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Evaporation trends on intervening period for different wheat establishments under soils of semi-arid tropics

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Rajan Bhatt at KVK Amritsar-Punjab Agricultural University Punjab India
Rajan Bhatt
  • KVK Amritsar-Punjab Agricultural University Punjab India
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Abstract and Figures

Tillage methods certainly affect the soil evaporation rate by altering soil surface area. The present investigation was conducted at a sandy-loam soil of University Seed Farm, Usman, Tarn Taran to delineate the soil evaporation trends during the intervening period as affected by the residual effect of conventional (CTW) and zero till wheat plots without straw load (ZTW-SL) during wheat in 2016-2017 from 3 days after harvesting (DAH) to 7 days before puddling (DBP). CTW plots conserved more moisture than ZTW-SL plots in upper 30 cm as higher soil evaporation of 10.6% was observed in later plots. Further, soil moisture in CTW plots was 22.5%, 35.8% and 33% higher in 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45 cm, respectively compared with the ZTW-SL plots at 7 DBP. Thus, CTW plots retained prolonged and higher sum of moisture during the intervening period than ZTW-SL plots which might be useful for cultivating short intervening/fodder/summer moong crop etc. in water-stressed regions of Punjab.
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Evaporation trends on intervening period for different
wheat establishments under soils of semi-arid tropics
RAJAN BHATT1* and PARAMJIT SINGH2
Received: 30 December 2017; Accepted: 05 March 2018
ABSTRACT
Tillage methods certainly affect the soil evaporation rate by altering soil surface area. The present
investigation was conducted at a sandy-loam soil of University Seed Farm, Usman, Tarn Taran to delineate
the soil evaporation trends during the intervening period as affected by the residual effect of conventional
(CTW) and zero till wheat plots without straw load (ZTW-SL) during wheat in 2016-2017 from 3 days
after harvesting (DAH) to 7 days before puddling (DBP). CTW plots conserved more moisture than
ZTW-SL plots in upper 30 cm as higher soil evaporation of 10.6% was observed in later plots. Further,
soil moisture in CTW plots was 22.5%, 35.8% and 33% higher in 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45 cm, respectively
compared with the ZTW-SL plots at 7 DBP. Thus, CTW plots retained prolonged and higher sum of
moisture during the intervening period than ZTW-SL plots which might be useful for cultivating short
intervening/fodder/summer moong crop etc. in water-stressed regions of Punjab.
Key words: Intervening period, Soil evaporation, Zero tillage, Soil moisture, Lysimeters
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 17(1): 41-45, January-March 2018
ISSN: 022-457X (Print); 2455-7145 (Online); DOI: 10.5958/2455-7145.2018.00006.1
1Scientist (Soil Science), 2Director, Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004,
Punjab
*Corresponding author Email id: rajansoils@pau.edu, rajansoils@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Rice-wheat cropping sequence has been greeted
with many sustainability issues (Bhatt et al., 2013,
2016, 2017) which stood in front of the climate-smart
agriculture. Among different resource conservation
technologies (RCTs), zero tillage (with straw load)
is an important resource conservation technology
being propagated in the rice-wheat regions of South
Asia (Beff et al., 2013; Bhatt et al., 2016) for uplifting
declining land and water productivity, and
assumed to be a way to practise climate-smart
agriculture. In rainfed semi-arid regions proper
tillage helps in conserving soil moisture for
succeeding rabi season crops (Arora and Bhatt,
2006, Arora and Gupta, 2014). The positive benefits
of zero tillage (ZT) systems on crop production
(Paccard et al., 2015), water use efficiency (Bhatt,
2015; Guan et al., 2015; Bhatt and Arora, 2015),
carbon sequestration (Zhangliu et al., 2015) and
economic performance (Tripathi et al., 2013) are well
recognized. However, contradictory results
pertaining to significantly higher weed biomass and
lower land productivity were reported by Bhatt and
Kukal (2016) because of better availability of
sunlight and moisture to the surface placed weed
seeds in ZTW plots while in CTW plots, weed seeds
placed deeper depending upon the depth of tillage
implement where sunlight and moisture might not
be available.
Conventional tillage (CT) break macro-
aggregates into micro-aggregates which adversely
affect the soil properties (Das et al., 2014; Kuotsu et
al., 2014; Roper et al., 2013), oxidises soil organic
carbon as CO2 into the atmosphere and contribute
to the global warming while zero tillage with crop
residue (ZT+R) improves soil physical environment
(Paccard et al., 2015; Bhaduri and Purakayastha,
2014), build micro-fauna, improves the soil organic
carbon, infiltration rate, water retention, hydraulic
conductivity, lower soil compaction (Zheng et al.,
2015; Palese et al., 2014; Bhaduri and Purakayastha,
2014). But, the performance of zero tillage if straw
residues are removed is not clear (ZTW-SLR).
Studies on soil moisture dynamics during
intervening period (Bhatt, 2017) (which was of
much importance after wheat due to longer
intervening period) as influenced by divergent
tillage particularly in rice-wheat cropping sequence
are not adequate in literature even at global level,
as scientists are generally busy in analysing the
effect of applied treatments during the main season.
Keeping this breach in mind, current investigation
was planned after wheat 2016-2017 from 3 DAH to
7 DBP to delineate the residual effects of CTW and
ZTW-SL during the intervening period on profile
moisture, soil evaporation and finally on soil
moisture dynamics.
