Opheodrys vernalis (Liochlorophis vernalis) (Smooth Greensnake). Fire Mortality and Phenology. Herpetological Review 48(4): 864-865.

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Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
826826 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
NATURAL HISTORY NOTESNATURAL HISTORY NOTES
CAUDATA — SALAMANDERS
EURYCEA BISLINEATA (Northern Two-lined Salamander).
NEST GUARDING. On 21 April 2017, we discovered two nests
belonging to Eurycea bislineata in streams adjacent to Eastern
Kentucky University’s Lilley Cornett Woods Appalachian Eco-
logical Research Station in Letcher County, Kentucky, USA. The
first nest was located on the underside of a submerged rock in
Island Branch (37.08632°N, 82.98456°W, WGS 84). It contained
38 eggs and was attended by a single male (SVL = 47.27 mm;
1.2 g) (Fig. 1). The second nest was on the underside of a sub-
merged rock in Whitaker Branch (37.08876°N, 82.99012°W, WGS
84). It contained 47 eggs and was attended by a female (SVL =
45.81 mm; 1.6 g) and a male (SVL = 48.66 mm; 1.8 g) (Fig. 2).
Attendance of nests by females is commonly observed in mem-
bers of the E. bislineata species complex, but published obser-
vations of males with nests are thus far limited to E. junaluska
and E. aquatica (Bruce 1982. Copeia 1982:755–762; Graham et
al. 2010. IRCF 17:168–172). Although the species observed here
is traditionally classified as E. cirrigera, molecular phylogenetic
data suggest that this name is inappropriate (see ‘Lineage D’ in
Kozak et al. 2006. Mol. Ecol. 15:191–207; Pierson et al., unpubl.
data). Instead, we refer to them conservatively as E. bislineata.
To the best of our knowledge, these observations represent the
first evidence of nest attendance by males in this species and
suggest that the behavior might be more widespread in the E.
bislineata species complex.
We thank Rebecca Leloudis for field assistance. This field
research was conducted with permission of the Department of
Natural Areas (DKFWR Permit # SC1611150).
JACOB M. HUTTON, Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA (e-mail: jakehutton@uky.edu); TODD W.
PIERSON, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University
of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA (e-mail: tpierso1@vols.utk.
edu)
EURYCEA LONGICAUDA (Long-tailed Salamander). COLOR
ABERRATION. Eurycea longicauda patterning is typically char-
acterized by black spotting across the dorsum of the body, and
can vary in spot size, number, and presence on the head and
tail (Behler and King 1979. The Audubon Society Field Guide to
North American Reptiles and Amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.,
New York. 744 pp.). Two dorsolateral lines of spotting are pres-
ent, generally consisting of larger spots that form a broken line
across the body, and extend to cover the lateral sides of the tail
as chevrons (Behler and King 1979, op. cit.). The lateral region of
the body and limbs are covered by heterogeneously sized spots,
but are often small (Behler and King 1979, op. cit.).
We observed and photographed an adult female E.
longicauda at 2137 h on 4 May 2016 in Huntingdon County,
Pennsylvania, USA (40.538408°N, 77.882875°W; WGS 84) with
an aberrant pattern (Fig. 1). The specimen was discovered as it
crossed a public road (State Rt. 1005) through mature deciduous
forest during a light rain. The individual lacked dorsal spotting
and distinct dorsolateral lines or spotting. Further, the individual
lacked lateral and limb spotting, but black flecking was present
across both; the toes are particularly well pigmented and black. As
the pattern progressed posteriorly it began to form small bands,
which developed into light and poorly developed chevrons with
flecking between each chevron. While melanin-based dorsal
patterning appeared to be greatly reduced, the underlying skin
coloration (yellow-orange) seemed typical. One previous report
on aberrant coloration in E. longicauda described an individual
that was 45.9% unpatterned, particularly lacking on the lateral
sides, hind limbs, and the anterior region of the tail (McCallum et
Fig. 1. Male Northern Two-lined Salamander (Eurycea bislineata)
with a nest.
PHOTO BY JACOB M. HUT TON
Fig. 2. Female (left) and male (right) Northern Two-lined Salaman-
ders (Eurycea bislineata) with a nest.
PHOTO BY JACOB M. HUTTON

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 827
al. 2008. Herpetol. Rev. 39:334). To our knowledge, this aberrant
pattern we describe here has not been previously reported in E.
longicauda, and appears to be rare.
MICHAEL W. ITGEN, Department of Biology, Colorado State Uni-
versity, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, USA (e-mail: Michael.Itgen@gmail.
com); DARIN J. MCNEIL, Department of Natural Resources, Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA (e-mail: Darin.J.McNeil@gmail.com);
CAMERON J. FISS, Department of Biology, Indiana University of Penn-
sylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania 15705, USA (e-mail: sscameron@gmail.
com).
EURYCEA LUCIFUGA (Cave Salamander). COLORATION.
Eurycea lucifuga is characterized by its bright orange dorsum
flecked with random black spots (Fig. 1A). The function of this
particular pattern in this species is unknown, but may be related
to aposematic coloration or mimicry. Aberrations of this typical
pattern in E. lucifuga include leucism (Smith 1985. Herpetol.
Rev.16:78) and a condition known as piebald (Neff et al. 2015.
Herpetol. Notes 8:599–601), in which pigmentation is absent in
some areas. This results in individuals having random patches
of light gray/white skin interspersed with the typical orange
with black spot pattern. An additional color morph, previously
undocumented to our knowledge, is found in individuals with
the characteristic bright orange dorsum that lack the black
spot pattern (Fig. 1B). Four individuals with this ‘spotless’
morph have been observed in Sauerkraut Cave (a.k.a. Tom
Sawyer, Central State, or Lakeside Cave) in E.P. “Tom” Sawyer
State Park, Jefferson County, Kentucky, USA (exact location
withheld to reduce potential disturbance and/or vandalism to
the cave). The ‘spotless’ morph is relatively rare in our study
population, representing only four out of 1092 individuals,
or 0.4% of the population. We are confident that these are in
fact E. lucifuga individuals because morphologically they look
the same, the orange coloration is present on the dorsum, and
no other species of similar looking salamanders, e.g., Eurycea
longicauda (Long-tailed Salamander), have been found in or
around this cave over the course of 23 months (March 2015–
February 2017) during a study on E. lucifuga. The only other
species of salamander that have been found in this cave are the
Zig-zag Salamander (Plethodon dorsalis) and the Streamside
Salamander (Ambystoma barbouri), both of which occur in very
low numbers (<10 individuals have been observed) and are
easily distinguished from E. lucifuga.
J. GAVIN BRADLEY (e-mail: jgbrad02@louisville.edu), and PERRI K.
EASON, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences
Building, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, USA (e-mail: perri.eason@louisville.edu).
NOTOPHTHALMUS MERIDIONALIS (Black-spotted Newt).
HABITAT USE. Subterranean microhabitat use has been well
documented in amphibians including certain salamander species
(Plethodon cinereu s, Jaeger et al. 1986. Anim. Behav. 34:860–864;
Ambystoma californiense, Loredo et al. 1996. J. Herpetol. 30:282–
285). Notably, a field study tracking Notophthal mus virides cens
(which occurs in more mesic environments) with fluorescent
powder did not find adults or juveniles using underground
microhabitats such as fissures or burrows (Roe and Grayson 2008.
J. Herpetol. 42:22–30). Notophthal mus v. louisi anensis individuals
have been found in karst environments, although these instances
are considered accidental (Myers 1958. Herpetologica 14:35–36;
Briggler and Prather 2006. Am. Midl. Nat. 155:136–148).
Tw o Notophth almus mer idionalis we re ob serv ed un derg roun d
in clay fissures on 18 November 2016 at 1002 h at a dried ephemer-
al pond in Cameron County, Texas, USA (26.03524°N, 97.47375°W;
WGS 84). This observation was made using a borescope with an
8 mm camera (PVBOR15, Pyle Audio Inc., Brooklyn, New York.).
Individuals were found 15 cm and 20 cm deep, respectively, by
measuring the length of the fiber optic stalk in the fissure. This ob-
servation is the first documented use of fissure microhabitats by
any Notophtha lmus species.
Fig. 1. Adult female Eurycea longicauda with an aberrant pattern
found in Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania, USA.
Fig. 1. Two Eurycea lucifuga individuals from a cave in Kentucky,
USA. A) Typical color and pattern; B) ‘Spotless’ individual.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
828 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
At another site, we hammered a 2-inch diameter PVC pipe into
the ground and extract a clay soil cylinder, leaving a circular hole
in the ground to be used as an artificial burrow. On 11 February
2017 at 1835 h, a single N. meridionalis juvenile was found with a
borescope 25 cm deep in an artificial burrow on the bank of a dried
resaca in Cameron County, Texas, USA (25.85043°N, 97.39151°W,
WGS 84). This is the first published observation of a salamander
occupying an artificial burrow used as a passive trap. These novel
detection techniques may prove valuable in discovering and
monitoring cryptic salamander species.
EVAN A. BARE (e-mail: evan.bare01@utrgv.edu), and RICHARD J.
KLINE, School of Earth, Environmental, and Marine Sciences, University of
Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1 W University Boulevard, Brownsville, Texas 78520,
USA (e-mail: richard.kline@utrgv.edu).
NOTOPHTHALMUS PERSTRIATUS (Striped Newt). PREDATION.
Primarily as a result of habitat loss and alteration by land conver-
sion and fire suppression, the Striped Newt of Georgia and Flor-
ida, USA, was recently added to the federal Endangered Species
Act candidate list (Federal Register 2011. 76:32911–32929). This
formal status indicates that listing as “threatened” is warranted,
but is currently precluded by higher listing priorities. Despite
great attention to this species by federal and state wildlife agencies
charged with its conservation, and several in-depth and published
field research studies (e.g., Johnson 2002. Southeast. Nat. 1:381–
402), many important aspects of this salamander’s natural history
remain largely unknown, including terrestrial habitat use, home
range, clutch size, and predators.
On 17 August 2017, while dip-netting a known breeding pond
at Sandhills Wildlife Management Area in Taylor County, Georgia,
USA (32.578094°N, 84.269962°W; WGS 84) with several other
colleagues, I scooped up a Giant Water Bug (Lethocerus uhleri)
that had in its grasp a limp and lifeless larviform (late larva or
developing paedomorph) Striped Newt. Giant Water Bugs are
common inhabitants of isolated wetlands in the southeastern
Unit ed Stat es, and be cause o f their l arge s ize, the y are f ierce
predators of aquatic prey that few other invertebrates are capable
of subduing, including fish, tadpoles, and frogs. Prey are impaled
by their rostrum which injects digestive enzymes and liquefies
internal tissues for consumption (Pennak 1978. Fresh-water
Invertebrates of the United States. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
803 pp.).
To t h e b es t o f m y k n ow l e d g e, t h i s r e p re s e n t s t h e f ir s t
documented observation of predation on any life stage of the
Strip ed Newt (Petranka 199 8. Salamanders of t he United States
and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.
587 pp.). Because Giant Water Bugs are frequent co-inhabitants
of Striped Newt breeding wetlands (pers. obs.), they are likely an
important predator of larvae, paedomorphs, and breeding adults.
