World trends in the development of vehicles with alternative energy sources

Abstract

Decreasing oil and gas reserves and increasing sensitivity of consumers to environmental protection force automotive industry to research possibilities of alternative technologies. Herewith, application of fuel cells in automobiles can not only make significant contribution to environmental protection, but also provide cardinal improvements of vehicle quality in general. This work discusses main trends of development of vehicles with alternative energy sources. World experience in development of electric and hybrid vehicles as well as hydrogen vehicles is analyzed. The main advantages and disadvantages of energy efficient and environmentally safe transport are reviewed. Main trends and aspects of development of promising infrastructure are classified and considered. World experience of development of various systems of accumulation and storage of electric energy is analyzed. Forecasts of development of vehicles using alternative energy sources are overviewed.

Full text

VOL. 13, NO. 7, APRIL 2018 ISSN 1819-6608
ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences
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WORLD TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF VEHICLES WITH
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
Nguyen Khac Tuan1, Kirill Evgenievich Karpukhin2, Aleksey Stanislavovich Terenchenko2 and Aleksey
Fedorovich Kolbasov2
1Thai Nguyen University of Technology (TNUT), Street, Tich Luong Ward, Thai Nguyen City, Vietnam
2Central Scientific Research Automobile and Automotive Institute ("NAMI"), Ul Avtomotornaya, Moscow, Russia
E-Mail: n.tuan@bk.ru
ABSTRACT
Decreasing oil and gas reserves and increasing sensitivity of consumers to environmental protection force
automotive industry to research possibilities of alternative technologies. Herewith, application of fuel cells in automobiles
can not only make significant contribution to environmental protection, but also provide cardinal improvements of vehicle
quality in general. This work discusses main trends of development of vehicles with alternative energy sources. World
experience in development of electric and hybrid vehicles as well as hydrogen vehicles is analyzed. The main advantages
and disadvantages of energy efficient and environmentally safe transport are reviewed. Main trends and aspects of
development of promising infrastructure are classified and considered. World experience of development of various
systems of accumulation and storage of electric energy is analyzed. Forecasts of development of vehicles using alternative
energy sources are overviewed.
Keywords: vehicle, electric vehicle, hybrid vehicle, hydrogen vehicle, energy efficiency, hydrogen, fuel cells, charging stations,
environmental regulations.
INTRODUCTION
Progress does not stand still, and once again
environmentally safe and cost-efficient vehicles attract
attention of researchers and developers [1]. However,
analysis of already commercially implemented solutions in
the field of reduction of harmful emissions and decrease in
operation costs reveals that up till now there is no single
solution and each company pursuits its own strategy.
Tesla Company, having started production of
electric cars in 2007, promotes the concept of high-
capacity cell and proposes Tesla charging stations for
rapid charging with currents up to 70A, which enables cell
charging more than by 50% in 30 minutes. Renault
Company decided to relieve the car owners of
responsibility for service fee. Thus, it became possible to
develop strategy of rapid battery replacement at
specialized automatic stations, where this procedure is
performed in less than 5 minutes.
Marketing experts of BMW AG have proposed
electric car with the option known as Range Extender [2],
which is an on-board petrol generator producing energy
for battery charging and without direct link with the
wheels. However, according to the classification and in
compliance with UN regulations, when a vehicle is
equipped with two or more energy sources, it should be
considered as hybrid or vehicle with integrated energy
assembly (distributed hybrid) [3].
Toyota Corporation started development of
hybrids based on parallel system of integrated energy
assembly on the basis of petrol internal combustion engine
(ICE) and electric engine: Toyota Prius, RAV4 EV.
Peculiar features of these vehicles are ICE operating by
the Atkinson cycle and system of electricity accumulation
up to 4.5 kWh comprised of NiMH cells.
Which strategy of reduction of harmful emissions
is the most promising?
RESEARCH METHODS
The study used research methods of system
analysis, including methods of decomposition and
optimization of technical solutions. Each of the selected
parts is analyzed separately within a whole. Empirical
method is applied, which is comprised of data acquisition,
scientific analysis, generation of hypothesis and
development of theory.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
It is known that an American researching
company published data obtained by analysis of fuel
consumption by existing hybrid vehicle with electric
engine and compared them to gasoline analogs (Figure-1)
[4]. Therefore, increase in price for components of electric
transmission and accumulation system of electric energy
can be reimbursed for numerous vehicles not earlier than
after 160-180 thousand kilometers. However, BMW
Active Hybrid 3 (F30) will not be able to return the
investments into electric components even after 2 million
kilometers.

