ETHNOBOTANICAL USES, PHYTOCHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF PEPEROMIA PELLUCIDA (L.) KUNTH (PIPERACEAE)-A REVIEW

Abstract

Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth is a herb belonging to the family Piperaceae. In this review, an extensive literature survey was carried out to compile information available on medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of P. pellucida. The plant is used as food, flavoring agent and as medicine. The plant is used as medicine for treating various ailments or disorders such as asthma, rheumatism, wound, fever, stomach problems, kidney infection, hemorrhoid pain, joint pain, hypertension, diarrhea, snake bite and measles. The plant contains phytochemical groups such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, steroids and glycosides. Compounds such as dill apiole, phytol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, secolignans, tetrahydrofuran lignans, highly methoxylated dihydronaphthalenone, peperomins, sesamin and isoswertisin have been identified in the plant. Studies have shown that the plant exhibited several pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, neuropharmacological, antisickling, anticancer, enzyme inhibitory, antiulcer, hypotensive, immunostimulatory, fracture healing and antidiabetic activities which support the traditional use of the plant. Purified chemicals from the plant have also shown to exhibit certain pharmacological activities such as antiulcer, anticancer and antimicrobial activity. By this extensive literature review, it can be concluded that P. pellucida can be utilized as a promising candidate for developing newer drugs with potent pharmacological activities.

Full text

Review Article
ETHNOBOTANICAL USES, PHYTOCHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF
PEPEROMIA PELLUCIDA (L.) KUNTH (PIPERACEAE)-A REVIEW
RAGHAVENDRA H. L.
1
, PRASHITH KEKUDA T. R.
2*
1
Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia,
2
Department of Microbiology, S. R. N. M. N
College of Applied Sciences, N. E. S Campus, Balraj Urs Road, Shivamogga 577201, Karnataka, India
Email: p.kekuda@gmail.com
Received: 02 Nov 2017 Revised and Accepted: 03 Jan 2018
ABSTRACT
Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth is a herb belonging to the family Piperaceae. In this review, an extensive literature survey was carried out to compile
information available on medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of P. pellucida. The plant is used as food, flavoring agent
and as medicine. The plant is used as medicine for treating various ailments or disorders such as asthma, rheumatism, wound, fever, stomach
problems, kidney infection, hemorrhoid pain, joint pain, hypertension, diarrhea, snake bite and measles. The plant contains phytochemical groups
such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, steroids and glycosides. Compounds such as dill apiole, phytol, stigmasterol, sitosterol,
secolignans, tetrahydrofuran lignans, highly methoxylated dihydronaphthalenone, peperomins, sesamin and isoswertisin have been identified in the
plant. Studies have shown that the plant exhibited several pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-angiogenic, anti-
inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, neuropharmacological, antisickling, anticancer, enzyme inhibitory, antiulcer, hypotensive, immunostimulatory,
fracture healing and antidiabetic activities which support the traditional use of the plant. Purified chemicals from the plant have also shown to
exhibit certain pharmacological activities such as antiulcer, anticancer and antimicrobial activity. By this extensive literature review, it can be
concluded that P. pellucida can be utilized as a promising candidate for developing newer drugs with potent pharmacological activities.
Keywords: Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth, Ethnomedicine, Traditional medicine, Phytochemical, Pharmacological activities
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Innovare Academic Sciences Pvt Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22159/ijpps.2 018v10i2.23417
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world, especially developing and under-developing
countries, plants have been exploited as medicine to meet primary
healthcare needs. It is estimated that vast majority of population
relies on medicinal plants for therapy against several diseases or
disorders. Traditional medicinal practitioners utilize plants, either
singly or in certain formulations, to treat ailments. Non-availability
(especially for people from remote areas) and high cost of modern
drugs limits their use by people from economically poor
background. Nowadays, medicinal plants are used routinely in urban
settings in daily healthcare and as medication against ailments.
Many indigenous medicinal systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha and
Unani utilize several plant species. Besides, plants provide many
lead compounds for the development of modern drugs. Majority of
drugs available are from natural origin, especially from plants. Drugs
such as taxol, quinine, artemisinin, vincristine, vinblastine, digoxin
and codeine are from plant origin [1-6].