42 BHATT and SINGH [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 17(1)
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Current investigation was carried out in
triplicate at University Seed Farm, Usman, Tarn
Taran between 3 days of harvesting (DAH) of wheat
2016-2017 and 7 days before puddling (DBP) viz.
during the intervening period. The soil of the
studied site is sandy loam, calcareous, mixed,
hyperthermic and Typic Ustochrept. Soils of the
experimental site has normal pH (7.89), EC (0.38
dS/m), medium in organic carbon (0.65%), however,
available N, P and K were 279.8, 20.40 and 242 kg
ha-1, respectively. The treatments included zero
tillage without crop residues (ZTW-SL) and
conventional tillage (CTW) in wheat 2016-17. Wheat
harvested on 22nd April 2016 and last puddling did
on 12th June 2016. The studied period involved
duration of 41 days starting from 25th April 2016 to
5th June 2016. Historical records revealed that
earlier wheat established with conventional tillage
during 2015-16 followed by puddled transplanted
rice (PTR) followed by current experiment viz.
ZTW-SL and CTW during wheat 2016-2017 and
after wheat current investigation carried out. Our
objective was to delineate the effect of much load
on ZT plots even during intervening period by
removing the mulch load from zero till plots viz.
ZTW-SL while in CTW plots there was no mulch
load from the beginning of the crop. Following
parameters were used to delineate the soil moisture
dynamics during the intervening period under the
residual effect of divergent tillage methods.
Soil evaporation (using Mini-lysimeters)
Mini-lysimeters were quite effective in
understanding fluctuating behaviour of
evaporation under different establishment methods
(Carlos et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2009; Bhatt and
Kukal, 2017). Mini-lysimeters framed by using PVC
pipes of 8-inch length and with 2.5 inches diameter.
Mini-lysimeters were filled from both CTW and
ZTW-SL plots, an end cap fixed on one side and
then finally filled and capped mini-lysimeter was
placed inside the outer pipe of a bigger diameter
which was already fixed in the sampled plot (Fig.
1). Daily mini- lysimeters were weighed on the field
using the digital balance to estimate evaporation.
Evaporation is the change of phase of water from
the liquid to the gaseous and is effected by
establishment methods. Further, if this loss occurs
from the open water body or soil surface or from
the plant surface then we referred as “Evaporation
(E)” while if this phase change occurs through the
stomata of the leaf then terminology used for this
process is “Transpiration (T)”. In both cases, water
lost to the atmosphere. Transpiration is the
necessary evil, thereof, total ET water must be
partitioned from the E to T by using different
technologies (Bhatt, 2017). E measurement is the
challenging job while transpiration is estimated by
determining other variables of the equation. The
evaporation from the soil surface (Es) of growing
crop was measured using mini-lysimeter. The mini-
lysimeter consisted of two cylindrical PVC tubes.
The outer tube was 0.16 m in diameter and 0.20 m
long, whereas the inner tube was 0.102 m in
diameter and 0.20 m long. The inner tube was
covered by porous end cap at the bottom end,
whereas the outer was open at both the ends.
Cylindrical auger was used to make a hole of
diameter equivalent to that of the outer PVC tube
which was inserted in the hole of 0.20 m long. Mini-
lysimeters were used (Fig. 1a-d) in CTW and ZTW-
SLR to work out daily mm of water evaporated.
The purpose of the outer cap was to provide a
location where evaporation could be regularly
measured. The above-ground portion of any small
weeds that may have been growing in the mini-
lysimeters was cut at the soil surface and removed.
The mini-lysimeters were carefully removed
without disturbing the soil inside lysimeter, the
bottom was levelled off, the outsides of the
cylinders were cleaned and dried, and a clean
porous cap was fitted to the bottom. Each lysimeter
was weighed (Fig. 1d) and then placed in outer cap
in the experimental plot. During weighing care was
taken to ensure that no damage occurred to the soil
surface.
Fig. 1. Mini-lysimeters for measuring soil evaporation in the
field (a) Fitting of lysimeter, (b) Removal of filled
lysimeter using chain-pulley arrangement, (c) Filled
lysimeter, (d) Weighing of filled lysimeter on daily
basis to have day to day evaporation in differently
established plots (Bhatt, 2015)
EVAPORATION TRENDS ON INTERVENING PERIOD 43January-March 2018]
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Intervening period from 3 DAH to 7 DBP
Daily soil evaporation (mm)
Averaged ZTW CTW
Fig. 2. Intervening soil evaporation (mm) as influenced by residual effect of divergent tillage methods adopted during Rabi
2016-17 (ZTW: zero tillage in wheat; CTW: conventional tillage in wheat)
Profile moisture variation
Soil profile (at a depth interval of 0-15, 15-30,
30-60, 60-90 and 90-120 cm) moisture distribution
was measured thermo-gravimetrically using post
hole auger at 3 DAH and at 7 DBP under both ZTW-
SL and CTW plots. The moisture content at each
soil depth was expressed in relation to divergent
tillage treatment.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Variation in soil moisture evaporation
Mini-lysimeters were used to study the
cumulative soil evaporation and evaporation rates
in ZTW-SL and CTW plots after wheat harvest
(Bhatt, 2017). The ZTW-SL plots had higher
evaporation losses (9.4%) than the CTW plots (Fig.