JOHN B. JENSEN, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Nongame
Conservation Sec tion, 116 Rum Creek Drive, Forsyth, Georgia 31029, USA; e -
mail: john.jensen@dnr.ga.gov.
TARI CHA GRA NULOS A (Rough-skinned Newt). PREDATION. On
10 March 2017, Chantal Jacques, a keen Canadian bird photogra-
pher, observed a female Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucul-
latus) catching and swallowing an adult Ta ri c h a g ra n ul o sa (Fig.
1) at the west pond next to the Elk/Beaver Lake, Capital Regional
District Park on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada
(48.30350°N, 123.23580°W; WGS 84). Her husband John Costello
had previously witnessed a Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias) tak-
ing a newt from the pond. The bird was further noted to be around
that area for several days without displaying apparent ill effects.
One month later, on 7 April 2017, she also observed and photo-
graphed a Hooded Merganser at a pond located on the premise
of the Royal Roads University, Vancouver Island (48.25540°N,
123.28240°W, WGS 84) also capturing and eating a Rough-Skinned
Newt.
Newts of the g enus Taricha are well known to contain
tetrodotoxin (TTX) in their skin and body, a lethal neurotoxin
which specifically blocks voltage-gated sodium channels of
excitable membranes (Brodie et al. 1974. Copeia 1974:506–511;
Hanifin 2010. Ma r. Drugs 8:577–5 93). Despite this effective
chemical defense, Common Gartersnakes (Thamnophis sirtalis)
regularly feed on these n ewts. They evolved resistance to the toxin
(Geffeney et al. 2005. Nature 434:759–765; Feldman et al. 2009. Proc.
Natl Acad . Sci. USA 106 :13415 –13420), b ut birds and mammals a re
extremely susceptible to TTX. However, toxicity of the newts has
been found to be highly variable within and between populations.
Part icula rly, T. gr an u l o s a specimens from Vancouver Island have
been found to be much less toxic when compared to populations
from Oregon, USA (Hanifin et al. 2008. PLoS Biol. 6:e60). This was
confirmed by our own studies. On 29 March 2012, we collected
two female specimens at the Durrance Lake, Vancouver Island
(48.32520°N, 123.28400°W), a location not far from the Elk/Beaver
Lake area. Both specimens were sacrificed for TTX-analysis using
post-column liquid-chromatography fluorescent-detection
(Shoji et al. 2001. Anal. Biochem. 209:10–17). In the methanolic
whole body extract of one specimen (9.4 g body weight) there was
no TTX, in that of the second specimen (6.8 g) a low amount of
(0.0053 mg) TTX was detected.
These data support the assumption that the newts the two
Hooded Me rganse rs and the Great Blu e He ron ate contained
toxin concentrations too low to elicit ill effects. Fellers et al.
(2008. Herpetol. Rev. 38:317–318) came to the same conclusion
when they observed an immature Great Blue Heron catching
and eating three newts over a period of 45 min. in a pond at Point
Reyes National Seashore, Marin County, California, USA. The
same applies to River Otters (Lontra canadensis) seen predating
T. gr a n u l os a near Crater Lake National Park in Oregon, USA
(Stokes et al. 2015. Northwest. Nat. 96:13–21). Analysis of TTX in
newts from these locations also revealed low toxin concentrations
render ing T. g r a nu l o s a vulnerable for predation.
Specimens were obtaine d under permit VI1 1-73288.
Fig. 1. Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) catching and
eating a Taricha granulosa on Vancouver Island, British Columbia,
Canada.
PHOTO BY CHANTAL JACQUES

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 829
DIETRICH MEBS, Institute of Legal Medicine, Goethe University,
Frank furt, Germ any (e-mai l: mebs@em.uni-frankfurt.de); MARI YOTSU-YA-
MASHITA Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sen-
dai, Japan (e-mail: mari.yamashita.c1@tohoku.ac.jp).
ANURA — FROGS
ANAXYRUS AMERICANUS (American Toad). MICROHABITAT.
Here, I repo rt observati ons of Anaxyrus americanus climbing on
sandstone rocks and cliffs up to several meters off the ground. Be-
tween 1600 h and 1700 h on 9 and 16 July 1986, a large male A.
americanus was observed foraging in a crevice of a rock outcrop
near Hwy 90 and 1.6 km from the Cumberland River in Whitley
County, Kentucky, USA (specific locations withheld due to conser-
vation concerns). The rock crevice was approximately 2.1 m from
the ground and would require some adept climbing and moving
along a rock shelf several feet horizontally to reach it. This was an
unexpected location for an American Toad and appeared to be the
same toad in both instances. Climatic conditions were similar in
both instances in that the air temp was over 32°C and very humid.
At 1400 h on 13 Sep 1987, an adult A. americanus was observed
in a large crevice 1 m up in a rock outcrop about 1.2 km from the
other location, also near Hwy 90 in Whitley County, Kentucky. The
crevice was in a rock outcrop behind a beach on the Cumberland
River. It had rained earlier and the temp was 22–23°C. At 1600 h on
17 September 2001 (air temperature 22°C), another adult A. ameri-
canus was found on a rock ledge 1 m from the ground near Bark
Camp Creek off Forest Service Rd 193 in Whitley County At 2000 h
on 5 April 2001 (air temperature 22°C) in the city of Corbin, Whitley
County, an adult A. americanus fell for a distance of 5–6 m from
a rock cliff and landed on leaves next to the observer. The toad
remained still for 15 min. and then hopped away. The ability to
sustain such falls may allow toads to make a quick retreat or come-
down from precarious ledges that are a few meters off the ground.
There are no reports of A. americanus associated with rock cliffs
(Dodd 2013. Frogs of the United States and Canada. John Hopkins
Univ ersi ty Pres s, Bal timor e, Mar yland . 982 p p.). The y have been
found in limestone caves, but with no reports of climbing (Dodd
2013, op. cit.).
PAUL V. CUPP, JR., Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475, USA (e-mail: paul.cupp@eku.edu).
ANAXYRUS TERRESTRIS (Southern Toad). AVIAN PREDATION.
Known predators of adult and juvenile Anaxyris terrestris include
several species of snakes (Dodd 2013. Frogs of the United States
and Canada. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Mary-
land. 982 pp.; Stevenson et al. 2010. Southeast. Nat. 9:1–8), Dei-
rochelys reticularia (Jackson 2004. Herpetol. Rev. 35:380–381),
Osteopilus septentrionalis (Meshaka 2001. The Cuban Treefrog in
Florida: Life History of a Successful Colonizing Species. University
of Florida Press, Gainesville. 121 pp.), Black-crowned Night Her-
ons (Jones et al. 2010. Herpetol. Rev. 41:334–335), Cattle Egrets
(Fogarty and Hetrick 1973. The Auk 90:268–280), and Giant Water
Bugs (McCoy 2003. Herpetol. Rev. 34:135–136). Here, we describe
predation behavior on A. terrestris by three species of wading birds
and add two new species of avian predators.
On 2 June 2008, we observed multiple predation events on
a breeding aggregation of A. terrestris by several Cattle Egrets
(Bubulcus ibis) in Marion County, Florida, USA (29.15093°N,
82.41925°W; WGS 84). At 0745 h we found a dead adult female toad
laying at the edge of a back yard pond (13.5 × 6.5 m, 1 m depth at
its deepest point). The dead gravid female had puncture wounds
on the belly and throat; but she had not been eaten. A second
dead toad was found on the other side of the pond, but this one
had been fully eviscerated, and its intestines and eggs had been
removed. At 0850 h, we startled a Cattle Egret that was res ting on
the rail of a deck which dropped another dead adult female toad.
It too, was fully evisc erated with all abdomin al organs missing.
Shortly thereafter we observed two more adult Egrets flying away
from the backyard pond, each carrying a toad in its beak. One of
the Egrets dropped a male toad which had puncture wounds on
the left side from which a portion of the intestines had emerged.
We fo un d two o th er f ema le t oa ds by t he po nd e dg e tha t ha d be en
opened ventrally, but not fully eviscerated. Female toads loaded
with egg strings may have been too heavy for the Egret’s wing-
loading capacity, but they were able to fly with the smaller and
lighter males. It appeared that none of the toads was swallowed
whole, but were stabbed by the Egret’s beak and partially
eviscerated. Other predators are known to kill toads in this manner
to avoid ingesting poison from the paratoid glands (Olson 1989.
Copeia 1989:391–397; Woodward and Mitchell 1990. Southwest.
Nat. 35:449–450).
Between 0845 and 0905 h on 7 June 2013, at a 3.5 × 1.5 m
garden pool in Columbia County, Florida, USA (29.843589°N,
82.649310°W; WGS 84) we observed a Cattle Egret capture one
of two calling male A. terrestris sitting on a ledge, and within 10
min. a Tri-colored Heron (Egretta tricolor) swooped down and
captured the other one. The birds could have only been attracted
to the toads by their vocalizations because the pool is under a full
hardwood tree canopy.
On 27 January 2014 we observed a group of 20–25 American
White Ibis (Eu docimus albus), including seven juveniles, at Mackay
Island National Wildlife Refuge, Currituck County, North Carolina,
USA (36.53088°N, 75.99007°W; WGS 84) probing into the sandy soil
to the full length of their slender bills. The air temperature was 4°C
and most of the snow from a recent storm had melted. The Ibis
were pulling up and swallowing hibernating A. terrestris (Fig. 1).
We ob se rv ed o ne a du lt a nd o ne j uve ni le b ird e xt ra ct a nd s wal lo w
toads intact before the flock was disturbed and flew away. Given
the length of White Ibis bills (Kushlan 1977. Wilson Bull. 89:92–98),
the toads were hibernating at a depth of approximately 14–15 cm.
Many birds detect prey by sound (Bell 1979. J. New York
Entomol. Soc. 87:126–127; Tuttle and Ryan 1981. Science 214:677–
Fig. 1. American White Ibis (Eudocimus albus) consuming an adult
Anaxyrus terrestris in Mackay Island National Wildlife Refuge, North
Carolina.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
830 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
678). The predation events in Florida occurred because the birds
heard the toads calling and were able to pinpoint their locations.
Cattle egrets appear to be a primary predator of A. terrestris.
Foga rty and Hetr ick’s (op. cit.) study of Cattle Egret diets in south
Florida yielded 225 juvenile and 42 adult toads in 841 birds. White
Ibis uses nonvisual tactile probing and surface pecking to find
prey (Safran et al. 2000. Condor 102:211–215). Thus, A. terrestris
was an opportunistic prey for this species.
JOSEPH C. MITCHELL, Museum of Natural History, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (e-mail: dr.joe.mitchell@gmail.com); ROB-
ERT T. ZAPPALORTI, Herpetological Associates, Inc., 405 Magnolia Road,
Pembe rton, New Jer sey 080 68, USA (e-ma il: RZappalort@aol.com); REESE F.
LUKEI, JR., Center for Conservation Biology, College of William & Mary, Wil-
liamsburg, Virginia 23187, USA (e-mail: Rlukei@aol.com).
ANAXYRUS WOODHOUSII (Woodhouse’s Toad). PREDATION.
