Anthracnose, a Prevalent Disease in Capsicum

Abstract

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L) is the major spice crops used all over the world. Anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum species is one of the chief hindrances for chilli production. Colletotrichum is a large genus of Ascomycete fungi, containing species that cause anthracnose disease on wide range crops of economic value. Though disease is being managed by chemical control agents, environmental concern calls for the usage of ecofriendly methods. Inspite of extensive research, anthracnose resistant chilli cultivar has not been developed and commercialized. Breeding for resistance is still challenging because of presence of several Colletotrichum species in a given pathosystem. This paper reviews importance of chilli, anthracnose disease and causative organism, plant pathogen interactions, disease control strategies. Emphasis is laid on molecular approaches for disease management.

Full text

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Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical
Sciences
Anthracnose, a Prevalent Disease in Capsicum.
Lakshmi Sahitya U1, Sri Deepthi R2, Pedda Kasim D3, Suneetha P4
Krishna MSR*
1, 2, 3, *Department of Biotechnology, KL University, India.
4Acharya N G Ranga University, Hyderabad.
ABSTRACT
Chilli (Capsicum annuum L) is the major spice crops used all over the world. Anthracnose disease caused
by Colletotrichum species is one of the chief hindrances for chilli production. Colletotrichum is a large genus of
Ascomycete fungi, containing species that cause anthracnose disease on wide range crops of economic value.
Though disease is being managed by chemical control agents, environmental concern calls for the usage of
ecofriendly methods. Inspite of extensive research, anthracnose resistant chilli cultivar has not been developed
and commercialized. Breeding for resistance is still challenging because of presence of several Colletotrichum
species in a given pathosystem. This paper reviews importance of chilli, anthracnose disease and causative
organism, plant pathogen interactions, disease control strategies. Emphasis is laid on molecular approaches for
disease management.
Keywords: Anthracnose, Colletotrichum, Molecular Approaches.
*Corresponding author

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INTRODUCTION
Pepper is an important vegetable as well as spice crop, cultivated world wide. It is not
only used in many cuisines but also found to have many medicinal properties. It belongs to
genus Capsicum. Capsicum is a genus of Flowering plants that belongs to the family Solanaceae.
Though it was originated in the American tropics, it is widely propagated [1]. In world, chilli is
raised over an area of 1832 thousand hectares producing 2959 thousand tons. India is largest
producer, with 36% share in global production. Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, West
Bengal, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu are found to be important states growing chilli in
India.
The genus Capsicum comprises about 20- 25 species, out of which C. annuum, C,
baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens and C. pubescens are cultivated. Capsicum annuum is
widely cultivated variety [2], second being C. frutescens [3]. Chilli is called variously with
different names depending on the place viz, Pimento (Spanish), Puvre de Guinee (French),
Paparika (German), Spaanse Peper (Dutch) etc. Commonly used term is Chilli, which refers to
hot types of Capsicum.
Chilli is found to be comprised of many plant derived chemical compounds that promote
health. The strong spicy taste comes due to the presence of active alkaloid compounds
capsaicin, capsanthin, capsorubin. Chilli contains steam volatile oils, carotenoids, fatty oils,
vitamins, mineral elements etc., [3]. Chilli reduces platelet aggregation; they also act as
vasodilators stimulating blood circulation. Chilli helps in reducing calories by increasing
thermogenesis. Chilli reduces risk of cancer by preventing carcinogens from binding to DNA.
They contain pain alleviating salicyclate compounds. In addition, consumption of chilli itself
releases endorphins in the body which help in reducing pain. In folk medicine, capsicum
preparations are used in rheumatic disorders, pharyngitis, asthma, cough, anorexia,
hemorrhoids. Vitamin C is present in more quantities in fresh green chilies than citrus fruits and
Vitamin A is high in red chilli than carrots [4, 5]. Colour of the chilli is due to presence of
carotenoids and presence of numerous chemicals, mineral elements impart nutritional value to
chilli [6, 7, 8].
Chilli is an important commercial crop grown in India. India emerged as leading
producer and exporter of chilli contributing one fourth of world’s production. Although
production is high in India, the average productivity is less (1ton/ha), when compared to other
important producers of chilli viz, China, Mexico, Taiwan where the productivity is 3 tons/ha [9].
Cultivation of open pollinated varieties which lack the capacity to overcome yield barriers is one
of the reasons for low productivity [10]. Another important contributor for this low productivity
is biotic stress resulting in diseases. Several diseases caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses affect
the production of chilli.
Among all the diseases, anthracnose disease is the major constraint to chilli production
worldwide resulting in high yield losses [11]. This fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum
species drastically reduces the quality and yield of fruit resulting in low returns to farmers. 10-

