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Marine Georesources & Geotechnology
ISSN: 1064-119X (Print) 1521-0618 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/umgt20
Geotechnical considerations for the concept of
coastal reservoir at Mangaluru to impound the
flood waters of Netravati River
C. R. Parthasarathy, T. G. Sitharam & S. Kolathayar
To cite this article: C. R. Parthasarathy, T. G. Sitharam & S. Kolathayar (2018): Geotechnical
considerations for the concept of coastal reservoir at Mangaluru to impound the flood waters of
Netravati River, Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, DOI: 10.1080/1064119X.2018.1430194
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2018.1430194
Published online: 15 Feb 2018.
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MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2018.1430194
Geotechnical considerations for the concept of coastal reservoir at Mangaluru
to impound the flood waters of Netravati River
C. R. Parthasarathya , T. G. Sitharamb , and S. Kolathayarc
aSarathy Geotech and Engineering Services Pvt Ltd, Bangalore, India; bDepartment of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India;
cDepartment of Civil Engineering, Amrita University, Coimbatore, India
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the geotechnical feasibility for constructing coastal reservoir in Arabian Sea off
Mangaluru coast. This envisages storing fresh water in a reservoir along the coast by building a sea dike
to impound the flood waters of Netravati River. On one side, the dike will ensure the required quantity of
freshwater flow from Netravati River to the reservoir without being drained to the sea. On the other side,
the sea dike will prevent seawater from entering the reservoir, avoiding the salt contamination of the
freshwater supply. Present study presents detailed investigation of the soil profiles of surrounding region
of Mangaluru to explore the site condition at off Ullal beach. Lithological data on the Netravati estuary
were also presented with key observation on the soil profiles in the area proposed for location of coastal
reservoirs. The key finding of the study is that the region offshore of Ullal is devoid of sand and is
comprised mainly of soft Silty clays. Lithological data of nine foundations at Netravati Bridge near Ullal
are also presented in this paper. Based on the findings of geotechnical investigations, the paper
concludes that construction of sea dike in Arabian Sea off Mangaluru coast is feasible.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 4 October 2017
Accepted 16 January 2018
KEYWORDS
Coastal reservoir;
geotechnical investigation;
lithology; sea dike; soil
stratigraphy
Introduction
The coastal fresh water reservoir is a new emerging concept
of storing flood water in the sea close to shoreline. Coastal
reservoir can be constructed in shallow waters at appropriate
locations close to the mouth of river along with a barrage
at one or two ends. Sea walls or breakwaters with some
modifications along with new and sustainable construction
technologies are good enough to construct the sea-based reser-
voirs/coastal reservoirs. Bangalore Water Supply and Sewage
Board approved a feasibility study to be undertaken on the
Coastal Reservoir Concept to Impound Netravali River Flood
Waters: A Sustainable strategy for water, by a team of experts
and scientists from various organizations like IISc, NITK,
AMRITA, CIFT, SGES, Neel Water, IAHV of Art of Living,
and CETCO. The feasibility of coastal reservoir at Mangaluru
was established by Kolathayar et al. (2017) based on excess run
off estimation of Netravati River which amounts to 385 TMC
ft every year. This paper presents the geotechnical consider-
ation on the feasibility of proposed coastal reservoir to
impound the flood waters of Netravati by constructing a dike
in the Arabian Sea. Murthy (1977) presented the evolution of
Netravati drainage in the state of Karnataka. The location of
Netravati River basin is shown in Figure 1.
A sea dike is an embankment widely used to protect
low-lying areas against inundation and acts as a backwater
to prevent erosion of the coast and encroachment of the sea.
The purpose of a sea dike is to protect areas of human habi-
tation like towns & villages and conservation and leisure
activities from the action of tides and waves. Storage of the
abundant monsoon water can be done close to the coast using
coastal reservoirs, which otherwise runs off to the ocean.