On the evening of 6 September 2008, we observed and photo-
graphed an Anaxyrus woodhousii in the process of swallowing a
neonate Crotalus viridis (Prairi e Rattles nake) near the cit y of Ama-
rillo, Potter County, Texas, USA (35.27746°N; 101.80901°W, WGS 84;
elev. 1058 m). We watched the toad from 2110 h to 2125 and photo-
graphed the toad consuming all but the posterior end of the snake
from 2110 to 2114 h (Fig. 1). Several A. woodhousii gathered on the
porch each night to feed on invertebrates that were attracted to the
porch lights. Our observation is evidence that, as prey generalists,
A. woodhousii may eat anything of appropriate size that they en-
counter in the terrestrial environment (Mitchell 1992. Banisteria
1:13–15). Depredation of rattlesnakes by amphibians appears to
be a rare (and probably opportunistic) event. Although consump-
tion of C. adamanteus (Eastern Diamond-backed Rattlesnake)
by large ranid frogs has occasi onally been document ed, a recent
review of depredation of C. viridis lists only mammals, birds, and
snakes as predators of this species (Ernst and Ernst 2012. Venom-
ous Reptiles of the United States, Canada, and Northern Mexico,
Vol um e 2, Crotalus, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
Maryland. 391 pp.).
JAMES D. RAY, 8500 Kemper Road, Canyon, Texas 79015, USA (e-mail:
jdraypuma@gmail.com); MALCOLM CLACK, 2300 E Willow Creek, Amarillo,
Tex as 7 91 08 , U S A; RICHARD T. KAZMAIER, Department of Life, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, West Texas A&M University, WTAMU Box 60808,
Canyon, Texas 79016, USA (e-mail: rkazmaier@wtamu.edu).
BUERG ERIA ROBUSTA (Robust Buerger’s Frog). DIET. Buergeria
robusta is an endemic tree frog of Taiwan, inhabiting subtropical
forests of low hills throughout the island. Buergeria robusta has
been frequently observed feeding on flying insects within the can-
opy (pers. obs.), and a high percentage of Coleoptera and Diptera
were found in their stomachs (Do and Lue 1982. J. Taiwan Mus.
25:225–234). In this note I describe an unusual event of B. robusta
predating Japa lura swinh onis, an endemic agamid arboreal lizard
of Taiwan.
At 1515 h on 23 May 2017, during a field trip to suburban woods
east of Taichung City, Taiwan (24.15750°N, 120.82388°E, WGS 84;
elev. 536 m), I spotted an adult female B. robusta that predated a
juvenile J. swinhonis in a bush 1 m above the ground. The hind legs
and tail of the J. swinhonis were protruding from the mouth of the
B. robusta. Female B. robusta are the largest treefrogs in Taiwan,
and may reach 77 mm of SVL, according to specimens in our
collection, making swallowing a juvenile Japalura lizard possible.
This is the first record of B. robusta feeding on an arboreal lizard.
WENHAO CHOU, National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung 434,
Tai wa n; e -m ai l: wenhaochou@gmail.com.
LITHOBATES CAPITO (Gopher Frog). TADPOLE MORPHOL-
OGY. Lithobates capito is a rare ranid from the southeastern
U.S. that has experienced declines associated with habitat loss
Fig. 1. Comparison of larval morphology of Lithobates capito vs. L .
sphenocephalus. A) Ventral morphology; top L. sphenocephalus,
bottom L. capito. B) Tail fin morphology; top L. capito, bottom L.
sphenocephalus. C) Ventral oral morphology; left L. capito, right L.
sphenocephalus. D) Lateral oral morphology; left L. capito, right L.
sphenocephalus.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 831
throughout its known distribution. It is a species of conservation
concern in all states where it occurs (Dodd 2013. Frogs of the
United States and Canada. The Johns Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore, Maryland. 982 pp.). Monitoring populations and sur-
veying for this species is challenging because male choruses are
difficult to detect (e.g., they are relatively quiet) and occur only
briefly after winter and spring rains. Non-breeding adults are very
difficult to find because they are fossorial. Surveys for egg mass-
es and tadpoles are easier but complicated by the presence of
Lithobates sphenocephalus (Southern Leopard Frog), a congener
with very similar breeding requirements, phenology, and egg and
tadpole morphology. The survey tool eDNA can be used to detect
the presence of L. capito (McKee et al. 2015. J. Fish Wildl. Manag.
6:498–510; J. Godwin, unpubl. data) but increases resource costs.
Although dichotomous keys are available for distinguishing the
tadpoles of L. capito vs. L. sphenocephalus (Altig 1970. Herpeto-
logica 26:180–207; Gregoire 2005. Tadpoles of the United States
Coastal Plain. USGS Survey Report. Florida Integrated Science
Center. 60 pp.; Altig and McDiarmid 2015. Handbook of Larval
Amphibians of the United States and Canada. Cornell Univer-
sity Press, Ithaca, New York. 345 pp.), a simple, illustrated key
comparing gross physical differences between the two species’
tadpoles is needed (Fig. 1) and will be useful for researchers, es-
pecially given Dodd’s (op. cit.) mention that distinguishing them
may be impossible. Such a key, based upon Gregoire (op. cit.), is
provided below. The author has found these features to be most
reliable and easy to observe in the field, and has > 25 years expe-
rience conducting surveys for L. capito.
1a) Intestinal coil not observable through ventral skin,
belly light to cream; tail fin with high arch at dorsal insertion; re-
duced oral papillae – L. capito
1b) Intestinal coil observable through ventral skin, belly
dark; tail fin with low to medium arch at dorsal insertion; en-
larged oral papillae – L. sphenocephalus.
I thank Sean P. Graham for comments on an earlier draft of
this manuscript and Crystal Kelehear for her assistnce with Fig 1.
JAMES C. GODWIN. Alabama Natural Heritage Program, Auburn Uni-
versity, Auburn, Alabama 39846, USA.
PHYLLOBATES LUGUBRIS (Lovely Poison Frog). PREDATOR-
PREY INTERACTIONS. A wide variety of invertebrates and
vertebrates prey upon anurans ( Toledo 2005. Herpetol. Rev.
36:395–400), yet relatively little is known about predators of
chemically defended frogs. Poison frogs contain skin alkaloids,
which are thought to be effective at deterring potential preda-
tors due to their unpalatable nature (for review, see Saporito et al.
2012. Chemoecology 22:159–168). Anecdotal reports of success-
ful predation upon dendrobatid poison frogs (Dendrobatidae)
include an ant, fish, amphibian, and bird, as well as several spi-
ders and snakes (Santos and Cannatella 2011. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. 108:6175–6180; Alvarado et al. 2012. Herpetol. Rev. 44:298;
Lenger et al. 2014. Herpetol. Notes 7:83–84). Herein, we report a
successful predation event on the dendrobatid poison frog Phyl-
lobates lugubris by the snake Coniophanes fissidens (Yellowbelly
Snake).
At 1015 h on 7 October 2015, we observed an adult P. lugubris
being chased, captured, and subdued by a C. fissidens on the soil
of the forest floor near Guayacan, Limon, in northeastern Costa
Rica (10.024460°N, 83.537174°W; WGS 84). The snake consumed
the frog entirely, and appeared unimpaired and unharmed after
the predation event. Phyllobates lugubris is a conspicuously
striped, alkaloid-containing, diurnal frog that inhabits the
Caribbean lowland rainforest, and marginally, premontane
wet forest from extreme southeastern Nicaragua, through
Costa Rica, and into northwestern Panama (Savage 2002. The
Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica: a Herpetofauna between
Two Continents, between Two Seas. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, Illinois. 934 pp.). Adult Coniophanes fissidens are leaf-
litter dwelling snakes that are most active during the day and
early evening, and are found within the geographic range of P.
lugubris (Savage, op. cit.). The diet of C. fissidens is reported to
contain a diversity of small vertebrates, including frogs, lizards,
snakes, salamanders, and lizard and frog eggs (Savage, op. cit.).
Coniophanes fissidens is also a reported predator upon another
dendrobatid, the strawberry poison frog Oophaga pumilio, at the
La Selva Biological Station in northeastern Costa Rica (Saporito
et al. 2007. Copeia 2007:1006–1011), suggesting that this snake
may be resistant or tolerant to the effects of alkaloid-based
chemical defenses of dendrobatid frogs.
MIGUEL SOLANO, ANDRES VEGA, and RALPH A. SAPORITO, De-
partment of Biology, John Carroll University, University Heights, Ohio
44118, USA (e-mail: rsaporito@jcu.edu).
RANA AURORA (Northern Red-legged Frog). EGG INCUBATION
PERIOD. Data on the incubation period of Rana aurora eggs un-
der field conditions are scarce, being limited to two published
accounts. The most thorough is that of Storm (1960. Herpeto-
logica 16:251–259), who reported on a series of seven R. aurora
egg masses laid in a small pond in northwestern Oregon (elev.
72 m). The incubation period of these masses were as follows:
35 days (1 mass), 42 days (1 mass), 44 days (1 mass), 49 days (2
masses), and ≥ 50 days (2 masses). Subsequently, Brown (1975.
Northwest Sci. 49:241–246) reported that the incubation period
of 35 R. aurora egg masses laid in a pond in northwestern Wash-
ington (elev. 120 m) required, on average, just over 35 days. Based
on these two accounts, the incubation period for R. aurora eggs
under field conditions is 35–50 days. Here, we provide data which
reduce the minimum incubation period by 2.5 weeks (18 days)
from that reported previously. Here, incubation period is de-
fined as the period of time between egg deposition/fertilization
(Gosner stage 1; Gosner 1960. Herpetologica 16:183–190) and the
complete emergence of embryos from the egg jelly (Gosner stage
20–22 at this site).
During ongoing studies of R. aurora in the Tualatin
River Basin, Washington County, Oregon, USA (45.50470°N,
122.99000°W, WGS 84; elev. 39 m), we have observed a range of
incubation periods under field conditions. Our observations
during the winter of 2015 are typical. In 2015, we monitored
the development of 91 R. aurora egg masses laid in a floodplain
wetland adjacent to the Tualatin River. These egg masses were
laid between 14 January and 11 February. The time required
for complete hatching of these masses was between 17 and 48
days (mean = 30 days; Fig. 1). Incubation period was inversely
related to spawn date: the eggs which were laid first (14–23
January) experienced the longest incubation period (mean =
37 days, range = 25–48 days); those which were laid later (06–11
Feb.) experienced the shortest (mean = 26 days, range = 17–33
days). This difference was probably due to water temperature:
measured water temperatures at egg masses increased during
the egg development interval. During January, they averaged
7.2°C (range: 4.0–11.1°C); during February, 9.7°C (range: 5.5–
14.0°C). Our data extend the documented incubation period of R.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
832 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
aurora eggs under field conditions (from 35–50 days) to between
17 and 50 days.
Compared to other North American ranids, R. aurora
exhibits a relatively long interval for embryonic development,
apparently due to the species’ habit of breeding in late winter
when the water is cold (Storm 1960, op. cit.; Licht 1969. Can. J.
