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JURNAL ARBITRER - VOL. 5 NO. 1 (2018)
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.25077/ar.5.1.23-30.2018
Article
A Sociolinguistic Study of The Effects of Yoruba-
English Code-mixing on The Yoruba Language
Owolola Oluwaseun
Basic and General Studies Dept. Federal College of Forestry, Jericho Ibadan, Nigeria
SUBMISSION TRACK
A B S T R A C T
Recieved: March 20, 2018
Final Revision: April 17, 2018
Available Online: april 28, 2018
This work investigates the effects of Yoruba-English Code-
mixing on the Yoruba language. From a sociolinguistic
perspective, it examines the reasons why people code-mix
English with Yoruba and the effects of the code-mixing on the
Yoruba language. The study is modeled after Crystal’s (2000)
theory of language death. Data for the study was collected
with the use of self-designed questionnaire which was
administered to 100 respondents. The analysis of the
responses shows that a number of lexical items of the Yoruba
language have been lost by the native speakers as a result
Yoruba-English code-mixing. It also reveals that this
sociolinguistic phenomenon may hamper the growth and
development of the Yoruba language as it has become more
convenient for Yoruba speakers to code-mix than to coin new
words for new concepts, items or ideas. The study, therefore,
concludes that uncontrolled Yoruba-English code-mixing
may render the use of the Yoruba language moribund,
consequently leading to the death of the language. It is
recommended that the native speakers of Yoruba should make
conscious efforts to use “pure” Yoruba, minimizing the use of
code-mix.
KEYWORD
Yoruba, English, Code-Mixing, Language
Death
CORRESPONDENCE
E-mail: owololaoluwaseu@yahoo.com
I. INTRODUCTION
Nigeria is a multilingual community with
most of its citizens at least bilingual; the
reason for this is the fact that the languages in
Nigeria come in contact with one another on
a regular basis. It is normal for there to be
influence when speakers of two or more come
in contact and interact. When languages come
in contact, a lot of linguistic processes take
place, such as the evolvement of pidgins,
according to Adedimeji (2010:3) pidgin
English is a combination of “[the] English
language (the superstrate) and Nigerian
languages (the substrate). A lot of borrowings
also occur as well as code-mixing. Code-
mixing is simply the combination of
languages in a speech event, mostly intra-
sentential. There are possibilities that one who
is exposed to more than one language use
them together at particular times during
conversation. The reasons for this are
countless but the utmost concern of this study
is the effect of code-mixing on the languages
that are involved.
This study focuses on the effects of code-
mixing Yoruba with English. These two
OWOLOLA OLUWASEUN/ JURNAL ARBITRER - VOL. 5. NO. 1 (2018)
24
languages co-exist side by side in Nigeria.
English language is a world language. The
English language is widely spread and this is
due to the widespread of the first speakers of
the language. The coming of Europeans to
Nigeria in 1553 for commercial purposes
accounts for the contact of Nigeria with the
English language. On their arrival, there was
a major gap in communication, and the need
to bridge this gap became very necessary.
There was the need to find a means of
communication between the Europeans and
the many ethnic nationalities, now referred to
as Nigeria. Pidgin English was fashioned.
The English language has played on the
seeming inadequacies of the Nigeria’s
national languages. It has risen so high,
gained grounds and has thus become the
language of prestige, desired by everyone. In
fact, acceptance in the Nigerian society is
based on how well and how fluent one’s use
of English is. One cannot help but wonder
what the lot of those who cannot speak it is.
The implication of all this is that the country’s
indigenous languages have been relegated and
the users of them are seen as people who
cannot properly fit into the society. Even
though certain measures and attempts have
been made by several bodies and the
government to somewhat increase the value
and usefulness of the indigenous languages,
there has been little or no improvements
because some of the policies made have been
left unattended to.