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80% of marketable yield is reduced in Thailand [12], about 13% in Korea [13]. This die back/
fruit rot/ anthracnose disease is seen on mature fruits resulting in both pre harvest and post
harvest fruit loss [14, 3]. In India, in severe cases, pre harvest and post harvest losses comprise
up more than 50% [15]. Significant yield losses were reported from Punjab and Haryana (20-
60%) and Assam (12-30%) [16, 17].
Anthracnose:
The word anthracnose is a Greek word meaning ‘coal’. It is commonly used for plant
diseases which are characterized by dark sunken lesions having spores [18]. Anthracnose
disease is one of major constrains that restricts profitable production of chilli. It is caused by
Colletotrichum species. It directly reduces the quantity and quality of the harvested yield. Small
lesions on chilli fruits also affect the profits [19]. Post harvest damage is more as infection
remains latent in plant cells [20] and symptoms appear once the fruit is matured. Symptoms
include sunken necrotic lesions with concentric rings which produce conidial masses. Under
severe conditions, lesions fuse and conidial masses may occur in concentric rings on lesions.
Colletotrichum:
Causal agent of chilli anthracnose disease is Colletotrichum. Genus Colletotrichum
belongs to Kingdom-Fungi, Phylum-Ascomycota, Class-Sordariomycetes, Order- Phyllachorales
and Family- Phyllachoraceae. Colletotrichum genus comprises a number of plant pathogens,
effecting woody to herbaceous plants. Fruits are majorly affected in the disease. Colletotrichum
species are pathogenic to commercial crops (strawberry, pepper, citrus), and cereals (maize,
sugarcane, sorghum). It is the 8th most important plant fungal pathogenic group [21].
Colletotrichum species are known as broad range pathogens as a single species is capable of
infecting diverse hosts and numerous species infect a single host [22]. Despite the fact that
Colletotrichum species are responsible for causing anthracnose disease, some other diseases
such as red rot of sugar cane, coffee berry disease, crown rot of banana were also reported
[23]. Seldom, in human diseases like keratitis, sub-cutaneous infection, Colletotrichum species
have been implicated [24, 25, 26, 27]. Mycotic infection of a sea turtle by Colletotrichum
species was also reported [28]. Furthermore Colletotrichum fioriniae infecting hemlock scale
insects in England and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides on citrus scale insects in Brazil [29] were
reported. Though the infection process is yet to be understood, it was seen that insects became
infected after conidial suspension was sprayed [30].
Pepper anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum species is the reason for severe yield
losses in many Asian countries. Causal agents of chilli anthracnose, at different places were
tabulated in Table 1. In Colletotrichum patho system, several Colletotrichum species can be
associated with anthracnose of same host [31, 32]. Five species of Colletotrichum are found to
be associated in causing anthracnose disease in chilli world wide. They are C. capsici, C.
acutatum, C. gloeosporioides, C. coccoides, and C. graminicola . As per Kim et al., [33], different
species infect chilli plant at different stages. Leaves and stems are damaged by C. coccodes and
C. dementium, where as C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides infect chilli fruits. Colletotrichum