The genus Peperomia Ruiz and Pavon belongs to the family
Piperaceae. The genus is the second largest genus in piperaceae and
includes plants that are annual or perennial, usually succulent herbs
and often epiphytic. The genus encompasses a number of species
found distributed in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. The
species of Peperomia are characterized by bisexual flowers (sessile,
sunk in rachis) in spike inflorescence and lateral or terminal stigma
which is usually penicillate. The genus is often considered as one of
the most species rich genera of angiosperms [7-10]. Peperomia
pellucida (L.) Kunth (fig. 1) belonging to the family Piperaceae is
commonly known by names such as pepper elder, rat ear and
shining bush. The plant is native to South America and is found
distributed in various countries in the world including India. The
plant is very common during rainy season and usually grows in
clumps in loose and humid soils and is found in shaded, damp
habitats. The plant occurs more or less throughout year in wet
places. It is characterized by succulent stems, fleshy and heart
shaped leaves, and tiny dot like seeds attached to fruiting spikes. It is
called neeru kaddi gida in Kannada. The plant is known to be edible
and is considered to possess cooling property [8, 10, 11]. In the
present review, we presented updated information (up to 2017)
concerned with the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical composition
and pharmacological properties of P. pellucida. An extensive
literature survey on various aspects of the plant was carried out by
referring flora, journals, and various search engines including
Google scholar, Science Direct and Pubmed.
Plant description
P. pellucida is a slender herb (reaching 30-50 cm in length) with
straight and succulent stem and is cosmopolitan in distribution.
Leaves are opposite and alternate, up to 2.5x2 cm, ovate-deltoid,
obtuse to acute at apex. Leaves are thin, fleshy, smooth,
membranous when dry, 5-7 nerved from the base. Petiole is up to
1.5 cm long. Spikes are terminal and leaf-opposed, up to 5 cm long.
Flowering occurs more or less throughout year. Fruits are ribbed
and reticulate, minute in size and almost dry [8, 10].
Fig. 1: Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth (photograph by prashith
kekuda).
International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences
ISSN- 0975-1491 Vol 10, Issue 2, 2018

Kekuda et al.
Int J Pharm Pharm Sci, Vol 10, Issue 2, 1-8
2
Ethnobotanical uses of P. Pellucida
The plant P. pellucida is used ethno botanically as medicine, food
and flavoring agent in various parts of the world. Aerial parts,
young shoots, leaves and whole plant are used in the form of
decoctions, juice, paste etc. to treat several diseases such as fever,
cold, cough, viral diseases, rheumatic pain, asthma, vaginal
infections and kidney infections. The Sumu (Ulwa) of southeastern
Nicaragua and southern Miskitu uses P. pellucida against bites and
stings (snakes, scorpions and insects), infections, venereal
diseases and female disorders [12]. The plant is used as human
food and medicine in Luang Prabang, Lao People’s Democratic
Republic [13]. In Lombok, Indonesia, the plant is used to treat
fever [14]. In North-Kamrup district, Assam, India, the plant paste
is applied externally to reduce pimple and white spots of the body
[15]. In Trinidad and Tobago, the plant is use for cooling [16]. The
whole plant is used in the treatment of measles in Ogun state,
Nigeria [17]. Juice made from leaves and roots are used to treat
athletes foot, decoction prepared from leaves is used in the
treatment of hemorrhoid pain and kidney infection in Rondônia,
Western Amazon, Brazil [18]. In Nigeria, the whole plant is used in
haemmorhoids, hypertension, convulsion and bone fracture [19].
The whole plant is boiled and used to treat kidney infection and to
lower hypertension in Mindanao, Philippines [20]. Table 1 depicts
ethnobotanical (medicinal and non-medicinal) uses of P. pellucida
in various parts of the world.
Table 1: Ethnobotanical uses of P. pellucida in various parts of the world
Region
Part
used
Uses
Reference
Malappuram district, Kerala, India
Whole plant
Decoction prepared from
whole
plant is taken internally for
treating rheumatism.
Chithra and
Geetha [21]
Barpeta district,
Assam, India
Plant juice,
leaf paste
Plant juice is used in stomach problems, leaf paste is applied on
cuts and wounds.
Kalita
et al.