Zool. 47:1287–1299). In laboratory experiments, eggs incubated
at warmer temperatures developed much more quickly: while
embryonic development at a constant 4.2°C required 83 days, it
was completed in 14.6 days at 12°C, and required only 6.6 days
at 19.7°C. (Nussbaum et al. 1983. Amphibians and Reptiles of the
Pacific Northwest, University of Idaho Press, Moscow, Idaho. 332
pp.). This illustrates the innate capacity of R. aurora embryos for
rapid development, and suggests that temperature is indeed the
determining factor. We note that water temperature at breeding
sites varies widely due to a number of factors, including year (i.e.,
weather), water source, breeding site depth and exposure, and
elevation. Consequently, the actual incubation period exhibited
in a field setting will depend on environmental conditions, and
we expect it to be even more variable than reported here.
CHRIS ROMBOUGH, Rombough Biological, P.O. Box 365, Aurora, Or-
egon 97002, USA (e-mail: rambo2718@yahoo.com); LAURA TRUNK, Jack-
son Bottom Wetlands Preserve, 2600 SW Hillsboro Hwy., Hillsboro, Oregon
97123, USA.
RHINELLA ARENARUM (Common Toad). AVIAN PREDATION.
Rhinella arenarum is a medium-sized toad that inhabits in Ar-
gentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Bionda et al
2015. Acta Herpetol. 10:55–62). In San Juan, Argentina, it occurs
in various natural and anthropic environments. Here we report
the first observation of predation on R. arenarum by Buteo mag-
nirostris (Roadside Hawk).
At 1347 h on 19 September 2016, near the mouth of San
Juan River, Zonda, San Juan Province, Argentina (31.487994°S,
68.688794°W, WGS 84; elev. 776 m), we observed a Roadside
Hawk flying and carrying an adult R. arenarum in its talons (Fig.
1). Although it is known that B. magnirostris feeds on amphib-
ians (Beltzer 1990. Ornitol. Neotrop. 1:3–8; Panasci and Whitacre
2000. Wilson Bull. 112:555–558; Baladrón et al 2011. J. Raptor Res.
45:257–261), our observation is the first record of predation on R.
arenarum by B. magnirostris.
TOMÁS AGUSTÍN MARTÍNEZ (e-mail: tomas.agustin.martinez14@
gmail.com), MELINA JESÚS RODRÍGUEZ MUÑOZ, Consejo Nacional de
Investigaciones Cientícas y Técnicas, Godoy Cruz 2290, Ciudad Autónoma
de Buenos Aires C1425FQB, Argentina (e-mail: melina.rodriguez26@gmail.
com); GUSTAVO FAVA, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientícas y
Técnicas, Godoy Cruz 2290, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1425FQB,
Argentina; RODRIGO ACOSTA, JUAN CARLOS ACOSTA, and GRACIELA
BLANCO, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas
y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de San Juan. Av. José Ignacio de la Roza
590 (Oeste) Rivadavia, San Juan, Argentina.
RHINELLA MAJOR (Granulated Toad). PREDATION. Anurans
are key elements of both terrestrial and aquatic food chains, be-
ing prey for a great variety of invertebrates, especially when they
are aggregated at breeding sites (Wells 2010. The Ecology and Be-
havior of Amphib ians. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illi-
nois. 1162 pp.). Approximately 68 species of adults anurans have
been documented as prey for 57 species of invertebrates (Toledo
2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:395–400). Here, we communicate a case
of predation on an adult male of Rhinella major (Bufonidae) by
a Lethocerus indicus (Giant Water Bug; Hemiptera: Belostoma-
tidae). At 1934 h on 27 January 2017, a L. indicus was recorded
preying on an adult male R. major in a temporary pond (10 cm
deep) surrounded by secondary forest at Universidade Federal do
Amapá, municipality of Macapá, Amapá state, Brazil (0.00640°S,
51.08550°W; WGS 84). During the time of observation, L. indicus
was grabbing the toad by the gular region. After this, the L. indi-
cus completely submerged for 7 min. and continued feeding on
the R. major supported on the vegetation of the bottom. The ob-
servation was recorded on video and is kept in the media files of
the Herpetological Collection at the Federal University of Amapá
(accession number CECCAMPOS 00001). This record suggests
that, when available, adult toads species like R. major may con-
stitute important components of the diet of L. indicus. This is the
first known documented predation of R. major by L. indicus.
PEDRO HUGO E. SILVA (e-mail: pedrohugobio@gmail.com), LORENA
F. S. TAVARES COSTA, ERCILEIDE S. SANTOS, YRLAN KLEISON S. AVE-
LAR, ANNA KLARA M. G UERREIRO, MARCOS R. D. SOUZA, GI SELLY S.
AMANAJÁS, and CHRISTIAN RAPHAEL B. PAIXÃO, Laboratório de Zoo-
logia, Departamento Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal
do Amapá, Campus Marco Zero, 68.903-419, Macapá, Amapá, Brazil; CAR-
LOS E. COSTA-CAMPOS, Laboratório de Herpetologia, Departamento
Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Amapá, Campus
Marco Zero, 68.903-419, Macapá, Amapá, Brazil (e-mail: eduardocampos@
unifap.br).
Fig. 1. Incubation period of 91 Rana aurora egg masses in a north-
west Oregon wetland, 2015. Fig. 1. Buteo magnirostris (Roadside Hawk) with an adult Rhinella
arenarum in its talons, from Zonda Department, San Juan, Argen-
tina.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 833
SPEA BOMBIFRONS (Plains Spadefoot). ANISOCORIA. Aniso-
coria is a condition characterized by an unequal size of the eyes’
pupils. Herein we report the occurrence of anisocoria in a Spea
bombifrons. On 30 January 2016, a specimen was collected on
North Wallace Rd in Hidalgo County, Texas, USA (26.504976°N,
98.5154800°W). The specimen, an adult S. bombifrons (40.8 mm
SVL) possessed unequal size of the pupils. When exposed to
daylight and darkness the right pupil would shrink or expand,
respectively. By contrast, the left pupil would not dilate when ex-
posed to darkness nor noticeably shrink when exposed to day-
light. Most unilateral ophthalmic abnormalities documented in
frogs are suggestive of trauma or focal disease (Ballard and Cheek
2003. Exotic Animal Medicine for the Veterinary Technician.
Blackwell Publishing, Hoboken, New Jersey. 379 pp.). Stimula-
tion or damage to sensory nerves is known to cause pupil dila-
tion (Klopper 1951. Acta. Physiol. Pharmacol. Neerl. 2:81–83) as
are subcutaneous drug injections and direct exposure to certain
chemicals (Meltzer and Auer 1904. Am. J. Physiol. 11:449–454;
Wright and Whitaker, 2001. Amphibian Medicine and Captive
Husbandry. Krieger Publishing, Malabar, Florida. 449 pp.). Based
upon examination in the field and subsequent examination of
the preserved specimen there are no obvious external injuries.
However, it remains unclear if the condition resulted from trau-
matic injury, association with disease or exposure to chemicals.
Additionally we are unable to ascertain if this case of anisocoria
was of recent origin or a longer held affliction.
The specimen was deposited at the Amphibian and Reptile
Diversity Research Center at the University of Texas at Arlington
(UTA A 63794) and was collected under Texas Parks and Wildlife
Scientific Permit number SPR-0913-130. An in-vivo image of the
frog was deposited in the UTA Digital Collection (UTADC 8758).
CARL J. FRANKLIN (e-mail: Franklin@uta.edu) and MAYRA G. OYER-
VIDES, Amphibian and Reptile Diversity Research Center, Department of
Biology, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, USA
(e-mail: Mayraoyervides@hotmail.com).
SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS (Indian Burrowing Frog) and
UPERODON SYSTOMA (Marbled Balloon Frog) INTERSPECIFIC
AMPLEXUS. At 2200 h on 16 June 2016, near Billur Village of Jath
Tehsil in Sangli District, Maharashtra state, India (16.59070°N,
75.10780°E, WGS 84; 726 m elev.), we recorded an unusual
interspecies amplexus between a Sphaerotheca breviceps
(Dicroglossidae) male with Uprodon systoma (Microhylidae)
female (Fig. 1) in temporary rain water pool near a road side.
Sphaerotheca breviceps and U. systoma are widespread species in
South Asia found in the drier region of India. Both are excellent
burrowers that bury themselves in loose soil. They breed in
ephemeral and permanent water bodies and also in modified
areas such as agricultural land. At this site both species are
reproductively active simultaneously, although U. systoma is
active during the early monsoon period ( June–July) while S.
breviceps breed only after occasional heavy rain (Daniel 2002.
The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. Oxford University
Press, Oxford. 238 pp.). When the breeding season of two or
more species overlaps in space and time together, amplexus
between two different species may occur (Hobel 2005. Herpetol.
Rev. 35:55–56). Due to irregular rainfall during the monsoon,
availability of mating sites and number of mates in both species
is low and probably resulted in the observed interspecies
amplexus.
MALLAPPA B. SAJJAN, Department of Zoology, Sadguru Gadage
Maharaj College, Karad- 415124, Maharashtra, India (e-mail: sajjan_mb73@
yahoo.com); BAPUR AO V. JADHAV, Department of Zoology, Balasaheb
Desai College, Patan- 415206, Maharashtra, India; RAJARAM N. PATIL,
Department of Zoology, Sadguru Gadage Maharaj College, Karad- 415124,
Maharashtra, India.
TESTUDINES — TURTLES
CARETTOCHELYS INSCULPTA (Pig-nosed Turtle). SCAVENG-
ING. Accurately determining the complete diet of turtle species
can be difficult. Dissections of many individuals are often not
permitted or wise (e.g., in threatened species). Stomach flush-
ing, while effective, can underestimate the prevalence of animal
prey in which mostly soft tissues are ingested, compared to those
with harder parts such as insect exoskeletons or mollusk shells,
or plant material with cell walls. Yet, infrequent dietary items can
be energetically important to individual animals (Greene 1986.
Fieldiana Zool. 31:1–12). Direct observations of feeding can thus
be valuable in understanding full dietary breadth. Carettochelys
insculpta is a highly aquatic turtle found in southern New Guinea
and a few rivers in northern Australia (Cogger 2000. Amphibians
and Reptiles of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. 796 pp.).
In Australia it is omnivorous, but primarily herbivorous (Georges
and Kennett 1989. Wildl. Res. 16:323–335). Herein I report obser-
vations of C. insculpta scavenging on wallaby carcasses.
The Agile Wallaby is a small (16–27 kg) macropod inhabiting
floodplains in northern Australia (Van Dyck and Strahan 2008.
Mammals of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. 887 pp.).
This species prefers to drink free water (Bell 1973. Mammalia
37:527–544), and visits rivers, streams, and billabongs during the
dry season, bringing it into contact with predatory crocodiles
(Doody 2007. Ethology 113:128–136; Steer and Doody 2009.
Anim. Behav. 78:1071–1078). In the Daly River, the Saltwater
Crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, and perhaps large individuals of
the Freshwater Crocodile, C. johnstoni, prey upon the wallabies
(Doody et al. 2007, op. cit., and references therein; R. Somaweera,
unpubl. data). However, the size of most individual crocodiles
prohibits consuming the entire wallaby in one feeding bout
(Webb and Manolis 1989. Crocodiles of Australia. Reed, Sydney.