The contact of the Yoruba people with the
English language has brought about code-
mixing which of course is one of the
manifestations of language contact. People
find it convenient to shuffle English words in
the use of the Yoruba language and this has
effects on the Yoruba language. These effects
could be long term or short term, finding this
out is the pre-occupation of this study.
Bello (2007:18-19) observes that code-
mixing has adverse effects on semi-educated
Yoruba/English bilinguals; the speakers end
up not being competent in either languages,
she gave the following examples:
a. Mo mo nkan ti mo contain (I know my
worth)
b. O fabricate iro yen ni (he conceived the
lie)
c. Ile wa focus (our house is conspicuously
positioned)
d. Mo gazette e ki nto kan an (I positioned
it before nailing it)
e. Olopa yen gazette ori e (the policeman
aimed at his head)
One thing is evident from the examples above
that the English words involved in the code-
mixing are not even properly used. The first
example, ‘contain’ is used to mean ‘worth’,
meanwhile in the contexts above they are not
synonyms and cannot be used as substitutes.
Therefore it could be said that code-mixing
alternatives are not always correct, but
context sheds more light on the meaning that
is intended. Bello (2007:19) also observes that
there is inappropriateness in code-mixing is
both grammatical and semantics; this is
because there is no meaningful relationship
between what is said and what is meant. She
further says that speakers seem to be
incompetent in the use of both languages.
Humaira (2012) looked at the importance of
mixing/code-switching in classroom settings
and discovered the following:
a. When teachers code-mix, they do not do
it consciously, they do not know
functions and outcomes of this process
b. Students on their own code-switch for
equivalence
c. Students also code-mix to hold the floor
in a conversation or speech event
d. In a classroom setting, code-mixing
allows for message reinforcement, for
emphasis or clarification of already sent
message
e. In a classroom setting, it is used or
introduced for conflict control.
Ayeomoni (2006) looks at code-mixing and
code-switching in the childhood language of
certain children in Nigeria, it was observed
that most children are exposed to two
languages right from primary school. And so
OWOLOLA OLUWASEUN/ JURNAL ARBITRER - VOL. 5. NO. 1 (2018)
25
they begin to code-mix because they have not
properly learnt the grammar of both
languages, it is easy to take from here and
there to make a complete sentence. According
to him, code-mixing has both negative and
positive effects on a child. The responsibility
lies on the language teacher to ensure that the
students take good advantage of the
sociolinguistic phenomenon.
Code-mixing is a sociolinguistic phenomenon
that cannot be wished away, this is because it
serves good purposes; but the problem lies
where code-mixing begins to adversely affect
the speaker and the language(s) involved.
Bello (2007) noted that it affects indigenous
languages and affects the competence of the
speaker in the use of either language.
II. METHODS
This study is modeled after Crystal’s (2000)
theory of language death. He observes that
language death is harsh; an unwelcoming yet
true, and it is just like the death of human
beings. He states that languages die with the
death of their speakers. He notes that
“the people may live but the language
may still die…the members of a
community remain alive and well, often
continuing to inhabit their traditional
territory; but their language nonetheless
goes into decline, and eventually
disappears to be replaced by some other
languages”.
He further states that one culture can
influence or dominate the other(s), and people
start adopting the dominant culture, their
mores and values. This dominance will
gradually touch on the language of the
subjugated and eventually swarm it. He points
out that languages that lack prestige lose out
to the prestigious ones as the speakers do not
feel safe using the former but adores using the
latter. The status of the indigenous languages
becomes gradually eroded until nobody wants
to use them again.
The instrument used for data collection in this
study is a questionnaire. The questionnaire
has twenty nine (29) items divided into three
sections. The first section comprises the
biographical data. The second section
comprises ten (10) items, they are close-ended
questions aimed at surveying opinions of
respondents on the rate and likely effects of
code-mixing. The third section asked an open
ended question on the reason why people
code-mix. Respondents were asked to provide
Yoruba words for some lexical items written
in English. Respondents were
Yoruba/English bilinguals in the University
of Ilorin. They were 100 in number.