[22]
East Sepik, Papua New Guinea
Leaves,
whole plant
Leaves are used as antidepressant and in the treatment of pimple.
Whole plant is used in the treatment of fever and headache.
Koch
et al.
[23]
Indonesia
Aerial parts
Dizziness, headache, fever, stomachache
Waty
et al.
[24]
Greater Khulna division, Bangladesh
Whole plant
Whole plant is used in the treatment of
diarrhe
a.
Rahmatullah
et
al. [25]
Bagerhat district,
Bangladesh
-
Tribal community uses plant for medicinal purposes
Mollik
et al.
[26]
Tinsukia district, Assam, India
Whole plant
Paste made from the whole plant is applied
on burns for quick
relief.
Buragohain
[27]
Assam, India
Young shoots
Young shoots are used as flavoring agents.
Bharali
et al.
[28]
Morigaon district, Assam, India
Aerial parts
Aerial part of the plant is used to treat stomach pain, joint pain and
headache.
Bordoloi
et al.
[29]
Jalpaiguri d
istrict, West Bengal, India
Whole plant
Paste made from whole plant is used against boils.
Bose
[30]
Kanda community, Bangladesh
Whole plant
Paste made from the whole plant is applied
by the sides of the
bitten place (poisonous snake, insect or reptile bites).
Rahmatullah
et
al. [31]
Saramaccan Maroons in Suriname
Whole plant
Used as herbal bath for children for general health promotion and
to get rid of evil.
Ruysschaert
et al.
[32]
Dominican Republic and New York city
(Dominican traditional medicine)
Aerial parts,
leaf
Aerial parts are used in the treatment of flu, leaves are used to
treat vaginal infections and asthma/chest congestion.
Vandebroek
et al.
[33]
Okigwe Imo state, South Eastern Nigeria
Leaves
Leaves are used to treat athletes’ foot and
wound.
Uzodimma
[34]
Assam, India
Leaf and
stem
Stem and leaves are used in urinary disorder and fever.
Gogoi and Zaman
[35]
Trinidad
Whole plant
Infusion or decoction made from whole plant is used to treat cold
and cough and as cooling/cleansing agent.
Clement
et al.
[36]
Tshopo district, DR Congo
Leaves
Leaves are cooked and used as leafy vegetable.
Termote
et al.
[11]
Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh
Leaves,
whole plant
Paste made from leaves and whole plant is used in the treatment
of fever in children and adults respectively.
Das
et al.
[37]
Kamrup district, Assam, India
Leaves and
stem
Leaves and stem are used in the treatment of fever.
Bora and Das
[38]
Table 2: Phytochemical groups identified in P. pellucida
Plant part
Phytochemical group
Ref
erence
Whole plant
Tannins, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, phytosterols, alkaloids, phenolics
Gini and Jothi
[46]
Leaf
Alkaloids, tannins, saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides
Ojo
et al.
[47]
Leaf
Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, ta
nnins, steroids, triterpenoids
Majumder and Kumar
[48]
Leaf
Alkaloid, cardiac glycoside, terpene, saponin, tannin
Omotayo and Borokini
[49]
Whole plant
Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, anthraquinones, glycosides
Idris
et al.
[50]
Leaf
Alkaloi
ds, tannins, flavonoids, saponins and cardiac glycosides
Abere and Okpalaonyagu
[51]
Leaf
Alkaloids, flavonoids
Ibibia
[52]
Stem
Alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids
Majumder
[53]
Whole plant
Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponi
ns
Sheikh
et al.
[54]
Leaf
Alkaloids, tannins, saponins
Egwuche
et al.
[55]
Aerial parts
Alkaloids, flavonoid, tannins, saponins, steroids, glycosides
Raina and Hassan
[56]
Phytochemistry of P. Pellucida
Plants produce a range of primary and secondary metabolites. The
study of chemical compounds present in plants (phytochemicals) is
known as phytochemistry. The therapeutic potential of plants is
ascribed to the presence of a wide range of phytochemicals, mainly
secondary metabolites. Significant advancements in the technology,
mainly chromatographic and spectral analyses, led to the discovery
of many types of phytochemicals from plants and the
pharmacological studies revealed their potential role. Techniques

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Int J Pharm Pharm Sci, Vol 10, Issue 2, 1-8
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such as column chromatography, Thin layer chromatography (TLC),
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), Fourier-
transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) spectroscopic techniques are routinely used to
identify phytochemicals present in plants [39-45]. Various
researchers have identified phytochemical groups and chemical
compounds in leaves and whole plant by standard phytochemical
procedures and various analytical techniques.
