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Limestone treasures: Rare plants in Peninsular Malaysia - What they are, where they grow and how to conserve them?
... The updated floral data on Kelantan limestone outcrops was published by Davison and Kiew (1990), which reported 210 flora in 120 limestone hills. To date, Chin (1983), Davison and Kiew (1990), and Kiew et al. (2017; are the only published articles that documented Kelantan limestone gingers. Accordingly, the present study aims to identify ginger species composition, determine the conservation status of the identified ginger species, and compare the distribution of ginger species in selected Kelantan limestone forests. ...
... According to Davison and Kiew (1990), Etlingera maingayi was distributed in the limestone hills of Gua Renayang and Pulau Raba, Kelantan. An endemic species to Peninsular Malaysia, Boesenbergia longipes, and a rare species, Globba albiflora, were also previously observed in the limestone areas in Kelantan (Kiew et al. 2017;. Nevertheless, none of the species was recorded during the present study. ...
... The species were Z. aurantiacum, Z. petiolatum and Z. wrayi. The HCV species were not documented in other Kelantan limestone and lowland forests to date (Henderson 1939;Kiew et al. 2017;Izlamira et al. 2020). The absence of the HCV species in previous records might be due to the lack of sampling and low population size. ...
The wild gingers in the family Zingiberaceae have a wide range of habitat distribution. The species growing in Malaysian forests are the most studied. Nevertheless, the aromatic perennial herb family found in limestone forests is the least studied. The present study identified the ginger species compositions, determined the conservation status of the identified ginger species, and compared the distribution of the ginger species in selected limestone forests of Kelantan due to the lack of intensive study focusing on wild gingers in Malaysian limestone forests, especially in the state of Kelantan, to date. In various months, wild ginger species observation was conducted at four limestone forests in Kelantan. From the survey performed during the present study, Gua Setir and Gua Ikan recorded 16 species with 12.5% overlapping species. Gua Setir comprised 61.5% more ginger species than Gua Ikan. In total, 13 species (81.25%) were evaluated based on the Red List of Threatened Species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Three wild ginger species listed as high conservation value (HCV), Zingiber aurantiacum, Zingiber petiolatum and Zingiber wrayi, were identified at the limestone karst valley of Gua Setir. The current study presented updated and new records of the limestone wild ginger flora in Kelantan. The research also demonstrated that each limestone forest consisted of different combinations of ginger species. Consequently, conservation efforts and sustainable management currently enforced in the limestone forests would lead to long-term protection of the plants. Furthermore, the wild gingers could become a tourist attraction for limestone forests located in recreational areas.
... High biodiversity is the result of the many and varied microhabitats, the product of the fine scale topographic heterogeneity of karst hills, stacked on a single karst hill (Kiew 1991). Endemic species, especially those with narrow distributions (Kiew et al. 2017) and species restricted to growing on limestone are characteristic of the flora and these are the ones particularly vulnerable to extinction resulting from habitat disturbance and other threats. It is not generally appreciated that plant species are not distributed uniformly over a karst hill, but, on the contrary, the great majority are narrowly distributed in specific microhabitats. ...
... However, a single transect will not cover even a fraction of the diversity of microhabitats, particularly those that are inaccessible, such as the vertical cliffs or stalactites or the craggy summit. In addition, often no attempt is made to re-find rare, endemic and/or threatened species that are already known from the site that occupy specific, narrowly restricted microhabitats (Kiew et al. 2017). Therefore, a novel approach is called for that will address these deficiencies and ensure that maximum biodiversity is captured by targeting all microhabitats and focusing on rare, endemic and threatened species. ...
... However, karst limestone hills present a very different scenario where plant species are very unevenly distributed due to the rugged topography that produces many microhabitats, each with their different assemblages of species. In addition, in Malaysia endemism is high and many species are confined to a single or very few karst hills (Kiew et al. 2017). Hence a novel methodology is required to capture and evaluate this diversity and is of conservation importance. ...