2) during intervening periods and that was mainly
because of the continuity of the soil pores in the
ZTW-SL however in the CTW plots continuity of
soil pores broken up by tillage operations. Further,
cumulative soil evaporation during the whole
intervening period of 41 days was observed to be
44.13 mm in CTW as compared to the 48.26 mm in
the ZTW-SL plots (Fig 3). The absence of straw load
in ZTW plots resulting in direct hitting of hot solar
radiations onto the soil surface could result in
raising soil surface temperature which further
increases the vapour pressure gradient. Higher soil
temperature affects the absorption, translocation of
water and nutrients in soil and plants (Moraru and
Rusu, 2012, Bhatt and Khera, 2006). Higher the soil
temperature hastens the phase change from liquid
to gaseous phase and the greater vapour pressure
gradients which finally resulted in greater diffusion
of gaseous water vapours from the soil surface into
the atmosphere (Bhatt and Khera, 2006).
Variation in profile moisture content
In the surface layers of the soil, ZTW-SL plots
had lower soil moisture compared to the CTW plots,
but the trends reversed after 30 cm soil depth (Fig.
4). On an average, over the tillage treatment as a
whole, the soil moisture throughout the profile was
23.1% higher during 3 DAH compared to 7 DBP.
On an average of the soil profile up to 120 cm, CTW
ZTW-SL CTW
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
Intervening period from 3 DAH to 7 DBP
Cumulative soil evaporation, mm
Fig. 3. Cumulative soil evaporation occurred under different
tillage methods during intervening period (DAH:
days after harvesting; DBP: days before puddling)
44 BHATT and SINGH [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 17(1)
pots had 25.2% higher while ZT-SL plots had 20.6%
higher soil moisture during 3 DAH compared to 7
DBP. Soil moisture in CTW plots was 22.5% and
35.8% higher in 0-15 and 15-30 cm, respectively
compared to the ZTW-SL plots during 7 DBP (Fig.
4). ZTW-SL plots recorded with lower moisture
content during intervening periods from 3 DAH
compared to 7 DBP depicting importance of mulch
load as it hinders direct hitting of solar radiations
on to the bare soil, reduces maximum soil
temperature, vapour pressure gradient, wind speed
and its vapour lifting potential, and finally soil
evaporation (Bhatt and Khera, 2006, Bhatt and
Kukal, 2017). Along with these factors, well-
connected soil pores in ZTW-SL plots resulted in
higher evaporation (E) which clearly indicates that
lesser moisture was available for the transpiration
(T) as the quantity of water used in evapo-
transpiration (ET) is almost similar (Singh et al.,
2011) even under divergent tillage methods. Thus,
higher fraction of ET water partitioned toward
transpiration (T) in CTW plots which directly
improves the inflow of the nutrients in the plants
along with moisture during the intervening period
and finally results in higher land productivity after
minimising evaporation (E), However, a reverse of
this fact was found to be true for the ZTW-SL plots.
Surface soil moisture reported to be on the lower
side as compared to the sub-surface soil moisture
because of lower energy levels as earlier reported
by Bhatt and Khera (2006) and Bhatt (2015). Thus,
lower land productivity is expected in the ZTW-SL
plots as far as intervening crops viz. moong, fodder
crops etc. are concerned.
CONCLUSIONS
Mulching helps in reducing soil temperature,
vapour pressure gradient, wind speed and its
vapour lifting capacity and thus reduces the
evaporation losses from the zero till plots even
during intervening period. But on removing mulch
load from zero till plots viz. ZTW-SL, higher rates
of evaporation losses observed from these plots
which clearly delineates the importance of mulch
load in preserving the soil moisture. Further, higher
fraction of ET water partitioned to T component
which improves the intake of nutrients within the
plants, improves the land as well water productivity
and, finally improving the livelihoods. Without
mulch load, even resource conservation technology
like zero tillage (ZTW) proves to be inferior to
conventional tillage (CTW) in conserving the soil
moisture. This suggests that the overall benefit of
zero tillage depends entirely on mulch loads which
provide surface coverage and partition higher
fraction of ET water to T component. Consequently,
a need to carry out such studies during intervening
periods in texturally divergent soils under different
agro-climatic conditions to establish concrete
conclusion regarding the residual effect of different
tillage techniques on soil evaporation trends during
the intervening periods is there for harvesting
additional income from intervening crop to
improve livelihoods.
Fig. 4. Profile soil moisture (0-120 cm) delineation as affected by residual effect of divergent tillage mods adopted during
Rabi 2016-17
EVAPORATION TRENDS ON INTERVENING PERIOD 45January-March 2018]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The help received from Sh. Harpreet Singh and
Varun Shrivastava in the handling of mini-
lysimeters and profile soil samples during
investigation is fully acknowledged.