160 pp.), and so the carcasses are cached (Doody et al. 2009, op.
cit.). Some are guarded, but many are left at the river’s edge or
on snags in the river, where the crocodile can return to feed on
them. The unguarded caches are vulnerable to theft from other
animals, however, including other crocodiles and turtles in the
water, and on land by Dingos (Canis lupus), White-bellied Sea
Eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster), Black Kites (Milvus migrans),
Whistling Kites (Haliastur sphenurus), and Yellow-spotted
Monitor Lizards (Varanus panoptes) (S. Doody, unpubl. obs.).
Between 2000 and 2007, during the dry season, I observed
41 floating carcasses of Agile Wallabies (Macropus agilis) in the
Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia (including 28 reported
in Doody et al. 2009. Herpetol. Rev. 40:26–28). The river stretch
extended from approximately 20 km upstream of Oolloo Crossing
(14.071093°S, 131.251378°E; WGS 84), downstream to the junction
of the Douglas River. I recorded 47 C. insculpta scavenging on 25
wallaby carcasses; the majority of the observations were during
the day, but C. insculpta were also observed feeding on carcasses
at dusk and after dark. The number of turtles scavenging a single
carcass ranged from one to five. All observed turtles were adults.
Although some turtles could be sexed from the boat in shallow
water, many could not, but I observed both sexes feeding on
carcasses. Behaviorally, turtles nuzzled the carcasses and bit
pieces from them, sometimes using their front limbs against

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
834 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
the carcass for leverage. In most cases the boat disturbed the
turtles, causing them to quickly swim away. In several cases
turtles followed carcasses that were floating downstream with
the current. Our research crew exploited the turtles’ fondness
for wallaby meat by using roadkill wallabies as bait in hoop nets,
and capture success was high (Doody 2002. The Ecology and Sex
Determination in the Pig-nosed Turtle, Carettochelys insculpta,
in the Wet-dry Tropics of Northern Australia. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Canberra. 242 pp.).
My observations, coupled with unpublished observations of
C. insculpta feeding on three wallaby carcasses by Heaphy (1990.
The Ecology of the Pig-nosed Turtle, Carettochelys insculpta, in
Northern Australia. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Canberra. 550
pp.), suggest that scavenged animal matter may be important to
this primarily herbivorous species, at least in Australia. Although
the majority of its dry-season diet in Australia is plant material,
especially the fruits and leaves of figs (Ficus), flowers (Melaleuca),
and ribbonweed (Vallisneria), small molluscs and aquatic insects
are eaten, and fish and flying foxes (Pteropus) are probably taken
as carrion (Georges and Kennett 1989. Aust. Wildl. Res. 16:323–
335). Two studies flushed the stomachs of Daly River C. insculpta
to determine diet. Heaphy (1990, op. cit.) stomach-flushed 93
individuals, finding mainly Vallisneria spp. (97% occurrence,
87% by volume), figs (15%, 2.6%), and molluscs (75%, 3.9%).
Welsh (1999. Resource Partitioning among the Freshwater Turtles
of the Daly River, Northern Territory. Honors thesis, University of
Canberra) flushed 74 individuals, also finding mainly Vallisneria
spp. and molluscs. Either the consumption of meat from wallaby
carcasses occurs too infrequently to be have been detected in
stomach-flushing studies, and/or the soft, readily digestible
parts were not evident. Although I cannot discern between these
two hypotheses, our observations of carcass feeding contribute
to a more complete knowledge of the diet of C. insculpta in
Australia. The affinity of C. insculpta for wallaby meat probably
indicates a role for high-protein items in their metabolism. More
broadly, these observations highlight the value of direct feeding
observations as a supplement to quantitative dietary studies
using stomach flushing, fecal analysis, and other methods.
J. SEAN DOODY. Department of Biological Sciences, Southeastern
Louisiana University, Hammond, Louisiana 70402, USA; e-mail: jseandoo-
dy@gmail.com.
CLEMMYS GUTTATA (Spotted Turtle). LONGEVITY. Based on
survivorship estimates from a 24-year mark-recapture study
with Clemmys guttata, Litzgus (2006. Copeia 2006:281–288) es-
timated that longevity could be as high as 65 years for males and
110 years for females. However, recaptures of individuals across
many years could provide valuable support for these estimates
and, unfortunately, such observations are rare in the wild. Here
we report on two observations of C. guttata originally captured
and marked as adults in 1989, and recaptured 28 years later.
At 1100 h on 21 April 2017, we observed a C. guttata male
basking on the side of a small, forested seasonal pool (Fort Belvoir
Military Installation, Fairfax County, Virginia, USA: 77.136199°W,
38.733331°N; WGS 84). This male was originally captured on
26 April 1989, and given a unique ID by filing notches into the
marginals (Ernst 1974. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 35:27–28). Upon
initial capture, the male’s max plastron length (MPL: 94.1 mm)
suggested that he was likely an adult (Ernst 1970. Herpetologica
26:228–232; Litzgus 2006, op. cit.). We measured the male’s
plastron length to 92 mm, and his carapace and plastron were
worn completely smooth (Fig. 1). If the male was an adult during
the 1989 capture, then the turtle is now a minimum of 39 years
old. We then observed a second C. guttata at 1200 h, active
under leaf litter in a small, forested seasonal pool (77.135384°W,
38.731479°N; WGS 84). This female was originally captured and
marked on 6 April 1989. Upon initial capture, the female’s max
plastron length (MPL: 101.6 mm) suggested that she was likely
an adult (Ernst 1970, op. cit.; Litzgus 2006, op. cit.). We measured
the female’s plastron length to 100 mm, and her carapace and
plastron were also worn completely smooth. If the female was an
adult at the 1989 capture, then the turtle is now a minimum of 40
years old. Although GPS coordinates for the initial captures were
not available, the turtles were captured on an adjoining property,
located approximately 1000–4500 m (straight-line distance) from
the recapture locations.
ELLERY RUTHER, Department of Natural Resources, University of Illi-
nois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA (e-mail: eruther2@illinois.edu); BRETT DE-
GREGORIO (e-mail: Brett.A.Degregorio@usace.army.mil); JINELLE SPER-
RY, Army Corps Engineers, ERDC-CERL, Champaign, Illinois 61822, USA
(e-mail: Jinelle.Sperry@usace.army.mil); STEVEN SEKSCIENSKI, Oce of
the Assistant Chief of Sta Installation Management, DAIM-ISE, Conserva-
tion Branch, Washington, D.C. 20310, USA (e-mail: steven.w.sekscienski.
civ@mail.mil).
EMYS ORBICULARIS (European Pond Turtle). ECTOPARA-
SITES. European Pond Turtles are often parasitized by the leech
Placobdella costata (Ayres and Alvarez 2008. Acta Biol. Univ,
Daugavpiliensis 8:53–55). During parasite monitoring of E. or-
bicularis populations from northwestern Spain, turtles were
captured using shrimp traps on the muddy shore of a forest
pond near the Tioira River, Ourense province, Spain (42.1440°N,
7.3856°W, ETRS 89; 508 m. elev.), from May to September 2015.
Turtles were identified and checked for anomalies and parasites.
Leeches were stored in a plastic tube and were sent to the labora-
tory to be identified.
Two Emys orbicularis were captured during the summer of
2015 with leeches on their bodies. A male presented with seven
leeches, and a female presented with six. Leeches were identified
as Helobdella stagnalis due to the presence of a chitinized nuchal
scute (Sawyer 1986. In R. T. Sawyer [ed.], Leech Biology and
Behavior, pp. 419–793. Science Publications, Oxford).
Further research would be necessary to determine whether H.
stagnalis parasitized these turtles or if this represents a symbiotic
or commensal relationship.
Fig. 1. A male Clemmys guttata, originally captured as an adult in
1989 and recaptured in 2017.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 835
CESAR AYRES, Asociación Herpetologica Española, Apdo 191, 28090,
Leganes (Madrid), Spain (e-mail: cesar@herpetologica.org); RAUL IGLE-
SIAS, Laboratorio de Parasitología, Facultad de Biología, Campus Lagoas-
Marcosende, Universidad de Vigo, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain (e-mail:
rib@uvigo.es).
GLYPTEMYS INSCULPTA (Wood Turtle). FEMALE-FEMALE
AGGRESSION AT NEST SITE. There are records of male-male,
male-female, and female-male Glyptemys insculpta aggression
(Barzilay 1979. J. Herpetol. 14: 89–91; Brewster and Brewster
1988. Bull. Chicago Herpetol. Soc. 23:144), but apparently no
reports have been published of female-female aggression. Fair-
ly regular male-female aggression and one instance of female-
male aggression was observed in a small, captive population of
G. insculpta (Brewster and Brewster 1988, op. cit.). Each of the
aforementioned records occurred during courtship. Aggressive
female-female behavior may be less common, and females have
been observed to share nest sites without interaction (Harding
and Bloomer 1979. Bull. New York Herpetol. Soc. 15:9–26).
At ca. 1930 h on 13 June 2017, while conducting a G. insculpta
nesting survey on the Wisconsin River in Oneida County,
Wisconsin, we observed a single large female G. insculpta
(Female A) exhibiting nesting behavior. While Female A was in
the process of excavating, a second, smaller female G. insculpta
(Female B) approached the open, sandy area along a two-track
road. The open area was ca. 5.0 m × 5.0 m with a substrate of
predominately sand and traces of pea size gravel, surrounded by
dense brush and forest, more than 50 m from the river. A small
creek runs along the other side of the two-track road ca. 15 m
from the open area and is the nearest waterway and the most
likely route of approach. Female B excavated several shallow
holes while approaching Female A, who appeared to be in the
process of excavating a nest. When Female B approached Female
A, they came together nose to nose for ca. 30–45 sec. At that
point, Female B began exhibiting aggressive behavior toward
Female A, chasing her around the site with mouth open, trying
to bite her legs and tail. Female B eventually chased Female A off
the site entirely, and then returned to the hole that Female A had
excavated and began digging there herself. We observed for ca.
20 min more, at which point Female B left the nest site without
depositing eggs. When Female B exited the open sandy area, she
was captured, and confirmed to be gravid. Female A was also
captured ca. 3 m from the site and confirmed gravid. We returned
the next morning ca. 0800 h, 14 June 2017, and found Female B in
the process of finishing a nest. We confirmed there were eggs in
the nest. We collected non-invasive measurements, pit-tagged,
and then released Female B.
We had been monitoring the nest site every night and on
rainy mornings since 6 June 2017. We had observed Female
A at the nest site for two nights and one morning prior to this
observed interaction, but this account describes the first time we
observed Female B at this nest site.
SARA L. FISCHER, University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point, 2100 Main
St, Stevens Point, Wisconsin 54481, USA (e-mail: ssc744@uwsp.edu); LAU-
RA L. JASKIEWICZ (e-mail: Laura.Jaskiewicz@wisconsin.gov) and CARLY
N. LAPIN, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources – Bureau of Natural
Heritage Conservation, 107 Sutli Avenue Rhinelander, Wisconsin 54501,
USA (e-mail: Carly.Lapin@wisconsin.gov).
GRAPTEMYS FL AVIMACULATA (Yellow-blotched Sawback).