Batu Caves hill is typical of karst hills in Peninsular Malaysia due to its small size and high biodiversity. It harbours 366 vascular plant species that represent about 25% of the Peninsula’s limestone flora. Five species are endemic to Batu Caves and 23 are threatened species. This high biodiversity is the result of many microhabitats, each with their own assemblages of species. Threats are especially severe as the area of Batu Caves is surrounded by urbanisation that encroaches to the foot of cliffs, is vulnerable to fire, habitat disturbance and, formerly, by quarrying. Assigning a Conservation Importance Score (CIS) to all species is quantitative and accurate, can be implemented rapidly and produces reproducible results. Species with highest CIS are native species of primary vegetation, restricted to limestone substrates, endangered conservation status and, in this case, endemic to Batu Caves. It allows not only species, but microhabitats, sites within a hill and different hills to be compared. By identifying and surveying all microhabitats and focusing on locating endemic and threatened species, maximum biodiversity can be captured. Of the 16 microhabitats identified, the most threatened were the buffer zone, lower levels of steep earth-covered slopes and cave entrances. Application of this method provides a scientific basis for balancing the need to protect microhabitats and sites with the highest CIS, with their multiple uses by various stakeholders, which, at Batu Caves, include the activities of cave temples and eco-recreation. It also provides a scientific quantitative method to compare hills to ensure that those hills with highest CIS are not released for mining.
... However, due to human practices, the karst ecosystems and the species inhabiting them are themselves increasingly at risk of further fragmentation and degradation (Clements et al., 2006;Clements et al., 2008;Struebig et al., 2009;Latinne, Waengsothorn & Michaux, 2011;Hughes, 2017). The most immediate and direct threat is overexploitation of resource extraction, especially limestone and mineral mining (Kiew et al., 2017;Brinkmann & Garren, 2011;Hughes, 2017). These extremely lucrative but destructive extractive practices can have cascading effects of severe fragmentation and habitat degradation, leading to serious negative impacts on flora, fauna, and humans. ...
... In India, the related A. chaplasha depends on large mammals such as the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), domestic cows (Bos primigenius), buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) as seed dispersers (Sekar, 2014). The study species, A. annulatus, shares its habitat with a few sizeable mammals, including François's leaf monkey (Trachypithecus francoisi) and the serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) (Kiew et al., 2017). While anecdotal information from fieldwork suggests that many of the seeds simply germinate under the mother tree, where the fruits drop (i.e., numerous saplings were observed growing in clusters beneath mature trees), it is possible that birds or mammals disperse some A. annulatus seeds, accounting for gene flow and low genetic differentiation across sites . ...
Limestone karsts of Southeast Asia can harbor high levels of endemism, but are highly fragmented, increasingly threatened, and their biodiversity is often poorly studied. This is true of the Padawan Limestone Area of Sarawak, Malaysia, home to the endemic Artocarpus annulatus, the closest known wild relative of two important and underutilized fruit tree crops, jackfruit ( A. heterophyllus ) and cempedak ( A. integer ). Identifying and conserving crop wild relatives is critical for the conservation of crop genetic diversity and breeding. In 2016 and 2017, five A. annulatus populations were located, and leaf material, locality information, and demographic data were collected. Microsatellite markers were used to assess genetic diversity and structure among populations, and to compare levels of genetic diversity to closely related congeneric species. Results indicate no evidence of inbreeding in A. annulatus , and there is no genetic structure among the five populations. However, diversity measures trended lower in seedlings compared to mature trees, suggesting allelic diversity may be under threat in the youngest generation of plants. Also, genetic diversity is lower in A. annulatus compared to closely related congeners. The present study provides a baseline estimate of A. annulatus genetic diversity that can be used for comparison in future studies and to other species in the unique limestone karst ecosystems. Considerations for in situ and ex situ conservation approaches are discussed.
... However, Gua Musang is quite disturbed, and while Tasik Temenggor is part of a state park protected area, it can still be logged in the future (Schwabe et al., 2015). Given the few known localities of the species, and the plausible threat of mining activities on limestone hills in Peninsular Malaysia, any future development activities in these two localities could cause the species to become endangered or extinct in a short amount of time (Kiew et al., 2017;Rahman & Kiew, 2018). ...
The new species Biancaea scabrida, currently only known from Peninsular Malaysia, is described and illustrated. The new species most resembles B. parviflora and B. oppositifolia in its inflorescence, but can be distinguished from both species by its sepals which have short stiff scabrid hairs, and its pistil which has stiff and hispid hairs. It also has alternately arranged leaves and inflorescence branches, a lack of a persistent suborbicular stipule, few pinnae per rachis (2–6 pairs) and relatively fewer leaflets per pinna ((3–)5–9 pairs). A provisional IUCN conservation assessment and a taxonomic key to Biancaea is also provided here.
... Besides quarry activity, agricultural practices in the surrounding areas, tourist and recreational activities associated with caving or rock climbing and building temples in caves had contributed to endanger the flora. Kiew et al. (2017) had mentioned in its paper that there is an urgent need to develop a strategy to protect the maximum biodiversity of the sensitive limestone flora, particularly to protect exceptional rare limestone species that are facing extinction unless afforded legal protection. Plant usually produced seed or rhizome to breed. ...