Coastal reservoirs are bounded by impermeable sea dikes at
one side and the coast on the other side (Yang 2015). These
sea dikes with suitable modifications can be used for creating
coastal reservoirs within the shallow waters of the coast. Sea
dike is a static feature and it will conflict with the dynamic nat-
ure of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment and salt
water between land and sea at the mouth of river. Sea dikes are
classified as a hard engineering shore-based structure used to
provide protection and to lessen coastal erosion. Sea dikes may
also be constructed from a variety of materials, most com-
monly: geosynthetic tubes, geocells, reinforced concrete,
boulders, steel, or gabions. Sea dikes are primarily used at
exposed coasts, but they are also used at moderately exposed
coasts, and in this study, use of sea dikes is presented for the
separation of ocean salt water from the flood water from rivers
stored in coastal reservoirs (Sitharam 2017).
Due to erosion and accretion, the shoreline changes are
natural processes that take place over a range of time scales.
They may occur due to small-scale events, such as storms,
wave action, tides, and winds or in response to large-scale
long-term events such as glaciations or cycles that may signifi-
cantly alter sea levels (rise/fall) and further tectonic activities
that cause coastal land subsidence. Hence, coastlines are
dynamic, and cycles of erosion are often an important feature
of their ecological character. Wind, waves, and currents are
natural forces that easily move the unconsolidated sand and
soils in the coastal area, resulting in rapid changes in the
none defined
CONTACT S. Kolathayar k_sreevalsa@cb.amrita.edu Department of Civil Engineering, Amrita University, Coimbatore 641112, India.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/umgt.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
position of the shoreline. The sea dike as part of coastal reser-
voir actually is a boon to reduce these ill effects permanently
and bring economic prosperity to the coastal areas. In this
study, the objective of the proposed sea dike is to store abun-
dant monsoon flood waters close to the coast in the ocean by
replacing salt water with fresh river flood waters.
Asian Development Bank had proposed a Sustainable
Coastal Protection and Management Investment Program to
prevent very severe erosion at Ullal beach (near to Mangaluru)
and possible breaching of the spit by constructing two offshore
reefs (Central and Southern). The reefs are of V shape, length
about 260 m, and height of 8.1 m and would be sitting in about
6.5 m depth of water. The submerged weight of the reefs is
estimated to be between 43 and 54 kN/m
2
. ANZDEC LTD.,
New Zealand, was the project consultant who contracted
Sarathy Geotech and Engineering Services Pvt Ltd in the year
2010 to perform geotechnical field studies at Ullal. This paper
presents the extract of the geotechnical investigation infor-
mation, which is also valid for the proposed feasibility study
for coastal reservoir project.
Typical sea dike cross section design
Items of sea dike cross section design include crest level, cross
section dimensions, crest structure, dike body, and dike toe
which fulfill the technical and economical requirements.
Design cross sections of the dike are selected on the basis of
geological conditions, materials used for construction of dyke,
filling materials, external forces, layout of the dike and also the
operational requirements. Sloping dikes, wall-type dikes, and
composite dikes are three different types of sea dikes based
on geometrical shape. One needs to carefully design the dike
crest level, dike body, filter layers, slope protection layers
(both on sea side and land side/coastal reservoir side), toe pro-
tection. There is different usage of sea dikes and mainly it
reduces the amount of energy dissipated by the waves reaching
the coastlines. It also protects the coastline from the tidal
action and provides coastal defense. Further, it prevents the
erosion of coastline and creates calm water in the coastal
reservoir area for many activities. Most important function
of the dike, in this case, is to separate the salt water and
Figure 1. Map showing Netravati River basin in Karnataka.
Figure 2. Typical features of Sea Dike.
2 C. R. PARTHASARATHY ET AL.
freshwater in the coastal reservoir and also allow freshwater
fishing and other activities in calm water conditions and it
can also provide dock or quay facilities along with support
of floating solar panels for energy production. The main
features of the sea dike is seen in Figure 2.