Table 2 and 3 provides information on various phytochemical
groups and chemicals identified in different parts of the plant by
standard phytochemical tests and GC-MS analysis respectively.
Table 3: Chemical compounds identified in P. pellucida by GC-MS analysis
Sample
C
ompounds
identified
References
Essential oil
Dillapiole, trans
-
car
yophyllene
da Silva
et al.
[57]
Leaf extract
phytol, 2
-
Naphthalenol, Hexadecanoic acid and 9,12
-
Octadecadienoic acid
Wei
et al.
[58]
Essential oil
Dillapiole, myristicine
Francois
et al.
[59]
Essential oil
carotol, dill apiole, pygmaein, (E)
-
caryophylle
ne, germacrene D, β
-
elemene, camphor, daucene,
apiole, β-bisabolene and bicyclogermacrene
Verma
et al.
[60]
Whole plant
extract
Apiol, Phytol, n
-
Hexadeconoic acid, E
-
2
-
Tetradecen
-
1
-
ol, Stigmasterol, Campesterol, and Sitosterol
Narayanamoorthi
et al.
[61]
Essential oil
γ
-
gurjunene, 1,10
-
di
-
epicubenol, (E)
-
caryophyllene, dillapiole, carotol, trans
-
β
-
guaiene
de Oliveira
et al.
[62]
Essential oil
Phytol, α
-
terpineol, β
-
caryophyllene
, d
-
limonene, linalool
Okoh
et al.
[63]
Ragasa et al. [39] isolated dill-apiol, aurantiamide acetate and
pachypophyllin from leaf extract of P. pellucida and elucidated their
structure by NMR studies. Pellucidin A, a novel dimeric ArC2
compound, along with dill-apiol has been isolated by Bayma et al.
[64] from the aerial parts of P. pellucida. The structure of pellucidin
A was established by spectral analyses. The study carried out by Xu
et al. [65] revealed isolation of compounds such as secolignans,
tetrahydrofuran lignans, highly methoxylated dihydro-
naphthalenone, peperomins, sesamin and isoswertisin from the
whole plant of P. pellucida. Khan et al. [66] recovered a xanthone
glycoside from leaves of P. pellucida and characterized the
compound as Patuloside A (3-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy-1,5,6-
trihydroxy-9H-xanthene-9-one) by performing various
chromatographic and spectral analyses. Leena and Annam [67]
isolated a flavone glycoside from whole plant of P. pellucida and
characterized the compound as vitexin by chromatographic and
spectral analyses. The study carried out by Hartati et al. [41]
identified compounds viz. stigmasterol, analogue of pheophytin and
β-sitosterol-D-glucopyranoside in the solvent extract of P. pellucida.
Susilawati et al. [68] isolated a compound namely 8,9-dimethoxy
ellagic acid from the ethyl acetate fraction of leaf of P. pellucida by
column chromatography and the structure was elucidated by
chromatographic and spectral analyses. A compound by name 3’,4’,
dihydroxy-3-5-dimethoxy flavone-7-O-β-rhamnose was isolated
from ethyl acetate fraction of crude methanolic extract of aerial
parts of P. pellucida and the structure was elucidated by the spectral
data [43]. The study carried out by Ahmad et al. [69] revealed a total
alkaloid content of 29.59 mg/g piperine in the dichloromethane
fraction of plant material. Fig. 2 shows the structure of some of the
compounds identified in the plant.
Fig. 2: Structures of some compounds identified in P. pellucida [39, 41, 66, 68]
Pharmacological activities of P. Pellucida
Many studies have been carried out to investigate pharmacological
properties of P. pellucida. The plant is reported to exhibit several
bioactivities such as hypotensive, immunostimulatory, antioxidant,
antimicrobial, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, fracture healing,
gastroprotective and antidiabetic activity.
Concise information on pharmacological activities of extracts and
purified compounds of P. pellucida is discussed below.