... An urgent first step is the need to build a database of all the narrowly endemic species or those that are currently most threatened (Kiew et al., 2017). Like MyBIS: Malaysia Biodiversity Information System (www.mybis.gov.my), this database needs to be accessible online and well publicised so that it is readily available to decision makers and can be accessed when companies apply for quarry licences. ...
The need to exploit limestone products for national development impacts on the conservation of rare and endangered limestone species. To minimise this impact it is necessary to identify which of the 570 limestone outcrops have high conservation importance and whether they have narrowly endemic and/or endangered limestone species. In the absence of detailed checklists for each outcrop, the Gesneriaceae is selected as being biodiverse on limestone, being well collected and outstanding in the number of endemic species and/or species restricted to limestone for mapping. Of the 210 species in the 25 genera of Gesneriaceae in Peninsular Malaysia, 42 species belonging to the genera Damrongia Kerr ex Craib, Emarhendia Kiew, A.Weber & B.L.Burtt, Epithema Blume, Microchirita (C.B.Clarke) Yin Z.Wang, Monophyllaea R.Br., Ornithoboea Parish ex C.B.Clarke, Paraboea (C.B.Clarke) Ridl., Senyumia Kiew, A.Weber & B.L.Burtt and Spelaeanthus Kiew, A.Weber & B.L.Burtt grow on limestone hills. Of these 42 species, 28 are endemic and 16 are restricted to a single or adjacent hills. Mapping their distribution shows that in common with other families there are three distinct phytogeographical provinces (the Northern Province, Perak Province and the Asian Intrusion) but that the narrowly endemic species do not cluster on particular hills, nor does their distribution coincide with those of other narrowly endemic species in other families. This illustrates that a network comprising a large number of hills, not only those within the three provinces but also all those harbouring narrowly endemic species that are at risk of extinction if not conserved, is necessary to maximise conservation of the biodiversity of the limestone flora.
... The discovery of this Exacum species was possible due to intensified botanical exploration of the Kelantan limestone hills and further illustrates the rarity and very local distributions of many limestone species (Kiew et al., 2017). ...
... The limestone hill flora in Peninsular Malaysia is being exploited and disturbed by quarrying, clearing the surrounding forest for agricultural plantations or burning limestone vegetation during land clearing, disturbance associated with caves, the establishment of temples and resorts, as well as from recreational and tourism activities (Kiew 1997). Kiew et al. 2017 demonstrated that no single hill has more than a fraction of limestone flora and that 192 species are endangered being known from less than five localities limestone hills, for example Monophyllaea musangensis A. Weber (Weber 1998), Gymnostachyum kanthanense Kiew, Meiogyne kanthanensis Ummul-Nazrah & J.P.C.Tan and Vatica kanthanensis Saw (Tan et al. 2014), Impatiens glaricola Kiew and Impatiens vinosa Kiew (Kiew 2016). Therefore, limestone hills are one of the most threatened vegetation types in Peninsular Malaysia and are recognised nationally as Environmentally Sensitive Areas because of their high biodiversity and vulnerability (73 of the 445 hills are the sites of active or former quarries, Liew et al. 2016). ...
Vaticanajibiana Ummul-Nazrah (Dipterocarpaceae), from the Relai Forest Reserve, Gua Musang, Kelantan and Gua Tanggang, Merapoh, Pahang, is described and illustrated. This species is Endangered and known from small populations restricted to two isolated karst limestone hills. The type locality, Relai Forest Reserve limestone, is currently under threat from encroaching oil palm plantations and ongoing logging, which, if it continues, will threaten the Kelantan population with extinction. The morphology of V.najibiana and the similar V.odoratasubsp.odorata and V.harmandiana is compared.
In Peninsular Malaysia, Coleus is represented by five species. Two, C. hairulii Kiew and C. rafidahiae Kiew, are new species. Both are narrowly endemic and restricted to limestone hills as is C. kunstleri (Prain) A.J.Paton. All three are Critically Endangered. Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth., although widespread, is probably not indigenous. It is also a common ornamental, while C. monostachyus (P.Beauv.) A.J.Paton is a recent introduction that has spread rapidly and threatens to become a troublesome weed.
The species of Jasminum Tourn. ex L. (Oleaceae) in Peninsular Malaysia are revised. Eighteen species are recognised, of which eight are endemic. Five of these species have been recorded from Singapore. A key to species is provided, all names are typified, and all species are described. Conservation assessments are given for all species in Peninsular Malaysia. One species is Extinct in Peninsular Malaysia, eleven are Endangered and one is Data Deficient. Jasminum shahii Kiew is described as a new species. In Singapore, two species are certainly Extinct.
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