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  • Oct 2020
Sugarcane (Saccharum spp. complex) is a crop of industrial importance, grown in 110 countries of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world for its high concentration of sugar and recently for the production of ethanol as a source of bio-fuel (O’Hara et al. 2009; Bhatt, 2020). Besides a raw material for the sugar industry, sugarcane is also used in manufacturing of jiggery and khandsari, along with the commercially important by-products like baggase, molasses, filter-cake, wax etc. (Singh et al. 2011). Being a main source of sugar, sugarcane is meeting about 75% of the global sugar requirement (and almost 100%of the sugar demand in India). Fifty per cent of world sugarcane production occurs in Brazil and India. Sugar industry is the second largest agro processing industry in India which caters to 50 million work force directly or indirectly with significant contribution to the income, employment and tax revenue of the rural area (Priya et al. 2015). Sugarcane is cultivated in most of the states of India (tropical and sub-tropical regions of the country) with total area coverage of 5.03 million hectare. The top sugarcane producing states Uttar Pradesh (38.57 %), Maharashtra (17.76 %) and Karnataka (12.20 %) lead the nation in sugarcane production (Anonymous 2014). However, in Punjab it is cultivated in 94 thousand hectare area with an average cane yield of 81.25 tons per hectare while sugar recovery was 9.78% (Anonymous 2018). Sugarcane after rice and wheat provides third highest calories in human diet. Throughout world, because of increasing demand of sugar and biofuel, the area under sugarcane increased. It is cultivated at an area of 23.8 million ha and produces 1685 million tones cane with an average production of 71 t ha-1. The crop having yield of 100 t ha-1 removes 207kg N, 30kg P2O5 and 233kg K2O from the soil (Jagtap et al., 2006). Potash levels also influences water use efficiency (Quampah et al. 2011).. Although it is not a part of plant or plant product, yet it is very important for the life process of plant (Haji et al., 2011). The major role of potassium is energy transfer and carbohydrates metabolism. It is required for maintaining cell turgidity, photosynthesis, root development, tolerance to drought and resistance to certain pests and diseases (Saleem and Akhtar, 1996). It also increases the percentage of brix for plant and ratoon crops (De Boer, 1999). Due to water stressed conditions in the central Punjab, there is need to evolve, test and recommend different sustainable technologies, which helps to maintain higher productivities even in stressed regions (Bhatt 2020; Bhatt et al, 2016). Along with other nutrients, potassium (K) do plays a pivotal role in sugarcane production. It is an essential nutrient for plant growth and its role in sugarcane has been well documented, more particularly in K-deficient soils as it is important in photosynthesis, protein synthesis, starch formation, and translocation of proteins and sugars (Filho, 1985; Kwong, 2002, Wood and Schroeder, 2004) from leaves to the whole plant. Generally, it is assumed that sugarcane in Punjab not responded to potash due to abundance of K-containing minerals viz. illite (Sidhu, 1982), smectite (Sehgal et al, 1974, Grewal and Kanwar, 1973) but excessive withdrawl of Potash results potash deficiency (Bhatt and Sharma, 2011; Bhatt and Singh, 2017; Bhatt and Singh, 2018; Bhatt, 2020). Field crops depletes 581,560,000 kg K year-1 from Punjab soils while 9,929,000 kg K year-1 additions, which is equivalent to 1.7% of loss (Brar, 1997). Alone rice-wheat sequence removes 300 kg ha-1 yr-1 of potash from 0-15 cm soils (Yadwinder Sinh et al., 2004) and it is reported that rate of potash removal from Punjab soils increased from 136 kg ha-1 (1970-84) to 149 kg ha-1 (1984-2004) (Brar et al, 2006). Potassium enables sugarcane crops to take up a balanced suite of nutrients and is better able to withstand the drought conditions that periodically occur in sugarcane growing regions (Wood and Schroeder, 2004). Potassium regulates stomatal opening and closing, and thus maintains turgor pressure under water stressed conditions. Potassium deficiency can result in reduced yields. Application of fertilizer K to a deficient soil can increase both cane yield and quality (Wood, 1990, El-Tilib et al., 2004; Asraf et al., 2008). In general, sugarcane responds to K fertilizers by an increase in cane yield without any change in sucrose concentration in the cane (Kwong, 2002; Shukla et al., 2009). Shukla et al., 2009 reported the following effects of K fertigation (i.e. 66 kg K ha-1 is applied with irrigation water) in standing plant cane: (i) increased dry matter accumulation at all growth stages with an increase of 19% over no K fertilization at harvest, (ii) increased number of sprouted buds in ratoon cane stubble, and (iii) higher number of millable cane in ratoon, due to vigorous tillers formed in ratoon cane. Wood and Schroeder (2004) reported that where K was deficient, moisture stress negatively affected yield, but where K was applied (at 120 kg ha-1), moisture stress did not impact negatively on yield. It has been reported that K applications can reduce the impact of moisture stress on crop growth, and data presented by Wood and Schroeder (2004) support this observation for sugarcane. Verma et al. (1998) reported that potassium application gave higher cane yield but had no effect on sugar content. Application of 50 kg and 199 kg K ha-1 of muriate of potash showed that cane yield increased with increase in potassium fertilizer (Yanan et al., 1997). Singh et al. (1999) reported that potassium application had no significant effect on cane yield but increased commercial cane sugar content. In some countries a consistent response in sugar content of cane to K applications is recorded (Perez and Melgar, 1998). Further, Recent studies provides evidence regarding upcoming potassium deficiencies in the state If the excessive withdrawal of potassium is not checked or not applied through fertilizers then illite altered to vermiculite then many features of natural soil viz. good tilth, non-tearing of roots under water stress, Mg+2 retention may be lost forever (Brar et al., 2008). Thus, studies pertaining to the performance of Potash in sugarcane under stressed and unstressed water conditions has been carried out at Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur, and experimental farm of Butter mill during 2019-2020 with an objective to improve the sugar recovery more particularly in Potash deficient soils
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... Later ordinance was converted to water-saving regulation, for example, "The Punjab Preservation of Sub-soil Water Act in 2009." Effective implementation of this act fall in water table can be checked by about 60-65% of long-term falling rate (Singh 2018). Now from this very year, viz., 2018, the date of transplanting legally shifted to 20 June 2018, and the favorable results are being expected. ...