III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Many Nigerians cannot speak their
indigenous languages without adding
English words to it.
Table 1: Code-mixing English with indigenous
Nigerian language
Variable
Frequency
Percentage
Strongly Agree
44
44%
Agree
46
46%
Strongly Disagree
6
6%
Disagree
3
3%
None
1
1%
Table 1 shows that 44% of the respondents
strongly agree that many Nigerians cannot
speak their indigenous languages without
adding English words to it, 46% agree, 6%
strongly disagree, 3% disagree and 1% is
indifferent. From the data obtained, it is clear
that people aware that code-mixing has
become part and parcel of Nigerian linguistic
setting, this is due to the fact that Nigerians
are exposed to many languages; Nigeria being
a multi-lingual state. This exposure has made
it almost impossible not to code-mix. The
reasons for which people code-mix are so
many but the negatives almost outweigh the
positives. The effect of code-mixing on our
indigenous languages has somewhat been
adverse, it could be said that on the positive
side it aids communication.
Code-mixing Yoruba with English language
can lead to the gradual death of Yoruba
language
OWOLOLA OLUWASEUN/ JURNAL ARBITRER - VOL. 5. NO. 1 (2018)
26
Table 2: Yoruba-English Code-mixing and the
effect on the Yoruba language
Variable
Frequency
Percentage
Strongly Agree
28
28%
Agree
36
36%
Strongly Disagree
14
14%
Disagree
22
22%
None
0
0
Table 2 reveals that 28% of the respondents
strongly agree that Yoruba-English Code-
mixing have effects on the Yoruba language,
36% agree, 14% strongly disagree and 22%
disagree. This implies that code-mixing
affects the indigenous languages in that
gradually words are lost in the lexicon of the
Nigeria’s indigenous languages because they
are replaced by the English language
representations of such senses. It is
convenient to code-mix and so people do not
bother to know the indigenous representations
of certain words, and at the end of the day,
English takes over since that is what is known.
Imagine that this happens for most words in
the Yoruba lexicon, then there is little or
nothing left.
It is not only the death of speakers, or their
being swarm by larger and stronger languages
that leads a language to death; speakers can
kill their own languages. The death and decay
of a language can start gradually, when
speakers start replacing words in it with words
from other languages. Words in Yoruba
language are being replaced with their
English counterparts, and for such words,
speakers may hardly remember they exist.
Dorian (1998:1) says that “languages are
seldom admired to death but are frequently
despised to death”, indigenous languages in
Nigeria has been treated as second fiddles
even among the owners of the language.
English is the language of prestige and has so
much function accrue to it; it is the language
of education, governance, basic interactions
and so on. To a very large extent, English
defines status in Nigeria, except of course if
money redefines the status of an individual
who is a bad user of the English language.
Dorian (1988:1) further asserts that “it is
fairly common for a language to become so
exclusively associated with low-prestige
people and their socially disfavoured
identities that its own potential speakers
prefer to distance themselves from it and
adopt some other language”. This is exactly
the case with English and Nigerian
indigenous languages. People want to be
associated with English language; even
illiterates want to be able to speak a word or
two in English language when the opportunity
for it arises. Parents are reluctant to transfer
the ancestral language to their children, which
lead to the gradual loss of the language.
Many people code-mix to show a level of
knowledge of the English language
Table 3: Code-mixing and linguistic prestige
Variable
Frequency
Percentage
Strongly
Agree
27
27%
Agree
50
50%
Strongly
Disagree
19
19%
Disagree
4
4%
None
0
0
Table 3 shows that 27% of the respondents
strongly agree that code-mixing confers
linguistic prestige on people, 50% agree, 19%
strongly disagree while 4% disagree. This
affirms that many people code-mix to show
that they have a level of understanding of the
English language, even when it is unnecessary
to do so. People love to how that they
understand or know English and so they use it
every now and then while speaking even in
Yoruba. It becomes alarming that even
illiterates and semi-literates will do the same
at any given opportunity to show knowledge
and feel recognised. This is due to the prestige
given English language in Nigeria today. The
truth is that code-mixing shows more of
incompetence than competence. Inability to
get lexical items in a language to express
oneself will make someone code-mix, so
rather than show knowledge, sometimes it
may be a pointer to incompetence on the part
of the speaker.