Impermeable sea dike for coastal reservoir
A freshwater reservoir located in the sea close to the mouth of
a river is bounded by sea dike to store required quantity of
river flood water. Flood water is a natural resource, and water
quality is comparable to drinking water. Sea dike which
bounds the coastal reservoir shall be impermeable, so that salt
water on the sea side does not mix with the fresh water stored
in the coastal reservoir. The wall with barrier lining is designed
such that it will prevent mixing of surrounding sea waters with
the impounded flood waters. An effective impermeable barrier
between the fresh water (flood water) and salty sea water is
needed to do the following.
. Separation of clean river water from salt water.
. Protection of collected fresh water against external
pollution.
. Prevention of salt water intrusion into the stored fresh
water
A typical cross section of the sea dike for the coastal
reservoir is suggested in Figure 3.
Bathymetric profile
The general bathymetric chart of the oceans (GEBCO) is a
publicly available bathymetric chart of the world’s oceans.
The project was conceived with the aim of preparing a global
series of charts showing the general shape of the seafloor. Over
the years, it has become a reference map of the bathymetry of
the world’s oceans for scientists and others. Since 1903 the
GEBCO project has been collecting bathymetric data and
mapping the Earth’s oceans. GEBCO is an IHO and IOC joint
project that relies largely on the voluntary efforts of an
international collaborating community of scientists and
hydrographers with the support of their parent organizations.
The bathymetry profile for Netravati basin was created by
defining the datum for the file, carrying out the projections
process for the region using the WGS 1984 NOTH ZONE
44 N, using GIS applications.
A bathymetric chart is the submerged equivalent of an
above-water topographic map. Bathymetric charts are
designed to present accurate, measurable description and
visual presentation of the submerged terrain. In an ideal case,
the joining of a bathymetric chart and topographic map of the
same scale and projection of the same geographic area would
be seamless. The only difference would be that the values begin
increasing after crossing the zero at the designated sea-level
datum. Thus the topographic map mountains have the greatest
values while the bathymetric chart’s greatest depths have the
greatest values. Simply put, the bathymetric chart is intended
to show the land, if overlying waters were removed in exactly
the same manner as the topographic map of the sea floor.
Through the use of detailed depth contours and full use of
bathymetric data, the size, shape, and distribution of
Figure 3. A typical impermeable sea dike for the coastal reservoir.
Figure 4. Bathymetry of the ocean bed near the Netravati River.
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 3
underwater features are vividly portrayed. No other map or
chart gives this descriptive picture of the ocean bottom terrain
with size, shape, and distribution of underwater features. The
bathymetric map serves as the basic tool for performing
scientific, engineering, marine geophysical, and environmental
studies that are required in the development of energy and
marine resources. The Bathymetric profile of the ocean bed
near the Netravati River is shown in Figure 4.
Scope of geotechnical investigation at Ullal region
Two exploratory boreholes were drilled at Site 1 and Site 2
locations off Ullal beach at a water depth not more than
6.5 m CD. The coordinates of the boreholes are presented
in Table 1. Standard penetration test at every 1.5 m interval
was conducted and performance of relevant laboratory tests
on soil samples was also performed in detail. The stratigra-
phy encountered in these two boreholes with the available
geological information of the area was analyzed and
compared.
All the test procedures (field and laboratory) as prescribed
by relevant parts of the Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 1892;
IS 2131; IS 1498) were followed during this geotechnical
investigation campaign. The summary of test results on soil
from Site 1 and Site 2 is presented in Tables 2 and 3,
respectively.
Table 1. Coordinates of boreholes.
Borehole
Proposed coordinates Actual coordinates
Water depth (m) Depth of borehole (m) Northing (mN) Easting (mE) Northing (mN) Easting (mE)
Site 1 1418264 481521 1418289 481576 6.5 22.7
Site 2 1416698 481885 1416911 482293 6.5 27.5
Table 2. Summary of test results—Site 1.
Table 3. Summary of test results—Site 2.
4 C. R. PARTHASARATHY ET AL.
Soil stratigraphy at Ullal region
The substratum at Site 1 consists of greenish black clayey
medium dense SAND in the top 1.5 m followed by dark
greenish gray firm CLAY up to 3.0 m. Below 3.0 m dense
to very dense clayey SAND was encountered up to 9.0 m.