SHELL ABNORMALITY AND LONG-TERM SITE FIDELITY.
Recent literature examples of shell abnormalities in the genus
Graptemys are typically associated with kyphosis of the spine (Sel-
man and Jones 2012. Chelon. Conserv. Biol. 11:259–261; Louque et
al. 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:81). However, relatively little has been
reported on other developmental shell abnormalities in the genus
(but see Carpenter 1958. Herpetologica 14:116). Along with a lack
of information on shell abnormalities, little is known of species of
Graptemys regarding long-term site fidelity of individuals (Jones
1996. J. Herpetol. 30:376–385). Currently, 14 Graptemys species are
recognized, with G. flavimaculata being endemic to the Pasca-
goula River and its tributaries of southern Mississippi, USA (Lin-
deman 2015. The Map Turtle and Sawback Atlas: Ecology, Evolu-
tion, Distribution, and Conservation. Oklahoma University Press,
Norm an. 46 0 pp.). Here in, I describe a mal e G. flavimaculata with
a shell abnormality that was captured three times in the same lo-
cation over a 2.5-year period.
On 27 September 2005, a juvenile male G. flavimaculata (ID:
R2-L8) was captured during sampling efforts on the Leaf River
(Forrest County, Mississippi, USA). R2-L8 had a plastron length
of 5.8 cm and a body mass of 25 g. Upon closer examination, R2-
L8’s plastron had a scoliosis-like appearance (Fig. 1A). This was
primarily manifested through the longer midline lengths of the
left pectoral and abdominal scutes in comparison to the right side
counterparts, while the left femoral scute was shorter relative to the
right femoral scute. The result was a plastron midline in the shape
of a shallow “S.” The car apa ce w as a lso sli ght ly m iss hape n ( i.e. ,
right rear carapace slightly compressed toward midline; left side of
carapace slightly projecting out), but this is not readily evident via
dorsal photograph (Fig. 1B). Even though both the plastron and
carapace were abnormal, the carapace was not kyphotic.
Foll owing the Sep tembe r 20 05 captu re, R 2-L8 was rec apture d
twice in the same area on 2 August 2007 and 16 April 2008, and the
shell abnormalties persisted during both of these capture events.
R2-L8’s plastron length was similar for both recapture events (7.7
cm), but there was a slight decline in body mass between the 2007
(90 g) and 2008 capture events (75 g). The basking location where
the individual was captured was the same branch in 2005 and
2008, but it was a slightly different nearby snag in 2007 (within GPS
accuracy ≤ 4.5 m).
Reports of shell abnormalities are becoming more commonly
reported by researchers, especially in the genus Graptemys.
However, there is no information to date on developmental shell
abnormalities reported in G. flavimaculata. Kyphosis has been
reported in the sister taxon, G. oculifera (Selman and Jones,
op. cit.) and a more distant member of the genus, G. sabinensis
(Louque et al., op. cit.). The present observation is relatively
similar to a Terrapene carolina (Eastern Box Turtle) recently
reported as having deformities of both the plastron and carapace
(Palis 2017. Herpetol. Rev. 48:181).
Fig. 1. Ventral (A) and dorsal (B) views of a male Graptemys flavi-
maculata (R2-L8) exhibiting shell abnormalities of the plastron and
carapace.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
836 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
Along with the shell abnormality, R2-L8 exhibited a high
level of basking site fidelity over 2.5 years (932 days). Because
this animal was not being tracked in the intervening periods, it
is unknown how much movement the animal made beyond this
small area. However, Jones (op. cit.) detailed a telemetered male
that moved ~10 km but was later recaptured on the same basking
structure 9 months later. The observations reported herein and by
Jones (op. cit.) indicate that Graptemys individuals may have high
affinities to certain basking structures, and their affinity may occur
over a long per iod of time i f that str ucture remain s avail able in th e
environment. Thus, this observation further underscores of the
importance of maintaining deadwood basking structures in rivers
for G. flavimaculata and other southeastern Graptemys species.
The observations reported herein were completed in
association with the dissertation work of WS at The University of
Southern Mississippi and was approved by the USFWS, MDWFP,
and the USM Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
(IACUC #07032201).
WILL SELMAN, Department of Biology, Millsaps College, 1701 N. State
Street, Jackson, Mississippi 39210, USA; e-mail: will.selman@millsaps.edu.
MACROCHELYS TEMMINCKII (Alligator Snapping Turtle).
HOOK, MONOFIL AMENT LINE, AND SINKER. Alligator
Snapping Turtles are known to consume a variety of digestible
and indigestible objects; some of the more unusual non-food
items include cardboard, fishhooks, rocks, rubber, and wood
(Ernst and Lovich 2009. Turtles of the United States and Canada.
Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 827 pp.) in
addition to monofilament line wrapped around fish-head baits
(Sloan et al. 1996. Chelon. Conserv. Biol. 2:96–99). Herein, we
report on another incident involving monofilament line.
While trapping for Macrochelys temminckii on 27 June
2013 in Salado Creek, Independence County, Arkansas, USA
(35.685197°N, 91.567394°W, WGS 84; 69 m elev.) as part of a
long-term, mark-release investigation on this species ( Trauth et
al. 2016. J. Arkansas Acad. Sci. 70:235–247), we captured a male
turtle (standard carapace length = 31.3 cm; plastron length = 24.2
cm; 7.7 kg) that possessed a monofilament line of around 20 cm
in length trailing from its vent. A gentle tugging of the line did
not dislodge its internal attachment, which, presumably, was
secured by a hook. Among the plausible scenarios to explain
the aforementioned condition, we speculate that the turtle
consumed a fish that had already swallowed a fisherman’s baited
hook. Prior to consumption, the fish could have entangled itself
in a submerged rootwad (a very common submergent feature in
this creek), leading to the breakage of the monofilament line. The
turtle could have then eaten the fish without the hook becoming
embedded in its alimentary tract until partial or complete
digestion of the fish had occurred. Additional foodstuffs traveling
through the alimentary tract of the turtle could have then forced
the monofilament line out the vent.
We thank the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, and
especially Kelly Irwin, for written permission to trap Alligator
Snapping Turtles in Salado Creek through the authority of annual
scientific collection permits to SET.
STANLEY E. TRAUTH, Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas
State University, P.O. Box 599, State University, Arkansas 72467, USA (e-
mail: strauth@astate.edu); JOHN J. KELLY, 7351 Hoover, Apartment 3N,
Richmond Heights, Missouri 63117, USA (e-mail: kellyjj1@gmail.com).
PSEUDEMYS GORZUGI (Rio Grande Cooter). MAXIMUM
CLUTCH SIZE. Pseudemys gorzugi is a relatively large riverine
turtle native to New Mexico and Texas within the United States
of America (USA), with its range extending to Tamaulipas, Nue-
vo León, and Coahuila in Mexico. This is one of the least stud-
ied freshwater turtle species in North America, and very little
is known about their reproductive ecology. On 13 June 2017,
we captured a female P. gorzugi (265 mm straight line carapace
length) via snorkeling at Camp Washington Ranch pond in Eddy
County, New Mexico, USA (32.114469°N, 104.457804°W; WGS
84). The female was transferred to Albuquerque Biological Park
for inclusion in a newly established captive breeding program.
A radiograph revealed that the female was gravid, carrying 12
eggs (Fig. 1). On 9 July 2017, she deposited all twelve eggs. This is
the third confirmed account of P. gorzugi clutch size and also the
largest reported clutch size for the species. Mean egg length was
40.3 mm (SD = 0.26), mean egg width was 31.1 mm (SD = 0.13),
and mean egg mass was 16.2 g (SD = 0.16). Previous accounts all
come from New Mexico and include a female with a carapace
length of 240 mm which deposited nine eggs in May with mean
egg length of 42 mm and mean egg width of 31 mm (Degenhardt
et al. 1996. Amphibians and reptiles of New Mexico. University of
New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 431 pp.), and a fe-
male with a carapace length of 242 mm that deposited ten eggs in
Fig. 1. a radiograph of a gravid adult female Pseudemys gorzugi bear-
ing 12 eggs. Individual was caught on 13 June 2017 in Eddy County,
New Mexico.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 837
June with mean egg width of 29.3 mm (SD 1.1; Lovich et al. 2016.
West. N. Am. Nat. 76:291–297). We additionally note the possible
increase in clutch size (Fig. 2A) but not necessarily egg size (Fig.
2B) with increase in female size. From these accounts, we can
assume that the nesting season of P. gorzugi in New Mexico is be-
tween May and July.
This research was approved by the landowner, New Mexico
Department of Game and Fish issued to Eastern New Mexico
University (Permit Authorization No. 3621) and Albuquerque
Biological Park (Permit Authorization No. 3533), and Eastern
New Mexico University IACUC (Approval #03-02/2016). This
work was supported in part by the Share with Wildlife Program
at New Mexico Department of Game and Fish and State Wildlife
Grant T-32-4, #18.
ANDREW W. LETTER (e-mail: andrew.letter@enmu.edu), KORRY J.
WALDON (e-mail: korry.waldon@enmu.edu), and IVANA MALI, Eastern
New Mexico University, Department of Biology, Station 33, 1500 S Ave K,
Portales, New Mexico 88130, USA (e-mail: ivana.mali@enmu.edu); RICH-
ARD D. REAMS, Albuquerque BioPark, 903 10th Street, Albuquerque, New
Mexico 87102, USA (e-mail: rreams@cabq.gov).
PSEUDEMYS GORZUGI (Rio Grande Cooter). INGESTED FISH
HOOK. Recent studie s have shown that the prevalence of fish hook
ingestion by freshwater turtles can range from 0 to 33% depending
on the species and location (Steen et al. 2014. PLoS ONE 9:
e91368). Freshwater turtles are vulnerable to recreational fishing
and there is an increased risk of mortality in freshwater turtles
that have ingested hooks (Steen and Robinson 2017. Conserv. Biol.
doi:10.1111/cobi.12926). On 12 July 2017, we captured a female
Pseudemys gorzugi (carapace length = 151 mm) via snorkeling at
the Cottonwood Day Use Area (34.09547°N, 104.46755°W; WGS 84)
along the Black River in Eddy County, New Mexico, USA. The site is
managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and is often
used by the public for recreational activities. The captured turtle
had a fishing line protruding from its mouth and upon further
investigation, a hook could be seen in the back of the throat. Given
that many anglers use the site for recreational fishing, the turtle
was likely an accidental by-catch. We took the turtle to the Desert
Willow Wildlife Rehabilitation Center in Carlsbad, New Mexico,
where a radiograph revealed the position of the hook. The hook
was surgically removed and turtle released at the site of capture.
Our observation is the first evidence of fish hook ingestion by P.
gorzugi, believed to be a predominantly herbivorous species, and
suggests potential negative effects of recreational fishing on this
conservation sensitive species. The species is currently listed as
threatened in New Mexico and is awaiting the decision for federal
listing by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Further observations on
the prevalence of fish hook ingestion by P. g o r z u g i along the Black
River, and evaluating the mortality rates caused by hook ingestion,
will help clarify this additional threat to the species’ sustainability.