Adaptation Strategies to Mitigate the Evapotranspiration for Sustainable Crop Production: A Perspective of Rice- Wheat Cropping System
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Dec 2019
Both land and water productivities are declining day by day because of depleting underground water table and unscientific conventional practices used to establish the different crops, more particularly rice and wheat cropping system in South Asia. Climate change further complicated the situations, where unpredictable rain both in terms of amount and frequency, high-temperature regimes, frequent floods, and drought adversely affected the yields in total. Evapotranspiration (ET), comprised of evaporation (nonproductive component) and transpiration (productive component), and their management are important in improving both land and water productivities. Crop water requirements during vegetative phase varied mostly due to the variation of crop canopy cover and microclimatic conditions. Efforts are being made through resource conservation technologies (RCTs) to improve the land productivity as it is closely linked with livelihood standards under the decreased or will be decreased water availability depending upon the geological conditions. RCTs partition the water/moisture from the share of an unproductive portion (E) to produce one (T) from where it could be reused for encouraging water and hence nutrient intake. Transpiration led to an increasing flow of water in plants through roots, and along with water, the inflow of the nutrients also increased, which further led to higher grain weights and grain yields. Therefore, partitioning water from E to T is the only way to improve the 1
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... Mini-lysimeters were filled from a particular treat- ment with the help of chain pulley arrangement, an end cap fixed on one side and then finally filled and capped mini-lysimeter was placed inside the outer pipe of the bigger diameter which was already fixed in the sampled plot (Figure 4). Daily mini-lysimeters were weighted at field using the digital balance to have an idea of evaporation [29]. After calculating the evaporation T is calculated from the soil water equation where the right-hand side has irrigation and rainfall while left-hand side constituted by seepage, drainage, profile soil moisture and ET. ...
Concept and Consequence of Evapotranspiration for Sustainable Crop Production in the Era of Climate Change
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Feb 2019
The chapter provides an inclusive information related to the adverse effect of climate change on sustainable crop production through understanding evaporation, transpiration as well as evapotranspiration. It is anticipated that water availability in arid and semi-arid regions across the world will decrease, due to lack of rainfall and increase the temperature which leads to increase in the dry areas. Since climate change will impact on soil water balance that leads to change in evaporation and plant transpiration. While, with the increasing temperature, lack of precipitation and soils water unavailability, crop production will likely to decrease through shortening the crop growth cycle. While soils with high water holding capacity and crop cultivars which are tolerant to adverse effect as well as the application of improved management strategies will be better to reduce the impact of drought. Similarly, if the irrigated areas will be expanded, the total crop production will be increased that ultimately lead to increase the food security of increasing population.
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How to measure field soil water balance parameters?
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2023
The article provides a methodological, computational, and instrumental assignment that aids in identifying the various elements that makeup soil water balance. Reputable publications have published a large number of studies in the last ten years that discuss the computation of the soil water balance under various cropping patterns using various establishment procedures and Resource Conservation Technologies (RCTs). However, the computational and instrumental aspects of this work have received little attention. Because they lack the necessary fundamental (instrumental/methodological) competence, prospective scientists and students are unwilling to take on soil water balance calculation problems at the master's or doctoral levels, which generates misunderstandings. A thorough analysis of all the elements of soil water balance-irrigation, precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, drainage, seepage, and changes in the soil moisture profile-was included in this collection. To determine the soil water balance, all the factors are important. Although the instrumental part is well known, the computational and methodological parts are equally important. Scientists are currently attempting to find ways to save water and increase water productivity, as well as to better understand current patterns of water usage and the repercussions of activities. If one is fully versed in the instrumental, methodological, and computational aspects required to ascertain the components of soil water balance, one may also discuss the effects of a particular RCT on raising water and land productivity in a region with differing agroclimatic conditions.
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Scientific Interventions to Improve Land and Water Productivity for Climate-Smart Agriculture in South Asia
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Dec 2019
Wheat-rice cropping system in South Asia has taken a toll on the natural resources of air, water, and soil as this proves to be labor, water, capital, and energy intensive and becomes less profitable under the current scenario of climate change. Adverse effects will be further intensified under changing climate, declining underground water table, and deteriorated soil structure. The frequency of droughts, heavy rain falls, and heat waves increased under the scenario of climate change which results in higher grain production instability. Further, number of rainy days, rainfall events, postpone of monsoons, mid-season droughts, etc. have observed in recent years, affecting the land and water productivity. For enhancing the profitability, productivity, and sustainability of this system, a paradigm shift is required. To improve declining land and water productivity under the prevailing climate change, scientists developed several resource conservation technologies (RCTs), viz., direct-seeded rice, irrigation based on soil matric potential, zero tillage in wheat, and mechanical transplanting of rice under different tillage conditions, being advocated in the region, which have been studied under isolated conditions for individual crops. A single RCT might not solve the purpose of improved land and water productivity; therefore an integrated approach with agronomic and soil manipulations depending on the location, soil 1
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Strategies to Practice Climate-Smart Agriculture to Improve the Livelihoods Under the Rice-Wheat Cropping System in South Asia
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Oct 2019
The rice-wheat cropping sequence (RWCS) is the world’s largest agricultural production system occupying around 12.3 M ha in India, 0.5 M ha in Nepal, 2.2 M ha in Pakistan, and 0.8 M ha in Bangladesh; and around 85% of this area falls in the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP). It is energy, labor, and capital intensive, favors global warming, and ultimately has a detrimental effect on the natural resources and soil biodiversity. Furthermore, the rice-wheat cropping sequence has a number of sustainability issues, viz., declining land and water productivity, poor soil health, and arising micronutrient deficiency which is an alarming issue. Integrated approaches must be developed for improving the declining livelihoods in the region. The changing climate and its consequences are complicating the situation of the available natural resources, viz., water, soil, atmosphere, etc. Carbon (C) and water footprints need to be identified in the currently practiced rice-wheat cropping sequence for filling the gaps to improve livelihoods by one or other means. Resource conservation technologies (RCTs) partition greater fraction of water from unproductive evaporation to the desired transpiration which is further reflected on the higher grain yields. Transpiration causes a greater inflow of water and nutrients which ultimately increases the grain yield with lesser consumption of irrigation water, which further increases water productivity. There is a need to focus on the issue to sustain the rice-wheat productivity in South Asia. This book chapter is focused on all the strategies to practice climate-smart agriculture for improving livelihoods in South Asia, which include irrigation based on scheduling, precision laser leveling, direct seeded rice (DSR), mechanical transplanting, crop diversification, short-duration crop varieties, and delaying transplanting time, and reevaluate their effect on water and land productivity under divergent soil textural classes under different climatic conditions in South Asia. There is a need to come out with an integrated package for the farmers depending upon their conditions. Delineation of the residual consequence of used RCT on available moisture during the intervening periods is there, as it affects the performance of intervening crops and certainly adds to the livelihood of the farmer. The aim of this chapter is to review different technologies and their impact on land and water productivity and thereby try to come up with some integrated approach for improving livelihoods of farmers of the region. Therefore, scientists must be very careful while advocating any single RCT or a set of RCTs to the farmers with a must consideration of their social, financial, and geological conditions for enhancing both land and water productivity in South Asia.