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Figure-1. Miles required for hybrid to achieve repayment.
Another challenging and promising source of
electric energy for vehicles is hydrogen. More than two
hundred years ago a chemical generator was invented,
where hydrogen was combined with oxygen and produced
electric energy with water as byproduct. The principle of
this generator is that membranes allow flow of protons and
entrap electrons. Two electrodes on both sides of
membrane, positive (anode) and negative (cathode), form
electric circuit. Hydrogen is supplied from one side of
membrane, and oxygen - from another side. Catalyst
applied onto membrane activates splitting of hydrogen into
proton and electron. Proton passes via membrane and
produces water after combination with oxygen, and
electron passes into electric circuit (Figure-2).
Figure-2. Schematic view of hydrogen fuel cell.

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Therefore, the first widely applied electric
generators were hydrogen/oxygen fuel cells initially used
on Russian and US space satellites.
Average voltage of hydrogen fuel cell is from 0.6
to 1.0 V, thus, a bench of fuel cells can provide any
voltage except for the cases with restricted configuration
space.
Development of innovative technologies or their
commercial implementation is often related with the
events of global scale, such as 2020 Summer Olympics,
and in this regard the Government of Japan stimulated
motor manufactures to create infrastructure for hydrogen
vehicles and to start serial manufacture of revolutionary
vehicle with a battery of hydrogen fuel cells and electric
transmission. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government,
responsible for erection of Olympic and Paralympic
villages, allocated $367 million for development of
hydrogen vehicles and charging stations in vicinity of
sports facilities. "After closing of the Olympics, the village
will become environmentally safe residential district with
hydrogen system of new generation," mentioned Hikariko
Ono, a spokesperson for the Tokyo Organizing
Committee. In the Tokyo Olympic village hydrogen fuel
cells will create integrated infrastructure: from buses and
vehicles to building energy supply. Hydrogen will be
supplied to the district via modern pipeline.
As for now it is known that Toyota Corporation
started manufacture of serial vehicle with integrated
energy assembly based on hydrogen fuel cells and electric
engine: Toyota Mirai (Figure-3) [5].
Figure-3. Toyota Mirai layout flowchart.
A vehicle should be charged only with hydrogen
which, flowing via ion exchange membrane combines
with ambient oxygen and produces electric energy and
water vapor. Therefore, such vehicle does not generate
harmful atmospheric emissions; water vapor is emitted
form exhaust pipe instead of carbon monoxide. After 4-km
test run the generated water amount was 240 milliliters.
The hydrogen tank capacity is sufficient for about 650 km,
its complete charging takes about three minutes.
Therefore, after traveling on a single charge the
vehicle generates about 40 liters of water which should be
analyzed separately including the disposal aspect, when
fleet of such vehicles increases.
Toyota Mirai equipment is as follows: hybrid
assembly on the basis of hydrogen fuel cells (FC stack,
model FCA110) generates electric energy with efficiency
of hydrogen conversion into electricity up to 83%.
Maximum power of the assembly reaches 114 kW. The
generated electric energy is then transmitted into
accumulating and storing system in the form of nickel-
metal hydride battery with maximum output power of 21
kW. Moreover, the accumulating and storing system
obtains additional charge from regenerative braking.
Maximum power of the electric engine is 113 kW or 154
hp. Control unit is comprised of invertor, which converts
direct current into alternating current. Power unit controls
output power of fuel cells according to adaptive algorithm
depending on travelling manner. Two hydrogen tanks of
60 and 62.4 liters are installed in the bottom part of
vehicle body. The gas in stored in balloons under pressure
of 7 MPa [6]. Maximum distance covered on the basis of a
single charge in JC08 mode (Japan method of
measurement of fuel consumption) is 650 km. Herewith,
the time of complete charging of two balloons is three
minutes, that is, this vehicle is similar to conventional
vehicles in terms of recovery of energy source. Maximum
velocity of the vehicle is 175 km/h.
The Mirai market price in Japan is ¥7.23 million
($60.7 thousand), in addition, the Government subsides
each domestic buyer in amount of $17 thousand.
Moreover, the customer obtains 24 hour support on the
roads and eight year warranty for fuel cells and electric
drive.
While analyzing the main trends in the field of
reduction of vehicle toxicity, it is possible to highlight
three main roads of current development:

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- electric cars;
- vehicles with integrated energy assembly (IEA)
(ICE + electric engine);
- hydrogen vehicles.
Let us consider an electric car in its pure form
without additional electricity generators. At present in
order to provide 150 km run an electric car should be
equipped with accumulating system comprised of a battery
with Li-ion cells, converters, electronic auxiliaries and
power drives, total weight of car is at least 350 kg. After
consumption of accumulated electric energy, it is required
to perform charging, which takes from 2 to 8 hours
(depends of manufacturer of charging station) and
capacities of electricity networks.
As mentioned previously, electric cars and
vehicles with IEA were developed about one hundred and
fifty years ago; however, accumulating systems for
electric car are still expensive and cumbersome, when
compared with conventional ICE systems.
The issue of environmental safety of autonomous
electric vehicles cannot be considered without aspects of
disposal of elements of accumulating system. The main
components of existing accumulators are lithium, lead and
electrolyte. Presently the issue of disposal or replacing of
accumulating and storing cells with new ones is not still
solved in some countries manufacturing electric cars.
For instance, while considering the challenges of
development of electric cars and vehicles with IEA
numerous bottlenecks were revealed, including car
disposal in general [7]. As for now, many cars with
integrated energy assembly consisting of ICE and electric
engine are traded in Russia [8]: Toyota and Lexus
(NiMH), BMW, Mercedes-Benz, VW (Li-ion), as well as
two registered models of electric cars (Renault,
Mitsubishi), but none of these companies announced a
schedule of cell disposal in Russia, although Toyota has
been in the Russian market already for more than seven
years, and accumulating systems can require replacement.
In winter the accumulating and storing batteries’ energy is
consumed for heating of passenger compartment, capacity
decreases and driving distance can drop by 2 times, since
an average electric car should be equipped with a 2-3kW
heater [9]. Taking into consideration lighting and other
necessary systems, the driving distance can decrease even
by three times. In general, operation at low temperatures is
possible, though, charging at the temperatures below 0°C
is not recommended by manufacturers, that is, thermal
regulation of battery is especially required [10].
Nevertheless, electric car, as exemplified by
Rimac Concept_One, proved that among supercars it has
no rivals in terms of dynamic properties compared with
vehicles on the basis of conventional energy sources.
Driving distance and dynamics of Tesla serial electric cars
are at least the same as those in its category manufactured
by BMW, Mercedes and others.
Another obstacle for wide scale implementation
is the rate of energy recovery for electric car; this is
another important issue, which prevents competition of
electric car with ICE vehicle. However, contrary to filling
stations, location of charging stations has no strict
limitations and can be located in more convenient places,
for instance, at parking lots near supermarkets,
underground parking of apartment blocks, at municipal
parking lots and so on. At present systems of rapid
replacement of drive battery are not common. Tesla
Company installs high capacity charging stations:
Supercharger, which charges drive battery up to 80% in 30
min, provided that vehicle is equipped with special unit. It
is known that the use of such charging devices is not free
of charge from January 1, 2017 for new owners of Tesla
vehicles. The reserve of 400 kW will be allocated for new
customers at Supercharger stations, which in terms of
kilometers does not exceed 2500 [11].
The use of high capacity charging stations not
only affects resources of drive battery, but also creates
difficulties in supply of such power to charging stations as
well as its distribution.
With increased fleet of electric cars and
simultaneous charging there will be drops and overloads in
electric networks. In order to solve this problem, smart
charging system (Vehicle-2-Grid) is being developed; it
should equalize consumption and decrease the risk o f
emergencies [12].
Power generated by electric plants of the world is
significantly lower than power of all modern vehicles. The
generated electric power is insufficient for charging of
many electric cars.
Taking into consideration low driving distance of
most electric cars at a single charge, we obtain high load
on electric networks in general, which require global
retrofitting.
The following car categories with integrated
energy assemblies should avoid some disadvantages of the
electric car, mentioned above, though, they have their own
disadvantages.
Firstly, we should exactly define which vehicle
can be considered as a hybrid or a vehicle with integrated
energy assembly. Item 2.21 of the Russian Standard
GOST Р 41.83-2004 (UN/ECE Regulation No. 83)
defines it as follows:
"Hybrid vehicle (HV)" means a vehicle with at
least two different energy converters and two different
energy storage systems (on vehicle) for the purpose of
vehicle propulsion.
According to these definitions, HV is most often
met in the form of internal combustion engine (ICE) and
electric engine, which prevents operation of ICE in
inefficient modes and provides regeneration of kinetic
energy aiming at charging of drive battery. Therefore, fuel
efficiency of power unit increases.
Such vehicles are characterized by certain
advantages and disadvantages in comparison with electric
cars.
The following can be considered as
disadvantages:
 More complicated design in comparison both to
electric cars and to conventional cars with ICE.