This research was approved by BLM, New Mexico Department
of Game and Fish (Permit Authorization No. 3621), and Eastern
New Mexico University IACUC (Approval #03-02/2016). This
work was supported in part by the Share with Wildlife Program
at New Mexico Department of Game and Fish and State Wildlife
Grant T-32-4, #18.
KORRY J. WALDON (e-mail: korry.waldon@enmu.edu), ANDRE W W.
LETTER (e-mail: andrew.letter@enmu.edu), and IVANA MALI, Eastern
New Mexico University, Department of Biology, Station 33, 1500 S Ave K,
Portales, New Mexico 88130, USA (e-mail: ivana.mali@enmu.edu)
TRACHEMYS SCRIPTA ELEGANS (Red-Eared Slider).
ABNORMAL SHELL MORPHOLOGY WITH KYPHOSCOLIOSIS.
Kyphosis is a spinal deformity (Rhodin et al. 1984. Brit. J. Herpetol.
6:369–373) that typically presents as an exaggerated doming of
the carapace (Taylor and Mendyk 2017. Herpetol. Rev. 48:418–
419) and has been described in numerous chelonian species,
as reviewed by Plymale et al. 1978 (Southwest. Nat. 23:457–
462). Several observations note this condition in Podocnemis
erythrocephala (Red-Headed Amazon River Turtle; Bernhard et
al. 2012. Herpetol. Rev. 43:639), Graptemys sabinensis (Sabine
Map Turtle; Louque et al. 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:81), Podocnemis
sextuberculata (Six-tubercled Amazon River Turtle; Perrone
et al. 2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:287, and Apalone ferox (Florida
Softshell Turtle; Taylor and Mendyk 2017, op. cit.). A recent study
documented growth in one juvenile kyphotic Graptemys oculifera
(Ringed Sawback; Selman and Jones 2012. Chelon. Conserv. Biol.
11:259–261); two recaptured adults had negligible growth in a
long term mark-recapture study.
Kyphoscoliosis is a condition that includes both dorso-
ventral and lateral undulations of the spine, and is less common
than kyphosis, but has been described in Deirochelys reticularia
(Florida Chicken Turtle; Mitchell and Johnston 2014. Herpetol.
Rev. 45:312), and Pseudemys suwanniensis (Suwanee Cooter;
Mitchell and Johnston 2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:127–128). Herein
we describe an extremely deformed Trachemys scripta elegans
with severe spinal deformity suggestive of kyphoscoliosis.
Trachemys s. elegans is a locally abundant turtle species
occurring throughout most of Louisiana (Boundy and Carr
2017. Amphibians & Reptiles of Louisiana. An Identification and
Reference Guide. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.
386 pp.). Kyphosis has been reported in T. s. elegans, in which
it appears to be rare (identified in 0.06% of 21,786 specimens;
Fig. 2. clutch size versus female carapace length (A) and mean egg
width versus female carapace length (B) of Pseudemys gorzugi.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
838 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
Tucker et al. 2007. Herpetol. Rev. 38:337–338). In mid-June 2017,
an abnormal T. s . e l eg a n s was observed by a resident in Vermilion
Pari sh in s outhw est Lo uisia na. The turtl e was s een in a shallow
crawfish pond between the towns of Kaplan and Gueydan. The
water in the pond was estimated to be “a few inches” deep and
muddy; the turtle’s domed carapace was readily visible above the
water line. On 12 July 2017, we obtained the specimen which we
determined to be an adult female, and took measurements and
photos (Fig. 1). The carapace length was 13.0 cm, shell height was
10.3 cm, carapace width was 10.7 cm at the widest point and 8.9
cm at the narrowest point; and the mass was 845 g. The digits of
the right forelimb were absent but the forelimb stump was well-
healed. The carapace had two large protuberances, the plastron
was convex with some mild abrasions possibly due to recent
confinement; otherwise the turtle appeared healthy and mobile.
In addition to the shell deformities, the misshapen shell may have
precluded complete forelimb retraction, making the distal limb
more susceptible to consumption by a predator. Also, the neck
retracted abnormally into the shell, with the head rotated ca. 45°
off-center (Fig. 1), likely as a result of the deformities.
Radiographs were obtained (Fig. 2) from a local veterinary
clinic, and we believe the findings are consistent with
kyphoscoliosis. Surprisingly the spinal column did not completely
follow either protuberance, which contained mostly free air, thus
the cause of portions of the shell deformity is unclear. Although
the specimen was collected during the breeding season for this
species, we did not note any hard-shelled eggs on the radiographs.
Plymale et al. 1978 (op. cit.) suggested kyphosis could be a barrier
to successful copulation, however a kyphotic female A. spinifera
was described as gravid (Burke 1994. Herpetol. Rev. 25:23, and
noted in Taylor and Mendyk 2017, op. cit.).
Little is known about the etiology of kyphosis, but suspected
causes are reviewed in Plymale et al. 1978 (op. cit.) and several
hypotheses are discussed in Tucker et al. 2007 (op. cit.).
Distorted shells in turtles can be due to metabolic bone disease
or prior trauma, and scute abnormalities can be congential
or secondary to metabolic bone disease (Boyer 1996; Turtles,
Tortoises, and Terrapins. In Mader. Reptile Medicine and
Surgery. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 512
pp.). Shell deformities causing an hourglass or figure-eight like
appearance with transverse constriction of the carapace and
plastron have been caused in this species after entrapment in
a nylon band (Odum 1985. Herpetol. Rev. 16:113) and a rubber
“O” ring (McLeod 1994. Herpetol. Rev. 25:116–117); a similar
observation was noted in Chelydra serpentina (Snapping Turtle)
with constriction caused by a plastic ring (Dietz and Ferri 2003.
Herpetol. Rev. 34:56). The extreme shell abnormalities seen in
the specimen described herein may have been congenital or
possibly secondary to prior entrapment in a foreign object, but
the precise cause is unknown.
We thank Lonnie Campbell for bringing this specimen to our
attention and Martin Richard for capture of the turtle. We greatly
appreciate the assistance of Dr. Jeff Aguillard and staff of Bayou
South Animal Clinic (Lake Charles, Louisiana) for assistance with
radiographs.
RUTH M. ELSEY (e -mail: relsey@wlf.la.gov), DWAYNE LEJEUNE, WIL-
LIAM STRONG, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefell-
er Wildlife Refuge, 5476 Grand Chenier Highway, Grand Chenier, Louisiana,
70643, USA; WILL SELMAN, Millsaps College, 1701 N State Street, Jackson,
Mississippi 39210, USA.
CROCODILIA — CROCODILIANS
CAIMAN LATIROSTRIS (Broad-snouted Caiman). ZOONOSIS.
Caiman latirostris occupies different trophic levels ranging from
secondary consumer to top-chain predator (Soares et al. 2011.
Check List 7:290–298). Therefore, these animals can play an im-
portant ecological role in the control of aquatic trophic chains in
wetlands. According to the International Union for Conservation
of Nature criteria (IUCN 2017), this species is classified as “low
risk, least concern” because it has a wide geographic distribution
among continental aquatic environments in Argentina, Bolivia,
Para guay, Urugua y, and Braz il. Curre ntly, habit at loss is the ma in
threat to C. latirostris populations. However, hunting is still an im-
portant contributing factor for population reductions and is as-
sociated with public health problems that can occur when local
human populations consume these animals, because the meat
can carry opportunistic microorganisms that act as sources of
infection. Our intent in this note is to bring to attention the risk
of zoonosis by fungi present in the gastrointestinal tract of C. lat-
irostris; these microorganisms can contaminate caiman meat and
may cause severe infections in immunosuppressed individuals.
To i n v e s t ig a t e t h e p r e s en c e o f z o o n o t ic p a t h o ge n i c f un g i i n
the oral and cloacal regions, we swabbed these areas on 30 free-
living C. latirostris living in a secondary forest in Espírito Santo
State in southe astern Brazil (20.2366 °S, 40.23 58°W). Caimans were
captured with a noose at night. Each caiman was restrained and
its mouth closed with tape before swabbing. Each swab was then
inoculated onto agar plates containing specific media to permit
the identification of different fungal types. Caimans were released
immediately after swabbing.
After incubation, 30% of these samples (9 out of 30 individuals)
were fungi-positive. Among them, three mouth and cloaca
Fig. 1. Trachemys scripta elegans with kyphoscoliosis.
Fig. 2. Radiographs of Trachemys scripta elegans with kyphoscoliosis;
anterior-posterior view on left and lateral view on right.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 839
samples were positive for Penicillium spp., two cloaca samples
were positive for Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp., and one
cloaca sample was positive for Paecilomyces spp. and Fusarium
spp. The fungi Aspergillus sp., Penicillium spp. and Fusarium
spp. are considered important mycotoxin producers, which
are the toxins responsible for transient or chronic poisoning if
ingested by humans or animals. These mycotoxins can trigger
renal, hepatic, circulatory, and gastrointestinal problems as well
as nervous system disorders (Vecchia and Castilhos-fortes 2007.
Ciênc. Aliment. 27:324–327). Infections by Candida spp., which
usually only cause oral cavity infections, can initiate systemic
infection in immunocompromised patients and can then
become a serious public health problem in hospitals (Giolo and
Svidzinski 2010. Bras. Patol. Med. Lab. 46:225–234). The fungi
from Paecilomyces spp. are well known as pathogens in animals,
but their role in human diseases may have been underestimated.
Studies show the role of these fungi in ophthalmic, pulmonary,
nasal sinus, heart, and skin problems in humans (Nogueira et al.
2012. Brasília Med.49:221–224).
Brazilian law (Law No. 5.197 from January 3rd, 1967, amended
by Law No. 7.653 from February 12th, 1988) prohibits caiman
hunting. However, the mere existence of a law does not guarantee
the absence of hunting; in fact, hunting is still a common activity
(Fig. 1) and caiman meat has been commercialized under
precarious hygienic conditions (Coutinho et al. 2013. Biod.
Bras. 3:13–20). The data presented here reinforce the need for
increased awareness in the human population about the risks
of caiman meat consumption and intensification of hunting
control, including the application of severe penalties by the
corresponding Brazilian authorities for those who commit this
type of hunting crime.
We thank the Arcelor Mittal Tubarão for funding this research.
YHURI C. NÓBREGA (e-mail: yhuri@institutomarcosdaniel.org.br),
DANIEL A N. NOSS A (e-mail: daninerisnossa@hotmail.com), VICTOR
D. MACHADO (e-mail: victordonatti.machado@gmail.com), and YG OR
MACHADO, Caiman Project, Marcos Daniel Institute, CEP: 29055-290,
Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil (e-mail: ygo.machado@gmail.com); DANIEL
N. S. NEVES (e-mail: daniel.neves@clinicacroma.com), CARLOS E. TADO-
KORO (e-mail: carlos.tadokoro@uvv.br), and MARCELO R. D. SANTOS,
Post-graduate program in Ecosystem Ecology, Vila Velha University, CEP
29.102-920, Vila Velha, Espírito Santo, Brazil (e-mail: mrenan@uvv.br).