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Zero tillage for sustaining land and water productivity in northern India
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2017
Soil moisture conservation is key priority for improving land and water productivity in all soil textural classes and under every agro-climatic condition. A number of resource conservation technologies are being advocated to uplift water productivity, however, direct drilling of the wheat seeds into the standing rice stubbles comes out to be best as it provides mulch benefits like hindering hot sunrays to strike directly onto the bare soil surface, regulates soil temperature, restricts free diffusion of water vapour, reduces wind speed near to soil surface, reduces cost of cultivation, reduces soil erosion, improving soil health by building organic carbon status and thus finally sustaining long-term crop productivity. In some cases, impacts on grain yield varied and the factors responsible for it need to be identified. The conserved soil moisture helps in reducing the water inputs without affecting the grain yields which further improves the declining water and land productivity however, inspite of these merits significantly higher weed pressure is the single factor which could change the whole story. Thus, benefits of the zero tillage could be realized only after retaining proper mulch loads and with proper control of weeds. In the present review, attempt was made to come out with an effective integrated approach which could be used for successful adoption of the zero tillage in north Indian region.
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Zero Tillage Impacts on Soil Environment and Properties
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2017
Tillage-mechanical manipulation of the soil done to have a fine seed bed, get rid of weeds and to decrease the leaching and percolation losses for the better land productivity but on the long run observed to have negative effects on the soil properties, structure and finally onto the environment. Agriculture contributes to greenhouse gas affecting the atmosphere. Processes of climate change mitigation and adaptation delineate zero tillage (ZT) as environment friendly. But initially ZT performance is still in question because of higher weed biomass. Number of scientists reported differential effects of the ZT on soil health, properties and the environment. However, its adoption still under doubt as farmers doesn't agree to divert from the old indigenous lines. Among tillage viz. conventional (CT), minimum (MT) and ZT-their effects on the soil properties and crop yield varied. Therefore, choice of any tillage system is too critical for maintenance of the soil physical properties necessary for crop growth. However, effect of different tillage systems on soil properties depends on the site-specific biophysical environment such as soil texture, prevailing climate variations, site characteristics, period of adoption, seasonal variability in rainfall, inherent soil fertility status. Till now there is confusion among not only in farmers but also in scientists regarding performance of different tillage systems with respect to soil health, land and water productivity and the environment. Further, their residual effects during intervening period have not been attended much till date. Keeping all this under consideration, this review is compiled to come out with a perfect tillage system which ultimately leads to the sustainable/climate smart agriculture. Finally, we concluded that minimum tillage has an edge from both other tillage system and found to be best in texturally divergent soils under different agro-climatic conditions.
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TILLAGE AND ESTABLISHMENT METHOD IMPACTS ON LAND AND IRRIGATION WATER PRODUCTIVITY OF WHEAT–RICE SYSTEM IN NORTH-WEST INDIA
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2016
The resource conservation technologies (RCTs), being advocated for countering the threat to the sustainability of wheat–rice cropping system (RWCS) in the north–west (NW) Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of India, have been evaluated mostly for the individual crops, without depicting the impact of these technologies on the succeeding or preceding crop. A study was thus conducted during 2012–2014 in NW India to assess the land and irrigation water productivity (WP I ) of RWCS under different establishment and conservation tillage techniques in a sandy-loam soil (coarse loamy, calcareous, mixed, hyperthermic Typic Ustochrept). The treatments included zero (ZTW) and conventional (CTW) tillage in wheat as main plot, establishment methods (direct seeded (DSR) and mechanically transplanted rice (MTR)) as sub-plot and tillage in rice viz. puddle (PR), dry (CTR) and zero (ZTR) tillage as sub–sub plot treatments, replicated thrice in split–split plot design. The land productivity of RWCS was significantly lower in ZTW plots than in CTW plots. The residual effect of tillage in wheat on rice productivity was distinct during the second year of study, when the CTW plots recorded significantly higher (17.5%) rice yield than the ZTW plots. The productivity of the cropping system with DSR was statistically similar to that with MTR. The WP I of RWCS increased in the order ZTW–DSR–ZTR25 < CTW–DSR–ZTR < ZTW–MTR–CTR < ZTW–DSR–PR < CTW–DSR–PR < ZTW–MTR–PR26 < CTW–MTR–PR.