This is followed by gray poorly graded dense to very dense
SAND with traces/pockets of clay. The formation extends
up to 20.0 m. A 1.0-m thick dark gray stiff clay is pre-
sented between 20.0 to 21.0 m. Below 21.0 m light greenish
gray dense to very dense SAND is encountered. The bore-
hole was terminated at 22.5 m below the sea bed. The
detailed description of soil stratigraphy is presented in
Table 4, while the compressibility characteristics of clay
layer is presented in Table 5.
In general, the substratum at Site 2 consists of greenish gray
medium to very dense silty SAND with traces of wooden
pieces and shell fragments up to 12.5 m. The N-value varied
from 21 to greater than 50. This is followed by greenish gray
stiff to very stiff silty CLAY. The undrained shear strength var-
ied in the range 100–125 kPa. This layer extended up to
23.0 m. Below 23.0 m, very dense (N >50) light greenish gray
medium to coarse SAND is encountered up to 27.5 m. The
borehole was terminated at 27.5 m below the sea bed. The
detailed description of soil stratigraphy is presented in
Table 6, while the compressibility characteristics of clay layer
is presented in Table 7.
Summary of geological information of Ullal area
Geotechnical details of Ullal region
From the information supplied, Mangaluru University
conducted a geotechnical investigation of the offshore soil
conditions. They analyzed existing data compiled from a
variety of sources as well as collected new data from near
the project site. The key finding of their study was that the
region offshore of Ullal is devoid of sand and is comprised
mainly of soft silty clays. The stratigraphy of the relevant core
samples is shown in Figure 5.
The ground strata in the nearshore area, estuary, and
around the Ullal spit have been compiled using bore hole
log data, soil properties, and other surveys performed by the
geological survey of India; CWPRS, Pune; Mangaluru Univer-
sity; NITK-Surathkal; NMPT; and others. The study area
includes the Netravati-Gurpur estuary, nearshore and adjacent
land of new Mangaluru port (NMP) area, Ullal spit, and Some-
shwar. For the analysis of stratigraphic sequences or lithologic
successions, 14 bore holes (drilled in 1968) log data of NMP
area have been selected. These 14 bore holes are selected in
such a way that 7 lie in the nearshore and 7 in the lagoon
and on the adjacent land (Figure 6). The lithologic/strati-
graphic sequences of all these 14 bore holes are presented in
Figures 7 and 8.
Table 4. Soil stratigraphy—Site 1.
Sl. no.
Depth (m)
Soil stratigraphy From To
1 0.0 0.2 Very loose clayey SAND
2 0.2 1.5 Clayey medium dense SAND
3 1.5 4.0 Firm CLAY with traces of SAND
4 4.0 9.0 Dense to very dense SAND with
traces of clay
5 9.0 20.0 Clayey medium dense SAND
6 20.0 21.0 Stiff CLAY with SAND pockets
7 21.0 22.5 Dense to very dense SAND
Table 5. Coefficient of volume compressibility of firm CLAY (1.5–4.0 m).
Pressure range (kPa) mV (cm
2
/kg)
6.25 12.5 0.091169
12.5 25.0 0.137422
25.0 50.0 0.207142
50.0 100.0 0.312232
100 200.0 0.470638
Table 6. Soil stratigraphy—Site 2.
Sl. no.
Depth (m)
Soil stratigraphy From To
1 0.0 0.4 Very loose clayey SAND
2 0.4 12.5 Medium to very dense silty SAND
(with few wooden pieces and
traces of shell fragments)
3 12.5 23.0 Stiff to very stiff silty CLAY with
traces of SAND pockets and
wood pieces
4 23.0 27.5 Very dense SAND (with cobbles
between 27.0 to 27.5 m) Figure 5. Stratigraphy of core samples from Mangalore University.
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 5
In general, except BH4, subsoil consists of SAND in the
top 5–10.0 m followed by CLAY up to 10/22 m below sea
bed.
Also some open wells were dug at Ullal and lithology is as
shown in Figure 9.