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 Higher amount of mechanical elements in comparison
with electric car. Operation costs are the same as
those of conventional car with ICE, which
respectively results both in lower reliability and
maintenance costs related with repair expenses.
 Higher environmental pollution in comparison with
electric car.
 Necessity in conventional fuel.
 Higher consumptions per 1 km in mixed or suburban
cycle.
 Onboard electronics controlling power unit is based
on more complicated algorithms, since it should
optimally synchronize power unit operation.
 Existence of multistage transmission, which also
decreases total efficiency of integrated energy
assembly.
 Upon operation at lower temperatures, due to partial
load modes of accumulators the driving distance with
electric drive can decrease significantly as a
consequence of low heating of accumulators.
One type of electric HV should be mentioned
individually - PHEV or Plug-In-Hybrid. This HV variant
is equipped with relatively more powerful electric engines,
the accumulator capacity is higher in comparison with
conventional hybrid vehicle with electric engine, that is,
driving distance using electric drive was increased. The
main advantage of this variant is that the PHEV can be
charged from electric mains. Therefore, for moderate
distances (as a rule, up to 20 km) operation of ICE is not
required.
One more advanced solution in the field of
improvement of energy efficiency and power loading of
electric cars and HV is installation of photoelectric
converters on the car roof [13]. The first serial vehicle
manufactured by Toyota Motor Corporation is Toyota
Prius (Figure 4).
Figure-4. Toyota Prius with photoelectric converters.
According to the expert opinion of Toyota Motor
Corporation, this option will provide 10% increase in
driving distance on a single charge and make it possible to
charge HV cell during parking.
Vehicles using hydrogen as fuel
Numerous works are devoted to the use of
hydrogen as fuel. The main concepts of these works were
separated into two branches:
a) The use of hydrogen as fuel for ICE.
b) The use of stack of hydrogen fuel cells with electric
chemical generator producing hydrogen or directly
with tanks for hydrogen storage.
The first approach has been used by engineers of
BMW AG for a long time.
BMW Hydrogen 7 is a bi-fuel (petrol/liquid
hydrogen) vehicle developed in the scope of Clean Energy
project, which planned to manufacture and sell 100
vehicles. It was completed to May, 2007. In March, 2008
total driving distance of these vehicles all over the world
was more than 2 million kilometers. However, operation
of such vehicles requires for special charging station and
increased safety requirements, since hydrogen is stored in
liquid form at the temperature not higher than -253°C,
hence, the relevant activities were terminated.
Another variant is related with fuel cells.
Hydrogen fuel cells generate electric energy, which is
accumulated in accumulating and storing system and then
transferred to vehicle power drive, thus replacing internal
combustion engine.
The main advantages of fuel cell installed into
vehicles are high efficiency in comparison with ICE. The
efficiency of modern internal combustion engine reaches
35%, and the efficiency of hydrogen fuel cell is 45% and
even higher.
According to tests performed by Ballard Power
Systems, the efficiency of hydrogen fuel cells installed on
a bus reached 57%.
As a rule, vehicles and buses are equipped with
proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM); their main
advantages are as follows: portability, low weight, low
temperature of reaction. However, the hydrogen fuel cells,
as any other power source, are characterized both by their
pros and cons. It is believed that the main advantage of
hydrogen vehicle is its environmental safety. It is
generally accepted that hydrogen combustion generates
water instead of carbon monoxide, to be more exact: water
vapor. However, air containing nitrogen is used instead of
pure oxygen. As a consequence, nitrogen oxides are
generated in combustion chamber. And their impact on
environment can be even worse than that of common
exhaust gases.
Moreover, high quality hydrogen is sufficiently
expensive product, and it should be delivered to charging
station, it is necessary to store it and to perform charging
of vehicles.
There are several methods of hydrogen
production:
a) On the basis of natural gas. It is based on conversion
of methane with water vapor. Final product is a
mixture, which is known as synthesis gas. The process
conditions: nickel catalyst and 1000°C. However, gas