OWOLOLA OLUWASEUN/ JURNAL ARBITRER - VOL. 5. NO. 1 (2018)
27
Yoruba-English Code-mixing causes under-
development of Yoruba language especially
its ability to provide words for new concepts
or foreign ideas.
Table 4: Yoruba-English Code-mixing and the
effect on the Yoruba language
Variable
Frequency
Percentage
Strongly Agree
37
37%
Agree
50
50%
Strongly Disagree
12
12%
Disagree
1
1%
None
0
0
Table 4 shows that 37% of respondents
strongly agree that code-mixing can cause the
underdevelopment of Yoruba language, 50%
agree, 12% strongly disagree while just 1%
disagrees. Languages can live as much as
they can die, they reproduce; this is why there
are new words for new concepts around the
world, languages have the ability to birth new
names for new or foreign ideas. Languages
develop and should not be static, if it is static
it is only for a while; in less than no time,
regression sets in. code-mixing will not allow
for development of local languages;
especially their ability to give names to new
words, concepts or ideas (especially if they
are foreign). It becomes very convenient to
code-mix than to coin new words for such
concepts. Even if there are new words, it will
be easier for people to code-mix rather than
look for those words.
Yoruba-English Code-mixing may lead to
incompetence in both languages involved
Table 5: Yoruba-English Code-mixing and the
effect of speaker’s competence in both languages
Variable
Frequency
Percentage
Strongly Agree
47
47%
Agree
40
40%
Strongly Disagree
5
5%
Disagree
6
6%
None
2
2%
Table 5 shows that 47% of the respondents
strongly agree that Code-mixing may result to
incompetence in both languages involved
especially if the speaker does not have a
proper mastery of both languages. 40% agree,
5% strongly disagree, 6% disagree while 2%
are indifferent. When speakers know only
bits of this language and bits of that and just
augment them to cover up for deficiency,
he/she may not be able to master either
languages properly.
An average educated Yoruba speaker prefers
speaking English to speaking Yoruba.
Table 6: The linguistic preference of educated
Yoruba speakers of English
Variable
Frequency
percentage
Strongly Agree
20
20%
Agree
46
46%
Strongly Disagree
21
21%
Disagree
12
12%
None
1
1%
Table 6 shows 20% of the respondents
strongly agree that educated Yoruba people
prefer to speak English than speak their
indigenous language, 46% agree, 21 %
strongly disagree, 12% disagree and 1% is
indifferent. This is exactly the case with
English and Nigerian indigenous languages
especially the Yoruba language. People want
to be associated with the English language;
even illiterates want to be able to speak a word
or two in the English language when the
opportunity for it arises. Parents are reluctant
to transfer the ancestral language to their
children, which lead to the gradual loss of the
language. Educated Nigerians prefer to use
English language for communication, it
shows class and status; even illiterates or
semi-literates who know only a couple of
words want to use them at any given
opportunity.
People can control code-mixing.
Table 7: Speakers’ control over code-mixing
Variable
Frequency
Percentage
Strongly Agree
50
50%
Agree
34
34%
Strongly Disagree
11
11%
Disagree
4
4%
None
1
1%
OWOLOLA OLUWASEUN/ JURNAL ARBITRER - VOL. 5. NO. 1 (2018)
28
Table 7 shows that 50% of the people who
responded strongly agree that people can
actually control the urge to code-mix, 34%
agree, 11% strongly disagree, 4% disagree
and 1% didn’t respond. The implication of
this is that it may be difficult but code-mixing
can be controlled and minimized so that it is
only used when there is a genuine use for it
such as to aid communication, for clarity of
speech, to quote another person verbatim and
so on. Consciously, speakers can minimize or
control the rate of code-mixing. It should be
noted that code-mixing is not an aberration to
a sociolinguistic setting, but uncontrolled; it
can damage a whole lot.