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Int J Pharm Pharm Sci, Vol 10, Issue 2, 1-8
4
Hypotensive activity
Nwokocha et al. [70] evaluated hypotensive activity of aqueous extract
from whole plant of P. pellucida in rat model. Intravenous administration
of extract showed a dose dependent reduction in systolic and diastolic
blood pressure, heart rate and mean arterial pressure. It was shown in
the study that the extract induces bradycardia and hypotension in
normotensive rats via mechanisms that are nitric oxide dependent. The
study carried out by Fasola and Adeboye [71] also revealed anti-
hypertensive activity of P. pellucida in normotensive rats. Intravenous
administration of methanol extract resulted in marked decrease in mean
arterial blood pressure and heart rate.
Neuropharmacological activity
The study carried out by Khan et al. [72] indicated that the
petroleum ether and ethyl acetate fractions of ethanol extract of
leaves of P. pellucida possess central nervous system depressant
effect as the fractions were shown to possess dose dependent effects
on duration of diazepam-induced sleep, nikethamide-induced
toxicity, light-dark test and force swimming test.
Immunostimulatory activity
In a study, Lee et al. [73] revealed the potential of leaf extract of P.
pellucida (mixed with fish pellets) as an immunostimulator in
controlling motile aeromonad septicemia caused by Aermomonas
hydrophila in Oreochromis spp. (red hybrid tilapia). It was observed
that the mortality rate was considerably lesser in fishes that were
fed with diet which was mixed with leaf extract.
Antimutagenicity activity
Ragasa et al. [39] evaluated antimutagenic activity of dill-apiol and
pachypophyllin isolated from leaf extract of P. pellucida by
micronucleus test. The compounds were not effective as the study
did not indicated significant reduction in micronucleated
polychromatic erythrocytes induced by mitomycin C.
Anti-angiogenic activity
The study carried out by Camposano et al. [74] revealed anti-
angiogenic activity of methanol extract of P. pellucida in terms of
inhibition of angiogenesis in chorioallantoic membrane assay. The
extract was shown to inhibit angiogenesis with an activity of 26%.
Fracture healing activity
Ngueguim et al. [75] evaluated the potential of ethanol extract of P.
pellucida on bone regeneration following bone and marrow injury in
rats, and determined the mode of action. The extract dose-
dependently induced bone regeneration at the fracture site and
significantly increased mineral deposition. The extract was also
found to improve microarchitecture of the regenerating bone. It was
shown that the extract accelerates fracture repair via stimulatory
effects on osteoblast differentiation and mineralization. Recently,
Florence et al. [76] revealed the potential of aqueous extract of P.
pellucida to accelerate fracture healing in Wistar rats. Radiological
tests revealed a dose dependent formation of callus at the level of
the fracture gap and was evidenced by formation of a highly dense
and compact fibrocartilagenous callus.
Antiulcerogenic/gastroprotective activity
Roslida and Aini [77] evaluated gastroprotective (antiulcerogenic)
activity of ethanolic extract of aerial parts of P. pellucida in
indomethacin and necrotizing agent induced models in rats. The
result revealed that the extract at all doses produced significant
inhibition of gastric mucosal damage induced by necrotizing agents
and indomethacin. Rojas-Martínez et al. [78] determined
gastroprotective activity of solvent extracts and Dillapiole from P.
pellucida. Dichloromethane extract of leaf and stem displayed
marked gastroprotective activity in rats with ethanol induced gastric
ulcer. Dillapiole also exhibited marked gastroprotection.
Analgesic activity
Aziba et al. [79] determined analgesic activity of methanol extract of
aerial parts of P. pellucida by acetic acid induced writhing in mice. It
was observed that oral administration of extract (70-210 mg/kg)
exhibited a significant analgesic activity in mice. Arrigoni-Blank et al.
[80] evaluated analgesic activity of aqueous extract prepared from
aerial parts of P. pellucida by abdominal writhing and hot plate tests.
The extract displayed significant analgesic activity at extract
concentration of 400 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg in abdominal writhing
and hot plate test respectively. The study carried out by Sheikh et al.
[54] revealed analgesic potential of ethyl acetate extract of whole
plant by acetic acid-induce writhing in mice.