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is a good energy carrier itself, it is unreasonable to
additionally process for subsequent combustion, it is
possible to combust methane without extra charges;
b) On the basis of water. Transmission of water vapor
above glowing coke (Т = 1000°C). In order to obtain
one cubic meter of hydrogen four-fold electric energy
is consumed than generated upon combustion of this
amount;
c) Decomposition of oil products, thus again considering
non-renewable natural resources;
d) Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of salts (NaCl).
It should be taken into account that hydrogen
production is related with harmful emissions, and it is
unknown at starting stage whether it is efficient to use
hydrogen for vehicles in high amounts. Instead of
emission of exhaust gases, the wastes will be accumulated
accompanying gas generation.
In addition, the issue of storage is very
problematic. Presently it is not solved, hydrogen can
penetrate through any material, it is required to store it in
liquid form which involves additional sufficiently high
expenses, which should be added to those incurred at
production stage. Gas leakage results in generation of
explosive mixture with air.
In general there is a hazard of hydrogen
application as fuel, and it is related with two factors: high
hydrogen volatility due to which it penetrates through very
small gaps, and ease of ignition. Hydrogen is more
dangerous than petrol, since it burns in mixture with air in
wider range of concentrations. Petrol does not ignite at λ
lower than 0.5 and higher than 2, and hydrogen at such
ratios is flammable and explosive. Hydrogen, stored in
tanks under high pressure, in the case of tank breakage
evaporates very quickly, which is a positive point. In
addition, in order to use hydrogen, it necessary to account
for its volatility, which makes the storage more
complicated.
In order to use it on vehicles, hydrogen storage
systems are developed, which should provide safety and
integrity of the fuel: tanks with multilayer walls made of
special materials. However, implementation of such
expensive system on vehicles increases the operational
costs.
While considering hydrogen vehicles, the project
of nanoFlowcell AG should be mentioned (Figure-5),
where flow cells are used, and it is a new trend in
development of environmentally safe transport [14].
Figure-5. Quant e-sport limousine with nano flowcell drive.
Technical capabilities of this vehicle are
excessive: torque - 2900 Nm, accelerating to 100 km/h,
according to calculations, is 2.8 s, maximum speed can
reach 380 km/h. Driving distance of this electric car is in
the range of 400-600 km on a single charge. Such driving
distance is provided by flow cells, their operation principle
is illustrated in Figure-6.

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Figure-6. Operation principle of flow cells.
Technology of flow cells originates in spacecraft
industry: for the first time such energy source was
patented by NASA in 1976 and was intended for power
supply of spacecraft. It combines engineering principles
and advantages of conventional accumulators, fuel cells
and even internal combustion engines.
Flow cell is recharged by replenishment of
liquids required for the reaction. In addition, it was found
that such batteries have no memory effect; they retain their
capacity over the years, since it depends on capacity of
tank with reagents and the power depends on sizes of
reactor.
Obvious approach to power increase of fuel cell
is increase in electrode surface area. However, the novelty
of this approach is essentially in the electroactive fluids,
into which more active substances were introduced using
nanotechnologies. In addition to electroactive substances,
the fluid contains crystalline nanoparticles, which can
form spatial structures in direct vicinity of electrodes. As a
consequence, the charge is generated not only on electrode
surface, but in the adjacent space in the fluid. The space
where reaction occurs is by far higher than usual. The
composition is not disclosed.
CONCLUSIONS
Modern vehicles are characterized by high cost
efficiency, environmental safety and, as a consequence,
energy efficiency. However, full extent of these properties
can be manifested only upon uniform motion, even in
relatively wide range of speeds and loads. Herewith,
conditions for longtime motion at constant speed exist
only on suburban roads or highways. Upon urban traffic,
characterized by constant alteration of phases of
acceleration, short uniform motion, deceleration and
halting with idle running engine (traffic light, pedestrian
crossing, or in jamming), upon motion at moderate speeds
fuel consuming and environmental properties of standard
vehicles impair significantly. Several reasons exist:
insufficient use of potential engine power upon motion
with limited speed under city conditions, when engine
operates with increased specific consumption; constant
efforts aimed at accumulation of kinetic energy by vehicle,
which subsequently in short time is converted into heat
and lost upon working deceleration of vehicle; energy
waste upon idle running engine.
Solution of these problems is in development of
electric vehicles; their wide-scale manufacture is under
way in leading countries of the World as evidenced by this
work. Development of electric vehicles will allow to avoid
environmental disaster, which approaches humanity as a
consequence of increase in toxic emissions of various
vehicles consuming engine oils, and to solve some
problems related with fuel saving.
Currently all car manufacturers are involved in
development of energy efficient and environmentally safe
vehicles. There is neither single solution nor trend in the
developments, which is favorable for different approaches,
generating numerous both positive and negative opinions.
The greatest problem for implementation of vehicles using
alternative fuel sources is the absence of infrastructure or
its insufficient development. This issue relates both to pure
electric car and vehicle with integrated energy assembly
including a stack of hydrogen fuel cells and driving
electric transmission. Radically new fuel types will also
require for dedicated infrastructure and sufficient time for
its development, meanwhile, more challenging energy
sources for vehicles could be developed.
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