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capsici is found to be prevalent in red chilli fruits where as C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides
cause infection both in young and mature fruits ([34, 35, 15, 36, 37]. In Thailand, C. capsici is
found to be great menace and found to contain three pathotypes [38].
Table 1- Reported causal agents of chilli anthracnose [11].
Countries and regions
Causal agent
Reference
Australia
Colletotrichum acutatum, C. atramentarium, C. demantium, C.
gloeosporioides var. minor, C. gloeosporioides var. gloeosporioides
[31]
India
C. capsici
[158, 159]
Indonesia
C. acutatum, C. capsici, C. gloeosporioides
[122]
Korea
C. capsici, C. gloeosporioides, C. coccodes, C. demantium
[160]
Myanmar (Burma)
Gloeosporium piperatnum E. and E., C. nigrum E. and Hals
[161]
Papua New Guinea
C. capsici, C. gloeosporioides
[162]
New Zealand
C. coccodes
[163]
Taiwan
C. acutatum, C. capsici, C. gloeosoprioides
[164]
Thailand
C. acutatum, C. capsici, C. gloeosoprioides
[11]
UK
C. acutatum, Glomerella cingulata
[165]
USA
C. acutatum
[78]
Vietnam
C.acutatum, C.capsici, C.gleosporioides, C.nigrum
[166]
Many species of Colletotrichum are seed borne and they may survive in soil on debris
and may be spread by water splash dispersal of conidia and transmission of ascospores through
air [39]. They are capable of growing in and on seeds as acervuli and micro sclerotia [40].
Disintegration of parenchymatous layers of seed coat and even food materials in endosperm
and embryo are depleted in highly colonized seeds [41]. Appresorium that developed from
spore on plant surface becomes route of infection and is followed by cuticle penetration [42].
Once the pathogen is penetrated, establishment of fungus in plant tissues is aided by host
induced virulence effectors. Fungal colonies enter biotrophic phase involving dormancy [43],
followed by necrotic phase resulting in death of plant cells. Severe post harvest losses are due
to delayed onset of disease symptoms [43]. Biotrophic life style adapted by Colletotrichum
species also contribute to their standing as symptomless endophytes of living plant tissues [44,
45, 46] Fungi can grow on alternative hosts like other solanaceous or legume crops, rotten
fruits [47].
Morphological Characterization:
For effective disease management, accurate identification of Colletotrichum species is
very much essential. Classically, identification of Colletotrichum is done by morphological
characteristics like size and shape of conidia, appressoria and cultural characters like, colony
outline, shape, colour and texture [48, 49]. Most often considered morphological characters
include: culture colony characteristics, growth rate, conidial morphology, appressorial
morphology. Than et al., [50] reported grayish white to dark grey C. gleosporioides. Some
isolates of C. gleosporioides showed pale grey to black aerial mycelium while some produced
even mycelia mass. Summary of morphological data of Colletotrichum species studied in
Thailand was presented in Table 2. C. capsici colonies were white to grey with little aerial

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mycelium while C. acuatatum produced pale orange colonies, showing sparse aerial mycelium.
Most of Colletotrichum capsici colonies showed cottony growth with regular- irregular margins
showing colour variation from light to dark grey having whitish to brownish tinge [51]. Further,
conidial shape was reported to be fusiform to falcate. Optimum temperarure for C. capsici is
28ºC while that of C. gloeosporioides is 320C [52].
Table 2- Morphological data for Colletotrichum species [11]
S.
No
Host
Species
Colony Character
Conidia
Appressoria
Length
(µm)
Width
(µm)
Shape
Length
(µm)
Width
(µm)
1
Chilli
C.gloeosporioides
Pale grey to black zonated
colonies with abundant
orange conidial masses near
the centre
13.5
4.5
Cylindrical
9.0
6.3
2
Chilli
C.acutatum
Orange coloured colony with
slight mycelium
14.0
3.5
Fusiform
6.5
6.0
3
Chilli
C.capsici
White to grey colour with
dark green centre and
cottony mycelium
21.0
3.0
Falcate
9.5
6.5
Molecular Characterization:
Nevertheless, morphological examination followed by species identification is not
adequate. This may be due to changes in the morphological characteristics due to variation in
environment. DNA sequence analysis method is being used to characterize the species to
overcome problems in traditional methods. Cannon et al., [32] emphasized that data derived
from DNA analysis is the most reliable for classifying Colletotrichum as DNA is not directly
influenced by environmental factors. For fungal phylogenetic studies, mostly utilized sequences
are from ribosomal gene cluster, as they are present in large numbers and evolved as a single
unit [53]. Because of their comparative variability, sequence analysis of internal transcribed
spacer (ITS) regions lying between 18S and 5.8S genes and 5.8S and 28S genes, proved to be
useful in studying phylogenetic relationships of Colletotrichum species [54, 55, 56, 57].
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLP) studies of ITS regions from AluI. RasI and
BamHI digestions were used to differentiate Colletotrichum species causing anthracnose in chilli
in Taiwan region [58]. Colletotrichum capsici and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides causing chilli
anthracnose in Thailand were distinguished using RAPD markers [59]. According to Cannon et
al., [32] integrated approach, where there is application of molecular diagnostic tools along
with traditional morphological characterization is more accurate and reliable approach for
studying Colletotrichum species.
Plant- Pathogen Interactions:
It is often observed that a pathogen which causes disease in certain plant may not cause
disease in another plant. In general, plants are resistant to many diseases. Pathogens are able
to cause disease, only when they evade plants immune responses. According to Flor [60]