Antipyretic activity
The study carried out by Khan et al. [81] revealed the antipyretic
potential of petroleum ether and ethyl acetate soluble fractions of
ethanol extract of leaves of P. pellucida in boiled milk induced
pyrexia in albino rabbits. Administration of solvent fractions at a
dose of 80 mg/kg body weight showed a significant reduction in
elevated body temperature in albino rabbits.
Anti-inflammatory activity
Arrigoni-Blank et al. [82] evaluated anti-inflammatory activity of
aqueous extract of leaves of P. pellucida by carrageenan induced paw
edema test in rats. It was observed that the extract obtained from
plants in all seasons displayed antiedematogenic activity with
significant activity observed in phenophases of winter and spring.
Arrigoni-Blank et al. [80] evaluated anti-inflammatory activity of
aqueous extract prepared from aerial parts of P. pellucida by paw
edema induced by carrageenan and arachidonic acid. It was
observed that oral administration of 200 and 400 mg/kg of the
extract showed an anti-inflammatory activity in the carrageenan
test, which was based on interference with synthesis of
prostaglandin, as confirmed by the arachidonic acid test. The study
carried out by Mutee et al. [83] indicates the anti-inflammatory
potential of petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol extract of P.
pellucida in carrageenan induced rat paw edema. Among extracts,
petroleum ether extract displayed significant activity when
compared to chloroform and methanol extracts.
Antimicrobial activity
Ragasa et al. [39] isolated dill-apiol and pachypophyllin from leaf
extract of P. pellucida and determined their antimicrobial activity.
These compounds were selectively effective against Trichophyton
mentagrophytes while other test microbes were not affected. In a
study, Khan and Omoloso [84] screened antimicrobial activity of crude
methanolic extract and petrol, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and
butanol fractions of methanolic extract of P. pellucida. Crude extract
and fractions displayed broad spectrum antibacterial activity. Butanol
fraction of crude extract was more active. Patuloside A isolated from
leaves of P. pellucida was shown to display concentration dependent
inhibition of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Patuloside A
showed weak activity against Aspergillus flavus and Candida albicans
while A. niger and Rhizopus oryzae were unaffected [66]. Further
details on the antimicrobial potential of P. pellucida described by other
researchers are shown in table 4.
Antidiabetic activity
Humzah et al. [93] showed that diet containing P. pellucida (10%
and 20%) possess antidiabetic effect in alloxan-induced diabetes in
rats. A considerable reduction in the blood glucose level was
observed in the study. The levels of aspartate transaminase (AST),
alanine transaminase (ALT) and alkaline phosphate (ALP) were
lesser in rats fed with diet containing P. pellucida. Moreover, the
concentration of total cholesterol, triglycerides (TG), high-density
lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) content were
also lesser in rats fed with diet containing P. pellucida. The levels of
superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and glutathione were also
increased. Sheikh et al. [54] evaluated antidiabetic activity of ethyl
acetate extract of whole plant of P. pellucida in alloxan-induced
diabetic mice. A significant hypoglycemic effect was observed in
mice administered with extract. 8,9-dimethoxy ellagic acid, isolated
from leaf extract of P. pellucida, was evaluated for antidiabetic
activity by alloxan-induced hyperglycemia in mice [68]. The
compound was shown to exhibit 33.74% blood glucose lowering in
normoglycemic model at 100 mg/kg dose.

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5
Table 4: Antimicrobial potential of P. pellucida
Extract
Part
Activity against
References
Aqueous and ethanol
extract
Leaf
Gram negative bacteria
Akinnibosun
et al.
[85]
Methanol extract
Whole
plant
Bacillus subtilis
and
Candida albicans
Wiart
et al.
[
86
]
Methanol extract
Leaf
Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
Wei
et al.
[
58
]
M
ethanol extract
,
solvent
fractions
Leaf
Gram positive and Gram negative bacteri
a;
Fungi namely
Aspergillus
,
Rhizopus, Candida and Penicillium
Oloyede
et al.
[
87
]
Solvent extracts
Leaf
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
,
Salmonella typhii
and
Shigella dysenteriae
and
Aspergillus niger
Ibibia
et al.
[
52
]
Aqueous and organic
extracts
Leaf
Gram positive and Gram negative bac
teria
Ojo
et al.