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Effect of in-situ soil moisture conservation practices on soil moisture storage and yield of maize (Zea mays L.) in a rainfed foothill region of North-West India
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2006
Extreme variation in rainfall distribution during the summer monsoon often results in water stress conditions which affects crop yields. Field experiments were conducted during 2001 and 2002 in rainfed foothill region of North-West India to evaluate different tillage and mulching practices in relation to in-situ soil moisture conservation and productivity of rainfed maize. Soil moisture storage increased to the tune of 2.25, 4.01, and 10.77% at 60 days after sowing (DAS) with shallow tillage, deep tillage, and ridge and furrow sowing treatment over the farmers' practice. The application of mulch on the whole-covered plot resulted in 48.4, 61, and 138% higher soil moisture content at 40, 60, and 80 DAS, respectively. An increase of 18.2, 33.1, and 49.9% in plant height was observed with shallow tillage, deep tillage, and ridge and furrow sowing treatment over farmers' practice. It was also observed that fully-covered plots had 156% higher dry matter yield of maize compared to unmulched plots. There was a 10.6% increase in maize grain yield in ridge and furrow sowing over the farmers' practice. Mulch spread on the whole plot increased the grain and straw yield of maize by 58.6 and 35.0% compared to unmulched control. Grain and straw yield in partial-covered and strip application of mulch was significantly higher by 30.0 and 28.3% and 31.4 and 25.3%, respec-tively, than in no-mulching treatments. The results can usefully be employed to optimize the use of available mulch and appropriate tilling for improving maize productivity.
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Effect of tillage systems on soil moisture, soil temperature, soil respiration and production of wheat, maize and soybean crops
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2012
  • J FOOD AGRIC ENVIRON
Soil tillage systems can be able to influence soil compaction, water dynamics, soil temperature and crop yield. These processes can be expressed as changes of soil microbiological activity, soil respiration and sustainability of agriculture. Objectives of this study were: 1) to assess the effects of tillage systems (conventional system (CS), minimum tillage (MT), no tillage (NT)) on soil compaction, soil temperature, soil moisture and soil respiration and 2) to establish the effect of the changes on the production of wheat, maize and soybean. Five treatments were installed: CS-plough; MT-paraplow, chisel, rotary grape and NT-direct sowing. The study was conducted on an Argic-Stagnic Faeoziom. The MT and NT applications reduce or completely eliminate the soil mobilization, due to this, soil is compacted in the first year of application. The degree of compaction is directly related to soil type and its state of degradation. The state of soil compaction diminished over time, tending toward a specific type of soil density. Soil moisture was higher in NT and MT at the time of sowing and in the early stages of vegetation and differences diminished over time. Moisture determinations showed statistically significant differences. The MT and NT applications reduced the thermal amplitude in the first 15 cm of soil depth and increased the soil temperature by 0.5-2.2°C.Water dynamics and soil temperature showed no differences on the effect of crop yields. The determinations confirm the effect of soil tillage system on soil respiration; the daily average was lower at NT (315-1914 mmol m-2 s-1) and followed by MT (318-2395 mmol m -2s-1) and was higher in CS (321-2480 mmol m -2s -1). Comparing with CS, all the four conservation tillage measures decreased soil respiration, with the best effects of no-tillage. Although wheat production at MT and NT applications had no significant differences, soybean production was significantly affected by MT and NT applications. The differences in crop yields were recorded at maize and could be a direct consequence of loosening, mineralization and intensive mobilization of soil fertility.
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Impact of tillage on soil bio-chemical properties, water storage and environment
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2015
Tillage practices can affect soil properties and environment dynamically in space and time depending on its intensity. This literature review addresses the quantitative effects of soil tillage and associated management (e.g., crop residues) on the temporal and spatial variability of soil properties and finally on to the environment. Among different tillage options viz. conventional (CT), minimum (MT) and zero tillage (ZT)-their effects on the soil properties and environment varied. Therefore, the choice of any tillage system is too critical for mitigating adverse effect on the environment along with improving the livelihoods of the farmers. However, tillage effects on soil properties depends on the site-specific biophysical environment such as soil texture, prevailing climate variations, site characteristics, period of adoption, seasonal variability in rainfall, inherent soil fertility status. Thus, still there is a confusion regarding tillage mode adaptability. Keeping this under consideration, this review is compiled to come out with a perfect intermediate tillage system which ultimately leads to the sustainable agriculture. Therefore, some new farmer friendly intermediate tillage system with higher adaptation rate must be invented for practising the sustainable agriculture in the region. This further helped to mitigate the adverse effects of the global warming and declining soil chemical-biological soil health and finally to improve the environment.