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inheritance of resistance in host and the ability of pathogen to cause disease is controlled by
pair of corresponding genes, one being resistance gene present in plant and the other being Avr
gene of pathogen. Avr genes of pathogens are accountable for the production of proteins that
are either directly or indirectly recognized by only those plants that possess complementary R
gene. In the evolution, plants have evolved many strategies to protect themselves from
pathogens. At the same time, even pathogens developed many mechanisms to overcome host
immune responses and to establish themselves in host. These resulted in detailed raise of
attack and counterattack strategies.
The first barrier that will be encountered by pathogen is rigid plant cell wall. In order to
gain entry into the host plant and establish infection, pathogens need to hydrolyze the cell wall.
The ability of the pathogens to secrete hydrolytic enzymes to degrade components of plant cell
wall is one of important virulence factors of plant pathogenic fungi and bacteria [61]. Cellulases,
xylanases, polygalacturonases and pectate lysases initially degrade polysaccharide components
of cell wall, followed by cleavage of ester cross links between polysaccharide fibrils by the
enzymes like pectin esterases. This results in loosening of cell walls [62]. Cell wall degrading
enzymes serves dual function, as they not only allow pathogen’s entry into the host, but also
alarms host. Degradation products released due to cell wall degradation induce plant’s immune
response [63, 64]. The immune responses may include production of antimicrobial compounds,
strengthening of plant cell wall, inducing programmed cell death etc. Some pathogens are
successful in causing disease, as these pathogens encompass the ability to overcome immune
responses [65].
Despite the fact that pathogens developed diverse strategies to successfully overcome
host defense responses, plants also improved their strategies to protect themselves from the
effects of pathogens. Pathogen strategies may include interference or disruption of host
defensive mechanisms, avoiding detection and elimination by host immune response by
preventing antigen presentation, blocking apoptosis, mimicking molecules [66, 67]. Plants
naturally comprise immune system that helps to protect itself from several microbial infections.
One of the effective methods through which the defense system is mediated in plants is by
Resistance (R) genes. They are capable of recognizing specific pathogen derived avirulence (Avr)
factors [68, 69]. Resistance mediated by R genes is due to the highly specific interaction
between plant R gene and corresponding pathogen Avr genes [60]. Hosts protect themselves
either by resistance or by tolerance [70, 71]. Plant resistance is due to the presence of resistant
traits. Resistant traits reduce damage by restraining multiplication of pathogen and finally
eliminating it. On the other hand, tolerance is achieved by thinning the consequences of
infection without eliminating the pathogen [70, 71]. During their co evolution, plants and
pathogens maintained a long standing relationship allowing them for mutual co- existence. This
might lead to one of the possible mechanisms i.e. exchange of genetic material called
horizontal gene transfer [72].
Once pathogen enters into host, obtaining nutrition from the host is crucial. Pathogens
developed many mechanisms all the way through to obtain nutrition from the plants. When we
take into consideration of fungi, fungi form several infection structures such as appressoria,