Code-mixing aids communication
Table 8: Code-mixing and effect on
communication
Variable
Frequency
Percentage
Strongly Agree
30
30%
Agree
40
40%
Strongly Disagree
21
21%
Disagree
9
9%
None
0
0
Table 8 shows that 30% strongly agree that
code-mixing can aid communication, 40%
agree, 21% strongly disagree and 9%
disagree. In other words, at particular times,
code-mixing makes communicating easier,
especially when the interlocutors use different
indigenous languages and one person doesn’t
understand English well, code-mixing makes
things easy. It is used for emphasis and also to
exclude some other people from
communication.
If Yoruba-English code-mixing is not
controlled it can affect the Yoruba language
Table 9: The need to control Yoruba-English code-
mixing
Variable
Frequency
Percentage
Strongly Agree
41
41%
Agree
50
50%
Strongly Disagree
7
7%
Disagree
2
2%
None
0
0
Table 9 shows that 41% of respondents
strongly agree that there is a need to control
Yoruba-English code-mixing for the good of
Yoruba language. 50% agree, 7% strongly
disagree and 2% disagree. This means that if
code-mixing is not controlled, and English
remains a language of prestige and people feel
safe using the English language because of its
status, it will negatively affect the use and
status of the Yoruba language. Words will
gradually be lost and then gradual death may
set in.
The reasons given by respondents on why
people code-mix
a. Incompetence in one’s native language
and more exposure to English leads to
code-mixing. They cannot find
appropriate words for an expression, they
code-mix. This way there is clarity of
expression
b. People code-mix to show others that they
are educated, and they know how to speak
the English language
c. It is fashionable to code-mix, it has
become a custom
d. People code-mix so that people who do
not understand their indigenous language
can have an idea of what is been said
e. Some people code-mix to show they are
educated and refined
f. It has become a way of showing ‘levels’
or class among ‘big boys’ and ‘big girls’.
g. Social and technological developments
make people code-mix because there will
be new terms in the foreign language that
the local languages may not be able to
provide words for.
IV. CONCLUSION
The effects of code-mixing on Yoruba
language can be both negative and positive.
Research has shown that uncontrolled code-
mixing is one slow killer of any language. It
is very obvious that for reasons well known,
Nigerians cannot do without code-mixing,
especially when they are exposed to the two
languages and can speak both fairly well. It is
not only the death of the speakers of a
language that or their being swarm by a larger
OWOLOLA OLUWASEUN/ JURNAL ARBITRER - VOL. 5. NO. 1 (2018)
29
or stronger language that can lead to language
death, preference of one language over the
other(s) can lead to the death of a language.
Death and decay of a language starts
gradually, when speakers of the language
starts replacing words in it with words from
other languages, when words in Yoruba are
replaced with their English counterparts, for
such words the speakers rarely remember they
exist again and that word is gone. Languages
should develop and should not be static, it
should be able to make available new words
for new items, but code-mixing will not allow
this because it is an available alternative. The
language will not grow; it comes to a point of
standstill, retrogression sets in and then the
process of decaying starts.
Code-mixing should be consciously
controlled and minimized, it is easier to
deliberately decide to speak one language
through a conversation; it helps, when
mistakes are made, people notice and then
correct, the process of learning continues. But
when incompetence is covered up by code-
mixing, the inadequacies are not notices and
it leads to incompetence. Conscious efforts
should be made to control this.
Language teachers should treat it as urgent,
explaining the advantages and disadvantages
of this phenomenon and helping students
through correctly and efficiently using code-
mixing to their advantage and not allowing it
affect their competence and performance.
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