[
47
]
Alcohol extract
Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
Mensah
et al.
[
88
]
Essential oil
Leaf
Fusarium moniliforme
,
Rhizopus stolonifer
Francois
et al.
[
59
]
Ethanol extract
Leaf
Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
Igwe and
Mgbemena
[89]
Ethanol
Leaf
Shigella dysenteriae
Uddin
et al.
[
90
]
Solvent extracts
Leaf
Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
Zubair
et al.
[
91
]
Aqueous and methanol
extract
Aerial parts
Aeromonas hydrophila
,
Enterobacter cloacae
,
Streptococcus ag
alactiae
Raina and Hassan
[56]
Solvent extracts
Whole
plant
Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
Idris
et al.
[
50
]
Essential oils
Leaf and
stem
Gram positive
,
Gram negative bacteria
,
Mycobacterium smegmatis
Okoh
et al.
[
63
]
Ethanol extract
Leaf
Ca
ndida albicans
Hastuti
et al.
[
92
]
Acaricidal activity
In a study, de Oliveira et al. [62] evaluated the activity of the
essential oils from leaf and stem against Tetranychus urticae. It was
observed that the stem oil was fourfold more toxic than the leaf oil
however the activity of essential oils was lesser than eugenol, the
positive control.
Anticancer/cytotoxic activity
Peperomin E, isolated from whole plant of P. pellucida, was found to
exhibit cytotoxicity against cell lines viz. HL-60, MCF-7 and HeLa cell
lines [65]. Khan et al. [66] determined cytotoxic activity of
Patuloside A, isolated from leaves of P. pellucida, against brine
shrimp nauplii. The compound exhibited cytotoxicity with an LC
50
value of 18.24μg/ml and the activity observed was lesser when
compared to standard drug. Wei et al. [58] determined cytotoxic
potential of methanolic extract of P. pellucida leaf against MCF-7 cell
line by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium
bromide (MTT) assay. The extract displayed concentration
dependent cytotoxicity with an IC
50
value of 10.4±0.06μg/ml.
Oloyede et al. [87] screened cytotoxicity of crude methanol extract
and fractions such as hexane, ethyl acetate, butanol and aqueous
fractions of leaves of P. pellucida by brine shrimp lethality assay.
Crude extract, hexane and ethyl acetate fractions were shown to be
effective while butanol and aqueous fractions were not effective in
causing mortality of brine shrimp larvae.
Antioxidant activity
Mutee et al. [83] determined antiradical activity of chloroform,
petroleum ether and methanol extract of P. pellucida by 2,2-diphenyl-
1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. Methanol extract was shown to display
marked scavenging of free radicals when compared to other extracts.
Wei et al. [58] screened methanolic extract of P. pellucida leaf for
radical scavenging potential by DPPH assay. The extract was shown to
display concentration dependent scavenging of radicals but the
activity observed was considerably lesser than that of quercetin.
Oloyede et al. [87] determined antioxidant potential of crude
methanolic extract and hexane, ethyl acetate, butanol and aqueous
fractions of leaves of P. pellucida by DPPH scavenging, hydrogen
peroxide scavenging and ferric thiocyanate method. Extract and
fractions were shown to exhibit marked activity in all methods. The
study carried out by Beltran-Benjamin et al. [94] revealed an increase
in the levels of antioxidant enzymes viz. superoxide dismutase and
catalase on administration of crude methanolic extract of P. pellucida
in rats. Phongtongpasuk and Poadang [95] evaluated antioxidant
potential of butanol, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of P. pellucida
obtained by maceration and reflux method. Extracts obtained by reflux
method displayed marked DPPH scavenging activity and reducing
power. Phenolic content was also higher in extracts obtained by reflux
method. The study carried out by Okoh et al. [63] showed the
antioxidant potential of essential oil of leaf and stem of P. pellucida.
The essential oils exhibited concentration dependent scavenging of
DPPH, 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS)
and nitric oxide radicals.
Enzyme inhibitory activity
In a study, Ong et al. [96] evaluated porcine pancreatic lipase
inhibitory activity of methanolic extract of leaves of P. pellucida and
observed lesser potential of leaf extract to cause inhibition of lipase
activity when compared to standard. Kurniawan et al. [43] isolated a
compound by name 3’,4’, dihydroxy-3-5-dimethoxy flavone-7-O-β-
rhamnose from aerial parts of P. pellucida and evaluated its
inhibitory activity against Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE).