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hyphae to get nutrition from the host. Fungi change the structures of the hyphae they produce
in response to changes in host plant cell. These infection structures help at different stages of
pathogenesis like attachment to host, penetration, multiplication, establishment of infection,
obtaining nutrition. Plant pathogenic fungi are classified based on the mode through which they
obtain nutrition from plants. Fungi, obtaining nutrition from the living cells are Biotrophs.
While fungi obtaining nutrients from host cells after killing them are called Necrotrophs.
Necrotrophs immediately kill plant cells and subsequently lead a saprotrophic life. Biotrophs,
maintain a relation with host cell and by their feeding activities, they deplete nutrients in the
cell, thus exploiting the host but not killing it. Different biotrophic ways include intercellular,
sub cuticular, inter and intracellular, extracellular with haustoria, intracellular with haustoria.
Apart from these two groups, there is a group of fungi, which come under hemibiotrophs. They
use both the modes of nutrition at different stages of their life. Colletotrichum is best example
for hemibiotrophic life style.
For many years, Colletotrichum species proved to be an excellent model for studying
cellular and molecular ways of fungal pathogenicity [73]. Most species of Colletotrichum are
hemibiotrophs but some (Colletotrichum capsici) express ‘subcuticular intramural necrotrophy’
[74], Colletotrichum gloeosporioides display both strategies based on the host plant [75]. Some
Colletotrichum species form long term quiescent infections [76, 77].
They are capable of growing in and on seeds as acervuli and micro sclerotia. Micro-
sclerotia produced by Colletotrichum species allow dormancy in stressfull conditions. During
conditions that favour, conidia from acervuli and micro sclerotia are splashed by rain. Even
diseased fruit acts as inoculums and spread the disease from one plant to other [78]. The first
phase of fungal- plant interaction is the adhesion of spores to host surface. Conidia of
Colletotrichum species dispersed, quickly adhere to the plant surfaces [79, 80]. Conidia are
produced in acervuli which are protected by mucilage that covers them. Mucilage comprise of
several different enzymes and they may help in protecting conidia from odd conditions and
plant metabolites [81]. It was identified that hydrophobic interactions play role for initial
attachment of conidia to the host cuticle [80]. Conidial adhesion also requires some proteins on
the surface of spores apart from hydrophobic interactions. This was proved in the case of C.
musae and C. graminicola, when conidial adhesion was inhibited following proteolytic
treatment [82, 83, 84]. Studies have exposed that the surface of C. lindemuthianum conidia has
a covering of brush like layer made of fibrillar material [85]. A study revealed that at higher
concentrations of capsaicin, (principle component imparting pungency to chilli) conidial
germination was completely inhibited [86]. Colletotrichum spores after adhering on to the plant
surface, sense physical and chemical signals communicated by plant and start germinating
giving rise to appressoria. Germination is an important stage in fungal development. Studies
revealed that mostly expressed genes during conidial germination of C. acutatum belonged to
those encoding histone protein, ATP synthease, 14-3-3 protein, MAP kinase and ABC
transporter [87]. One of the abundantly expressed genes encoding 14-3-3 protein was
identified in several other fungi. It is a member of putative kinase regulators which was
characterized in mammalian brain tissue [88]. The role of this gene during conidial germination
in C. acutatum is so far not studied. After germination, conidia forms a melanised dome shaped

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appressorium. Formation of appressorium is significant for penetration into host. In
apprressorium, turgor pressure created by accumulation of glycerol allows apprressorium to
make a way into the host followed by instigation of infection [89].
A series of special structures are produced by Colletotrichum species. They include germ
tubes, appresoria, intracellular hyphae, necrotrophic hyphae [89]. The pathogens either
colonize by establishing intracellularly or in subcuticular tissues. Chemical inducers for the
production of appressoria were studied on C. gloeosporioides infecting avocado and C. musae
infecting banana [90, 91]. In C. trifolii, inhibitor studies have shown that cAMP and cAMP
dependent protein kinase are necessary for germination and for the formation of appressorium
[92]. In pathogenesis of Colletotrichum species, secretion of hydrolytic enzymes plays a vital
role [93, 94].
Although the mechanisms developed by Colletotrichum species for interaction with
hosts seem to be similar, there are some variations between species. Host- pathogen
interactions of C. acutatum appear to be more biotrophic than that of C. gloeosporioides [95].
Most of the Colletotrichum species establish biotrophic interaction with the host. It is assumed
that during the establishment of biotrophic interaction, pathogen develops many strategies to
evade defense mechanisms. For example, pathogen masks its surface by converting chitin by
deacetylation process. This prevents plant chitinases from recognizing and degrading chitin
[96]. During biotrophic phase, the nutrition of Colletotrichum species is dependent on living
host cells. Colletotrichum species develop and maintain efficient transport system which directs
nutrients from host cell to fungal cell [97]. Depending on the environmental conditions and
based on the species infecting the host, biotrophic stage transitions to necrotrophic phase.
During necrotrophic phase, pathogen concentrates on killing the host rather than protecting
itself from host defenses [98]. On the whole, life cycle of Colletotrichum includes the following
stages: adhesion, germination and appressorium formation, appressorium differentiation and
development, biotrophic development and necrotrophic development.
Disease Management:
Anthracnose disease is one of the major diseases of chilli. Under moisture conditions,
spores expand very quickly spreading the disease. There are various methods of controlling
disease. Few of them are discussed below. As no single strategy is found to be effective in
controlling chilli anthracnose disease, Bailey [99] and Agrios [100] recommended integrated
disease management approach.
As pathogen is capable of remaining in soil, plant debris, soil must be deeply ploughed
before planting [100]. Disease free seeds are to be used to reduce infection. Crop rotation is
done with non Solanaceous plants [101]. Proper sanitation and pretreatment of seeds with
fungicides may reduce the risk of disease. Wounds are to be avoided while handling, as
pathogen finds entry through wounds.