Lithological data of Netravati-Gurpur estuary
Lithological data of nine foundations well at Netravati Bridge
(Figure 10) near Ullal in Netravati-Gurpur estuary have been
collected. Medium to coarse sand followed by various colored
Figure 6. Location of boreholes carried out by geological survey of India, CWPRS, Mangalore University, and NITK Suratkal.
Figure 7. Stratigraphy/lithological sequence of boreholes 1–7.
6 C. R. PARTHASARATHY ET AL.
CLAY and a layer of lignite (at −30 m depth in few wells) have
been encountered. The details of lithological units are
presented in Figure 11. The lignite samples of these wells were
dated (by earlier researchers) using carbon 14 method which
gave the values 40,000 years. Therefore, it was inferred that
the Netravati River should have debouched into the Arabian
Sea extending up to Ullal during the Pleistocene when the
lignite deposit must have been buried under the sediment in
the nearshore region. In other words, deposition of lignite
took place appx. 40,000 years ago followed by clays and sands.
The recession of the sea coast and extension of the river course
later resulted in the present deposition of land and sea with the
Netravati flowing over the beds underlain by lignite.
Discussions in context of proposed coastal
reservoir
Though a generic profile of the area suggesting sandy (loose)
seabed followed by CLAY (Firm to still consistency) and
underlined by SAND/rock can be inferred for the Ullal area,
lateral variation of the stratigraphy is very much evident
Figure 8. Stratigraphy/lithological sequence of boreholes 8–14.
Figure 9. Stratigraphy/lithological sequence of open well (Figure 7—Inset B).
Figure 10. Location of well foundation of Netravati Railway Bridge in
Netravati-Gurpur Estuary.
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 7
among the profiles encountered at Site 1 and Site 2 along with
other geological information available in the study area.
As a guideline, Table 8 presents a conservative geological
model appropriate for the construction of the coastal reservoir.
Site consists of clayey medium dense sand in the top 1.5 m
followed by clay up to 3 m. Below 3 m, dense to very dense
clayey sand was encountered up to 9 m followed by poorly
graded dense sand with pockets of clay. Beyond 20 m, a thick
clay layer along with dense sand is presented. An attempt has
been done to estimate the expected settlement for the
proposed coastal reservoir assuming a 10 m high, 10 m wide
dyke with assumed density of infill as 19 kPa. Design profile
is provided in Table 9. Immediate settlement of SAND and
consolidation settlement of CLAY layer are considered for
total settlement.
Immediate settlement for sand (0–1.5 m)
μ ¼0.25 (for clayey SAND), Is ¼1, B ¼10 m
Pressure on the sand layer from Dyke (γH),
q ¼19 �10 ¼190 kPa
Es ¼320 (N + 15) ¼8,960 kPa
Si ¼qB(1-μ2)Is/Es ¼0.198 m
Consolidation settlement for clay (1.5–4 m)
mv ¼0.3122, H ¼2.5 m, Dσ ¼171 kPa (90% of dyke load)
Sc ¼mvHDσ ¼133.4655 cm ¼1.33 m
Total settlement ¼Si+Sc ¼1.53 m
Summary
. The settlement (immediate and long term) of proposed
coastal reservoir is expected to be about 1.5 m.
. Geotechnical challenges are not extreme; thus the proposed
coastal reservoir construction can be undertaken.
Review of the available geotechnical information helped
in deriving a generalized geological model as a useful pre-
liminary design profile for a quick check on stability and
Figure 11. Lithological/stratigraphy detail of well foundation of Netravati
Railway Bridge in Netravati-Gurpur Estuary.
Table 8. Guideline geological model for coastal reservoir near Ullal region.