The compound was found to inhibit ACE dose dependently with an
IC
50
value of 7.72µg/ml. Ethyl acetate fraction was more potent than
the compound. The study carried out by Parawansah et al. [97]
showed the potential of ethanol extract of leaves of P. pellucida to
inhibit the activity of xanthine oxidase. Extract was shown to exhibit
inhibition of xanthine oxidase with an IC
50
value of 19.5 ppm.
Antisickling activity
Abere and Okpalaonyagu [51] evaluated antisickling activity of
leaves of P. pellucida on the inhibition of sodium metabisulphite-
induced sickling of the HbSS red blood cells. Leaf extract was found
to significantly inhibit sickling of red cells with maximum inhibition
of sickling (57.5%) at 500 mg/ml of the extract.
Anti-ostioporesis activity
The study carried out by Putri et al. [98] revealed the potential of
ethanol extract of P. pellucida (100 mg/kg body weight [b. w]) to
prevent osteoporosis in ovariectomized (OVX)-induced osteoporotic
rats. At 100 mg/kg concentration, the extract treated rats showed
improvement on three-dimensional image of the trabecular bone
compared with the OVX-control group. Also, the trabecular cavity
formation in 100 mg/kg extract-treated group was minimal.
Fibrinolytic activity
The study of Ebenezer et al. [99] showed a weaker fibrinolytic
activity of P. pellucida extract. The in vitro clot lysis activity was

Kekuda et al.
Int J Pharm Pharm Sci, Vol 10, Issue 2, 1-8
6
considerably lesser when compared to extracts from other plants. In
another study, Zubair et al. [91] revealed the potential of ethyl
acetate, hexane, chloroform and aqueous soluble fractions of P.
pellucida to cause lysis of clot indicating thrombolytic activity.
Marked activity was displayed by ethyl acetate soluble fraction.
Antidiarrhoeal activity
The ethanolic extract of P. pellucida leaves was evaluated for
antidiarrhoeal activity in castor oil-induced diarrhoea in mice. The
extract was shown to display concentration dependent anti-
diarrhoeal activity [91].
Hair growth promotion activity
The study carried out by Kanedi et al. [100] revealed the potential of
crude extract of P. pellucida in a topical gel formulation to promote
hair growth in rabbits dose dependently. The mean hair length
increased on increasing the concentration of extract in the gel.
Proximate and nutritive attributes of P. Pellucida
Egwuche et al. [55] evaluated nutritive attributes of P. pellucida
leaves from Nigeria. The leaves were shown to contain
carbohydrates (38.97%), proteins (7.68%), crude fibre (22.35%)
and fat (1.08%). The leaves were also shown to contain appreciable
quantity of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium. The study
carried out by Ooi et al. [101] revealed the nutritive composition of
P. pellucida from Malaysia. The plant was shown to contain an
appreciable quantity of carbohydrates (about 45%) and proteins
(about 10%) however the lipid content was low (about 3%). The
plant is also shown to possess considerable quantity of potassium,
calcium, iron and sodium.
CONCLUSIONS
The plant P. pellucida is a well-known medicinal plant being used
ethnomedicinally for treatment of various diseases worldwide. In
vitro and in vivo studies have shown many pharmacological
activities of the plant which supports the traditional use of the plant.
Literatures have shown the potential of isolated compounds to
exhibit bioactivities such as antimicrobial, anticancer,
gastroprotective and antidiabetic activities. The presence of
phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins and
glycosides in the plant could be responsible for the pharmacological
activities of the plant. The plant P. pellucida appears to be suitable
for developing drugs that can be used to treat several diseases or
disorders. Utilization of the plant in suitable form can be beneficial
in terms of promotion of health and disease therapy.
SOURCES OF SUPPORT
None
AUTHORS CONTRIBUTIONS
Both the authors namely Dr. Prashith Kekuda T. R and Dr.
Raghavendra H. L were involved equally in literature survey,
framing contents, writing draft paper and finalizing the review
paper.
CONFLICTS OF INTERESTS
Authors declared that there are no potential conflicts of interest
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