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Use of chemicals is widely used disease control strategy which increased the yield [102,
103, 104] Fungicide widely recommended for anthracnose chilli is Manganese
ethylenebisdithiocarbamate (Maned) [105]. Soaking of chilli seeds for 12hrs in 0.2% thiram is
best way to control Colletotrichum capsici [106]. When seeds were treated with emisan
effective control of Colletotrichum species was observed [107]. Usage of Companion, JKstein
and Bavistin along with thiram was effective in eliminating infection from seeds [108]. High cost
of chemicals and toxic effect of chemicals on farmers and other environmental concerns raise
questions on usage of chemicals.
Biological Control:
For many years control of chilli anthracnose relied on chemicals. Indiscriminate use of
these chemicals gave up new challenges like development of pest resistance, food poisoning,
environmental pollution, negative effect on farmer’s health, and increase in cost. To overcome
the undesirable effects of chemical usage, use of plant extracts to control the infection came at
rescue. Antimicrobial activity of Nigella sativa against Colletotrichum capsici was reported
[109]. Investigations proved that Azadirachta indica, Datura stramonium, Ocimum sanctum,
Polyalthial longifolia and Vinca rosea were fungitoxic against C. capsici [110]. When the extracts
of garlic bulb at 3% concentration was used, complete inhibition of fungal growth and spore
germination was achieved [111]. It was reported that crude extracts from different parts of
Sweet flag, Palmorosa oil, Neem oil confined the growth of anthracnose fungus [112, 113]. Leaf
extracts of Solanum torvum, Datura metel and Prospopis juviflora are effective in inhibiting
conidial germination [114].
Fresh and dry weight of C. capsici was reduced when antifungal activity of fruit and
flower extracts of Datura innoxia were used against C. capsici in vitro [115]. P. fluorescens
isolate pf1 inhibited mycelia growth of C. capsici invitro effectively [116]. Under in vitro
conditions 3% nimbicidin (Neem kernel extract) inhibited growth of C. capsici and under green
house conditions, less mortality rate was observed in nimbicidin sprayed plants [117]. Ethanolic
extracts of Abrus drecatorius and Rauvolfia tetraphylla showed inhibitory effects on conidial
germination and radial growth of C. capsici [118]. Increase in the yield of chilli by decreasing the
incidence of fruit rot was reported when 40day old seedlings were treated with P. fluorescens
sol (1%) [119]. Using Saccharomyces cerevisae and Bacillus subtilis as biological control of the
organism was also reported [120].
Molecular Approaches for Disease Management:
Eco- friendly and affordable and beneficial method by which anthracnose disease is
managed, is to use of resistant varieties. Several sources for resistance to Colletotrichum capsici
were found [121, 15, 36, 122]. Inheritance patterns are being studied to locate and map
quantitative trait loci for resistance.
‘PBC80’ and ‘PBC81; are resistant sources in Capsicum baccatum *123, 124+, ‘PBC32’ is a
resistant source of Capsicum chinense [125, 15] Inheritance of resistance genes have been