Stratum Penetration (m) Description
Soil properties
Submerged unit
weight, γ0(kN/m
3
) Friction angle, /0(°)
Undrained shear
strength, su (kPa) N-Value field
I 0–0.2 Very loose clayey SAND – – – –
II 0.2–1.5 Clayey medium dense SAND 7 28 – 13
III 1.5–4.0 Firm CLAY with traces of SAND 5 – 20LB-30UB 4
Coefficient of volume compressibility mV ¼0.3122 cm
2
/kg
IV 4.0–9.0 Dense to very dense SAND with traces of clay 7 30 – 30
V 9.0–20.0 Clayey medium dense SAND 7 28 – 30
VI 20.0–21.0 Stiff CLAY with SAND pockets 8 – 90 –
VII 21.0–21.5 Dense to very dense SAND 10 – – 50
Table 7. Coefficient of volume compressibility of very stiff CLAY (12.5–23.0 m).
Pressure range (kPa) mV (cm
2
/kg)
6.25 12.5 0.004712
12.5 25.0 0.007102
25.0 50.0 0.010705
50.0 100.0 0.016136
100 200.0 0.024322
Table 9. Design profile for settlement calculation.
Depth
Soil strata
Angle of
internal friction
Coefficient of volume
expansion mV, cm
2
/kg SPT N From To
0 1.5 Clayey SAND 28° 13
1.5 4 Firm CLAY – 0.3122 4
4 9 Dense SAND 30° 30
8 C. R. PARTHASARATHY ET AL.
settlement of the proposed coastal reservoir, which is good
enough for the feasibility study stage, although, site-specific
detailed integrated site survey is warranted during detailed
project report stage. A detailed integrated site survey
comprising of geophysical investigation (bathymetry, side-scan
sonar & sub-bottom profile) and geotechnical investigation
(boring, in situ testing & laboratory testing) shall be planned
to be undertaken to derive the geological model appropriate
for the location demarked for the coastal reservoir.
Author biography
Dr C. R. Parthasarathy is an industry veteran in the field of geotech-
nical engineering. He holds M.E. degrees from Bangalore University
and PhD from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in Geotechnical
engineering. Dr CR Parthasarathy is the founder director of Sarathy
Geotech & Engineering Services Pvt ltd. which has undertaken several
consulting assignments in India and abroad in the field of ground
improvement, pile foundation, marine and onland geotechnical inves-
tigation, offshore foundation assessment including Jackup rigs and
platforms.
Prof. T. G. Sitharam is a KSIIDC Chair Professor in the area of Energy
and Mechanical Sciences and Senior Professor at the Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru (IISc). He completed
his Masters from IISc and Ph.D. from University of Waterloo, Waterloo,
ON, Canada. Over the last 25 years, he has developed innovative technol-
ogies in the area of geotechnical applications, leading to 500 technical
papers, seven books, three patents, 100 consulting projects and two
startup companies. He guided 27 Ph.D. and 25 Masters Students and
trained several thousand industry professionals and teachers through
workshops. His work has been recognized by Indian Geotechnical Society
(IGS) through IGS-Kucklemann award in 2015 and by IIT Roorkee
through Prof. Gopal Ranjan research award in 2014 and Sir CV Raman
Young Scientist Award in engineering sciences in 2002. He is the
chief editor of two international journals in his areas of research.
Prof. Sitharam is the President of International Association for Coastal
Reservoir Research (IACRR), registered at Australia.
Dr. Sreevalsa Kolathayar pursued his M.Tech from IIT Kanpur, PhD
from Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and served as International
Research Staff at UPC BarcelonaTech Spain with Marie Curie Fellowship
by European Union. He is presently Asst Professor and Research Coordi-
nator in the Dept of Civil Engg, Amrita University, Coimbatore, India.
Dr. Sreevalsa has published several research articles on geotechnical
engineering and earthquake hazard assessment. In 2017, Dr. Sreevalsa
was honoured with Indian Express Edex award: 40 under 40 - South
India’s Most Inspiring Young Teachers. He is also Secretary of IACRR
Indian chapter.
ORCID
C. R. Parthasarathy http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1938-2243
T. G. Sitharam http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1626-2067
S. Kolathayar http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1747-9284
References
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IS 2131. 1981. Reaffirmed 2002 – Indian Standard - Method for Standard
Penetration Test for Soils.
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MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 9