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Design, installation and calibration of a weighing lysimeter for crop evapotranspiration studies
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2013
Lysimeters are tanks filled with soil commonly used in studies of crop ET and movement of water and chemicals in the soil profile. The objective of this work is to describe the procedures for construction, installation and calibration of a precision weighing lysimeter for water demand studies of Sumatra type tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) in Bahia, Brazil. The lysimeter was 1.60 m long, 1.10 m wide and 0.60 deep, with an internal soil surface of 1.76 m 2. The lysimeter was installed in an area covered by a 30% shading screen used specifically for production of this type of tobacco. The inner box of the lysimeter was made of steel plates and the outer box was built on site with burnt-clay bricks bonded with cement mass. The weighing platform comprised four 1,000 kg capacity load cells placed underneath the inner tank and a datalogger for data recording. The lysimeter was calibrated in the field using standard loads of known mass. Five cycles of loading and unloading were performed (47 points) in the range of 0 to 110 kg (62.5 mm). The system showed a strong linear relationship between standard mass and load cells output (r 2 > 0.99 and S y/x = 0.033 mm). The load cell accuracy, which combines the effects of hysteresis, linearity and repeatability errors, was found to be of the order of ±0.06 mm and the datalogger was found to be able to resolve mass changes less than 0.1 mm. These uncertainty parameters combined with the ability of the lysimeter to respond to relatively small mass changes suggest that the weighing lysimeter herein described is adequate to measure tobacco ET over time periods of one hour or longer. The investment was around US$ 5,100.00, including hardware and field work for installation. Projeto, instalação e calibração de um lisímetro de pesagem para estudos de evapotranspiração de culturas agrícolas Resumo: Lisímetros são tanques preenchidos com solo comumente utilizados em estudos de ET das culturas e movimento da água e solutos no perfil do solo. O objetivo deste trabalho é descrever os procedimentos de construção, instalação e calibração de um lisímetro de pesagem para estudo da demanda de água do fumo (Nicotiana tabacum L.) tipo Sumatra, na Bahia, Brasil. O lisímetro, com área interna de 1,76 m 2 , tinha 1,10 m de largura, 1,60 m de comprimento e 0,60 m de profundidade e foi instalado em área comercial de fumo coberta com tela de sombreamento de 30%. A caixa interna era feita de chapas de aço e a caixa externa de alvenaria construída no campo. A plataforma de pesagem continha quatro células de carga com capacidade de 1.000 kg e um datalogger para armazenamento dos dados. O lisímetro foi calibrado no campo por meio de pesos-padrão no intervalo de 0 a 110 kg (62,5 mm). O procedimento de calibração incluiu cinco ciclos de incremento e decremento (47 pontos) do peso total do lisímetro. Como esperado, o sistema mostrou forte relação linear (r 2 > 0,99 e S y/x = 0,033 mm) entre os pesos-padrões e o sinal das células de carga. A acurácia das células de carga, que combina os erros de histerese, linearidade e repetibilidade, foi em torno de ±0.06 mm. A resolução do datalogger foi inferior a 0,1 mm. Estes dados de desempenho combinados à sensibilidade do lisímetro a pequenas variações de massa sugerem que o lisímetro de pesagem aqui descrito é adequado para medição da ET do fumo em intervalos de tempo iguais ou superiores a uma hora. O custo total do sistema foi da ordem de US$ 5.000,00, incluindo equipamento e mão de obra para instalação. Palavras-chave: lisimetria, necessidade hídrica de culturas, fumo, Nicotiana tabacum
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Soil related constraints in crop production and their management options in North Western Himalayas
Article
  • Dec 2018
In this paper, various soil related constraints in crop production have been elucidated pertaining to North-Western Himalayan soils, along with their control measures. Soil erosion, soil acidity, alkalinity in terms of salinity and sodicity, as well as fragmentation of land holdings have been found to be the main constraints in crop productions under such soil conditions. Soil erosion is the main factor which is responsible for the degradation of the arable land in terms of its physical, chemical and biological respects. To control this constraint, one has to follow all the soil and water conservation measures like agronomic, mechanical or engineering and biological. Similarly, to control the acidity and sodicity, the farmers must be advocated to use amendments like lime and gypsum. In calcareous soils, whatever quantity of organic manures is available must be added to overcome this constraint.
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Effect of tillage and mode of straw mulch application on soil erosion at submontaneous tracts of Punjab, India
Article
  • Jul 2006
  • SOIL TILL RES
The submontaneous tract of Punjab comprising 10% of the state, is prone to soil erosion by water. Soils of the area are coarse in texture, low in organic matter and poor in fertility. High intensity rains during the monsoon season result in fertile topsoil removal. There is an urgent need to control soil erosion in this region so as to improve soil productivity. A field study was conducted to estimate the effect of tillage and different modes of mulch application on soil erosion losses. Treatments comprised two levels of tillage, viz. minimum (Tm) and conventional (Tc) in the main plots and five modes of straw mulch application, viz. mulch spread over whole plot (Mw), mulch spread on lower one-third of plot (M1/3), mulch applied in strips (Ms), vertical mulching (Mv) and unmulched control (Mo), in subplots in a replicated split plot design. Rate of mulch application was 6tha−1 in all modes. Compared with Mo, Mw reduced runoff by 33%. Runoff and soil loss were 5 and 40% higher under Tc than under Tm. Though other modes of straw mulch application (M1/3, Ms and Mv) controlled soil loss better than Mo, their effectiveness was less than Mw. Tm was more effective in conserving soil moisture than Tc. Compared with Mo, Mw had 3–7% higher soil moisture content in the 0–30cm soil depth under Tm. Minimum soil temperature of the surface layer was 1.4–2.4°C lower under Mw than under Mo. Straw mulching reduced maximum soil temperature and helped in conserving soil moisture. Minimum tillage coupled with Mw was highly effective in reducing soil erosion losses, decreasing soil temperature and increasing moisture content by providing maximum surface cover.
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