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studied which revealed that inheritance patterns depend on source of resistance and
Colletotrichum species. In a study, resistance to anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum
capsici and Colletotrichum acutatum was studied in Capsicum baccatum PBC80 and PBC1422
and C. chinense PBC932. PBC80 and PBC1422 intraspecific cross populations(F2, BC1) were
developed and inheritance pattern of resistance was determined. A single recessive gene
responsible for the resistance at mature green fruit stage and a single dominant gene for the
resistance at ripe fruit stage. Linkage analysis revealed that identified genes co4 and Co5 from
PBC80 are different loci from co1 and co2 identified in PBC932 [126].
Capsicum annuum 83-168 breeding line is resistant to Colletotrichum capsici 158ci. The
resistance is inherited by a single dominant gene. Resistance to Colletotrichum dematium in
Capsicum annuum chungryong is by partial dominance [36]. Capsicum chinense Jacq ‘PBC932’ is
resistant to Colletotrichum capsici and the resistance is inherited through a recessive gene [15].
Resistance in Capsicum baccatum ‘PBC80’ to Colletotrichum accutatum ‘Ksca-1’ is governed by
a dominant gene [127]. Resitance in AR line which is derived from C. chinense Jacq ‘PBC932’ to
Colletotrichum accutatum is governed by a recessive gene [128]. Capsicum annuum
Chungryong, is resistant to Colletotrichum capsici and this resistance is govered by partially
dominant gene [121, 36]. Resistance in Daepoong- Cho variety against C. capsici is controlled
by recessive gene. It was reported that ‘Daepoong Cho’ and ‘AR’ lines pocess same resistance
gene to Colletotrichum capsici even though, the source of resistant genes were different
Capsicum spp., C. annuum and C. chinense respectively [129]. When QTL mapping was
performed in Capsicum chinense ‘PRI95030’ resistant to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and C.
capsici, one major QTL (B1) and three minor QTLs (B2, H1, D1) for Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides, one major (B1) and one minor QTL for Colletotrichum capsici were mapped
[122]. QTLs for resistance to Colletotrichum acutatum and C. capsici were analysed in which it
was reported that CaR12.2 QTL (for C. acutatum) and CcR9 QTL (for C. capsici) are positioned
differently. But close links between minor QTL CcR12.2 and major QTL Car12.2, and major and
minor QTLs of CcR9 were found [130]. EtagMcgg05e, EtacMccg13, EtagMcgt04, EacgMcgg02
AFLP markers are closely linked to major QTL CaR12.2, and EtacMccg13 is closely linked to CcR9
(C. annuum x C. baccatum, PBC81) [131].
Resistance Gene Analogs (RGAs):
Though there are many advances in plant disease control strategies, production is still at
threat by several pathogens and pests. Initially, chemical control methods served the purpose.
Soon, their indiscriminate usage questioned environmental safety. To overcome these
problems, much attention is being focused on investigating, understanding plant innate
resistance mechanisms. Plants are capable of activating cascade of defense responses. This in
turn, triggers a long lasting systemic response that enables plant for gaining resistance against a
broad spectrum of pathogens [132, 133] R gene mediated resistance is very advantageous to
plant as it can eliminate the pathogen without harming the plant, and also it is ecofriendly. But
R genes are often defeated by pathogens as a part of coevolution [134]. Another main concern
is durability of R genes. Many R genes become non functional, because of single mutation in
associated Avr gene. This results in non recognition of pathogen. Traditionally, breeding

