014).
8 CONCLUSIONS
The comparative analysis of past introductions could be major approach to study the
effect of invasive species and effective vector should be coupled with efforts to improve
environmental conditions to minimise invaders success within ecosystem. Particularly in
island ecosystem it is difficult to predict the vulnerability due to IAS and it is necessary to
establish and standardise databases on Inland water organisms and associated environ-
mental information (Fu et al., 2003). Measures to control alien species is to exploit them
commercially for food and to formulate a strict legislative rule for unregulated aquaculture
practices and to have a thorough checking of the consignment both at airport and har-
bor for alien, exotic species and intensifying studies on the impacts of invasive species on
native ecosystems in the islands.
Eradicating or managing IAS in tropical islands requires a coordinated strategy based
on cooperation among all land managers, national and international agencies concerned
with it. The situation created as a result of expanding international trade, tourism, trans-
port besides climate change has facilitated the entry to, and spread of, IAS through
new pathways.
286 9. INVASIVE SPECIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS – THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
II. BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL ISLANDS
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