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strategies focused introgression of R genes, one at a time. This homogenous host population
often exerts selection pressure resulting in mutation in corresponding Avr genes. This renders
host very susceptible to the pathogen. Durability can be enhanced by introducing multiple R
genes (gene pyramiding) into individual plant lines [134].
Almost 60 resistance genes have been identified and cloned from variety of plants
(monocots and dicots) [135]. Cloning R genes from variety of crops and transferring them into
useful cultivars has become technological advance [136]. For example, Pepper gene Bs2
provided sustainable resistance against Bacterial spot disease caused by Xanthomonas
campestris. This gene is found to encode a NB- LRR protein [137]. This pepper Bs2 transgene
effectively works in tomato conferring resistance to tomato against X. campestris. Several R
genes against fungal pathogens were identified like barley Rpg1 gene [138, 139].
But transfer of R genes from model crops into other crops that are distantly related can
be hampered due to ‘restricted taxonomic functionality’ (RTF) *137+.Bs2 and several R genes
from tomato can function as transgene in plants within same family (tobacco, potato, pepper)
[140] but does not function in Arabidopsis. Even Arabidopsis RPS2 gene does not confer
resistance in tomato [137].
Most of the R genes cloned belong to family that encodes proteins with NBS (Nucleotide
Binding Site) and LRR (Leucine rich repeat) domains [141, 142]. Products of NBS-LRR genes are
comprised of three main domains, (1)a variable N-terminal domain of about 200 amino acid, (2)
a NBS domain of 300 amino acids and (3) variable tandem arrangement of about 10-40 LRR
motifs [142]. NBS domain is implicated in signal transduction, where as LRR domain in ligand
binding and pathogen recognition. Because of their sequence similarity with known R genes,
these are called Resistance gene homologs (RGHs) or Resistance genes analogs (RGAs). Relation
between R genes and RGAs are described in different ways. According to He et al., [143] RGAs
are actual R genes while according to Radwan et al., [144] and Yan et al., [145] RGAs are linked
to R genes, and they segregate along with R genes. PCR strategy, in which by using degenerated
primers designed from these conserved motifs, resulted in identification of many resistance
gene analogs (RGAs) from different plant species like potato [146], bean [147], rice [148].
Expressional studies of RGAs enable to determine whether RGAs play a key role in conferring
resistance or they are simply linked to R genes [149]. RGAs were studied more in Solanaceae
family [150]. RGAs can be identified in many crops as certain functional domains are highly
conserved in R genes. Further, studies revealed that NBS-LRR families are ubiquitos in plants
[151].
Egea- Gilabert et al., [152] developed an efficient technique in pepper, for isolation of
RGAs from silver stained denaturating polyacrylamide gel using modified Amplified Fragment
Length Polymorphism (AFLP) strategy. Wan, H.et al., [153] identified 78 RGAs in pepper by
using degenerate PCR amplification. Further, they were grouped into non- Toll interleuking-1
receptor (TIR)- NBS- LRR and TIR-NBS-LRR subfamilies.

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RGAs can be cloned by PCR based approaches and can genetically mapped. Functionality
cn be tested if RGA maps to known resistance locus. Once identified, RGAs can be used as
probe in the process of searching R genes, can also be used in Marker Assisted Selection.
Isolation of RGAs became increasingly imperative as Resistant Gene Analog Polymorphism
technique is proved to be efficient technique [154] in identifying molecular markers for disease
resistance. Identification of RGAs against Colletotrichum will open up avenue for developing
resistant chilli cultivars.
MAB:
One of the age old practices which is even now employed to produce high yielding and
resistant varieties is Breeding. One of the major objectives of plant breeding is the development
of cultivars and hybrids with multiple resistances or tolerances to stresses (both biotic and
abiotic). Conventional breeding involves crossing of entire genome and relines on visual
selection, which is time taking process. But with the development of molecular tools, plant
breeding is becoming much quicker and easier, more effective and efficient. One such method
which reduces the time lapse in conventional breeding method by replacing the phenotypic
selection by genotypic selection is Marker Assisted Selection.
Finding sources of resistance and introducing the resistant traits in other varieties helps
in the development of resistant varieties. Due to advancement of molecular markers,
phenotypic screening of population is replaced by marker assisted screening. AFLP technique
developed by Vos et al., [155] was used widely to identify molecular markers linked to traits of
interest. As it is time consuming, during marker assisted selection, these AFLP markers are
being converted to SCAR or CAPS [156, 157]. Reports of Marker Assisted Breeding for Chilli
against Colletotrichum were not yet reported. Mapping QTLs and further identification of
markers help in pyramidizing genes, thus highly resistant varieties can crop up which efficiently
fight back anthracnose disease.
CONCLUSION
Despite of extensive research being carried out in anthracnose disease of chilli, resistant
variety is not yet commercialized. This may be due to lack of information concerning
interactions of different species related with chilli anthracnose. Deep insight into plant
pathogen interactions is required in order to understand pathosystem of Colletotrichum.
Although there are diverse strategies for disease management, use of resistant cultivars is
ecofriendly and breeder friendly. Using of molecular approaches for the development of
resistant varieties should be focused as it provides long lasting resistance. Major reports on
anthracnose, plant pathogen interactions are still needed. This review article will be helpful to
the researchers for better understanding.

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