CROCODYLUS ACUTUS (American Crocodile). DIET. The Amer-
ican Crocodile is a widely distributed species ranging from the
north Pacific coast of Mexico south to Ecuador and the Atlantic
coast from Florida south to Colombia and the Caribbean (Thob-
jarnarson et al. 2006. Biol. Conserv. 128:25–36). The diet of the
American Crocodile in marine environments is known to be
diverse and includes insects, mollusks, crustaceans, fish, birds,
reptiles and mammals (Platt et al. 2013. J. Herpetol. 47:1–10).
Here we report a unique secondary prey composition recovered
from defecation piles of a marine population of C. acutus.
During March 2017, we surveyed Crocodylus acutus on
Cayo Centro Island in the atoll of Banco Chinchorro Biosphere
Reserve, Yucatán, México (18.58688°N, 87.31155°W; WGS 84).
This population lives in small lagoons surrounded by mangrove
trees within the island (approx. 5 km long and 1 km wide). The
water salinity of the mangrove has a mean of 52.9 ppt and a range
of 30 ppt to 61 ppt (Charruau et al. 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:390–
395). Numerous tracks of large crocodiles were located exiting
the mangrove swamp and entering the sea over beaches.
Between the shore and mangrove, we found five large scat
piles measuring approximately 15 m2. Each was devoid of
vegetation and had a light-green colored matrix. The piles were
covered with hard parts of partially digested animals, including
coral fragments, gastropods, and bivalves (Fig. 1). Numerous
undigested malacostracean parts were also recovered in the
piles. The recovered items ranged in size: coral fragments (0.4–
5.9 cm), bivalves (0.6–6.9 cm), malacostraceans (1.4–8.2 cm), and
gastropods (0.3–6.9 cm). All malacostracean parts showed no
signs of acid etching, suggesting they are remains of individuals
captured on the piles by birds. Terrestrial crabs are common at
the site and there are no non-avian terrestrial vertebrates that
would have fed on them.
Although several small lizards are present, the only large-
bodied terrestrial animal on the island are iguanas (Iguana
iguana). The mangrove swamp is also populated only by small
fishes. These circumstances make it likely that large juveniles
and adult C. acutus are feeding on the barrier reef surrounding
the island. The coral fragments and small gastropods and
bivalves suggest the crocodiles are feeding in the reef, and that
the corals and mollusks are probably secondary prey rather than
targeted prey. The reef has an active Caribbean Spiny Lobster
(Panulirus agus) fishery with several carcasses observed in the
reef in the upper size range of 60 cm long. We suspect the large
crocodiles are feeding on these large lobsters in the reef while
accidentally consuming coral fragments and small molluscs.
Unexpectedly, we did not find any fish or bird remnants within
the scats. A stomach flushing study of marine dwelling C. acutus
populations in coastal Belize recorded a low abundance of fish
and birds, but a high abundance of insects and crustaceans in
juveniles and crustaceans in adults (Platt et al., op. cit.). The
same study also recorded several non-food items, including hard
seeds, wood pieces, vegetation, parasites, and coral fragments
in approximately one third of sampled large juveniles and
adults, although the diversity of these non-food items were not
published.
As compared to coastal populations, the Banco Chinchorro
American crocodile population has been reported to have a
smaller snout length to snout width ratio, which may represent
an adaptation to feed on hard prey (Labarre et al. 2017.
Zoomorphology 136:387–401). This is supported by the Banco
Chinchorro population’s genetic isolation (Rodriguez et al. 2008.
J. Exp. Zool. A 309A:674:686; Cedeño Vazquez et al. 2008. J. Exp.
Fig. 1. Illegal Caiman latirostris hunting with hook and line is a com-
mon practice in Brazil. This caiman was rescued in May 2017 at our
study site at Espírito Santo in southern Brazil. The hook can be seen
in the esophagus region on the radiographic image.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
840 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
Zool. A 309A:661–673) and possible geographic isolation product
of ocean currents (Carrillo et al. 2015. Cont. Shelf Res. 109:164–
176.). The morphological, genetic and possible geographic
differences could be driving this unique diet and foraging
adaptations of the Banco Chinchorro C. acutus.
These observations raise novel questions about the ecology
of the C. acutus.
How far and for how long do the crocodiles within Banco
Chinchorro feed on the reefs? How does the lobster fishery
impact the health of the crocodile population? What other
animals do these crocodiles target for prey? These questions
may be critical for maintaining this insular population and will
require further study.
All research was conducted under permits of the
Comisión Nacional de Areas Naturales Protegidas (OFICIO
No.F00.9.DRBBCH/060/17).
JOSÉ ÁVILA CERVANTES, Redpath Museum, McGill University 859
Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 0C4, Canada; and Smithso-
nian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, Republic of Panama (e-mail: jose.
avilacervantes@mail.mcgill.ca); PIERRE CHARRUAU, Centro del Cambio
Global y la Sustentabilidad en el Sureste A.C., Calle Centenario del Instituto
Juárez, S/N, Colonia Reforma, C.P. 86080 Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico;
ROGELIO CEDEÑO-VÁZQUEZ, Departamento de Sistemática y Ecología
Acuática, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Unidad Chetumal, Avenida Cente-
nario Km 5.5, C.P. 77014 Chetumal, Quintana Roo, Mexico; BRANDON J.
VARELA, Redpath Museum, McGill University 859 Sherbrooke Street West,
Montreal, Quebec, H3A 0C4, Canada; HANS C. E. LARSSON, Redpath Mu-
seum, McGill University 859 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec,
H3A 0C4, Canada.
RHYNCHOCEPHALIA — TUATARA
SPHENODON PUNCTATUS (Tuatara). PIT-TAG LOSS. Perma-
nent identification of individual animals aids biological study
and conservation management, enabling data collection on
many aspects of biology such as longevity, reproductive output
and survival. Our main observations are from a translocation
of 87 Sphenodon punctatus to firokonui Ecosanctuary (45.77°S,
170.60°E) near Dunedin, New Zealand (Jarvie et al. 2014. Anim.
Conserv. 17 Supplement S1: 48–55). Between 16 October and
3 December 2012, 15 adult males, 15 adult females, and 57 ju-
veniles were translocated directly from wild or captive stocks.
Adults ranged in SVL from 176–259 mm and juveniles from
106–169 mm (thus, juveniles were approximately half-grown).
Prior to release, tuatara were photographed (for a photo-ID li-
brary) and had a passive integrated transponder tag (PIT-tags;
11 mm × 2 mm; AVID Identification Systems, Norco, California,
USA) inserted subcutaneously into the lateral abdomen using a
PIT-tag applicator (Allflex, Capalaba, Queensland, Australia) just
anterior to the left hind limb for individual identification ( Jarvie
et al. 2014. Herpetol. Rev. 45:417–421). The insertion site for the
PIT-tag was sealed with surgical glue (containing cyanoacrylate).
Juveniles from captive stocks had already been toe-clipped.
During five years of monitoring the translocated population,
we recaptured 85 of the 87 released tuataras. We identified tuatara
with PIT-tags on 99.4% of occasions. However, two juveniles
recaptured during the fourth year since release (6 February
and 5 March 2016) did not have PIT-tags (apparent from both a
physical examination and a PIT-tag reader scan). Toe-clips and
the photographs confirmed the identity of these two juveniles.
One of these animals had been recaptured twice previously (11
September 2013 and 17 January 2014) with the PIT-tag protruding
(apparently from the insertion site) on each occasion. The
animal was also identified twice in the third year since release (3
and 15 January 2015) with a PIT-tag scanner deployed at a retreat
(Jarvie et al. 2015. J Zool. 297:184–197). In earlier recaptures of
both animals during the first year after release, PIT-tags were
still positioned subcutaneously and were not protruding (30
March and 15 April 2013). Three other juveniles (recaptured 27
February 2014 and 5 or 6 February 2017) have been found with
PIT-tags protruding (again, apparently from the insertion site).
Thus, imminent or known PIT-tag loss is apparent in 5/57 = 9% of
tuatara that were juveniles at release (SVL from 109 to 168 mm).
The most likely cause of loss appears to be rejection of the PIT-
tag through the insertion site, sometimes years after insertion.
Additional observations reveal PIT-tag loss from adult tuatara
translocated to ZEALANDIATM (formerly Karori Sanctuary;
41.28°S, 174.77°E) near Wellington, New Zealand. Between 2005
and 2007, 200 adults were released after insertion of PIT-tags
using the same method as at firokonui Ecosanctuary. During
monitoring in 2015, 49 of the founder adults were recaptured. Six
of these recaptured adults had lost their PIT-tags and one had a
non-functional PIT-tag that could not be read (thus, 7/200 = 3.5%
of the released adults had known marking failure).
Although we were able to identify the tuatara at firokonui
Ecosanctuary via other means, PIT-tag loss (or loss of function)
could represent the loss of important biological information if
an individual could not be identified. PIT-tag loss following only
a few years is particularly problematic for tuatara given that
their potential lifespan is 100 years. Our observations suggest for
tuatara that subcutaneous insertion of PIT-tags for permanent
identification is not effective for all individuals (either juveniles
or adults) in the long-term.
PIT-tag loss (or loss of tag function) is known from other
reptiles (Plummer and Ferner 2012. In McDiarmid et al.
[eds.], Reptile Biodiversity: Standard Methods for Inventory
Fig. 1. Sampling site at Banco Chinchorro Atoll where we retrieved
crocodile scats (A) containing coral reef fragments (B), bivalves
(C), gastropods (D), gastropods with acid edging (E), and mala-
costraceans (F).

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 841
and Monitoring, pp. 143–150. University of California Press,
Berkeley), including loss following the subcutaneous insertion of
PIT-tags into New Zealand’s largest extant gecko (Hoplodactylus
duvaucelii; van Winkel, pers. comm. In Lettink and Hare 2016
In Chapple [ed.], New Zealand Lizards, pp. 269–291. Springer,
Switzerland). Possible reasons for loss include the distance the
PIT-tag is inserted or how well the PIT-tag is held in place while
withdrawing the injector needle. Intraperitoneal rather than
subcutaneous insertion may be an alternative technique to
reduce tag loss in tuatara; however, the method is more invasive
and in some snakes species tag loss still occurs (Jemison et al.
1995. J. Herpetol. 29:129–132). Due to animal welfare concerns
and negative public perception of toe-clipping (Mellor et al. 2004;
New Zealand Department of Conservation, Wellington; Perry et
al. 2011. J Herpetol. 45:547–555), we are currently investigating
whether natural markings or other features of tuatara remain
stable over time to identify individual animals via the more time-
consuming method of photo-identification.
We thank members of the Otago Natural History Trust, firokonui
Ecosanctuary, Karori Sanctuary Trust, ZEALANDIATM, Ngfiti Koata
(kaitiaki of tuatara from Stephens Island/Takapourewa), Kfiti
Huirapa Rfinaka ki Puketeraki and the Department of Conservation
for supporting these studies. Thanks to Nicola Nelson and Valerie
Fay for help with the release of the tuatara, Sam Cockerill for
veterinary comment and many volunteers for field assistance.
SCOTT JARVIE, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, P.O. Box
56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand (e-mail: sjarvie@gmail.com); RICARDO S.
R. MELLO, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dune-
din 9054, New Zealand; SUSAN KEALL, School of Biological Sciences, Vic-
toria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand;
ALISON CREE, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56,
Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
SQUAMATA — LIZARDS
ANOLIS EQUESTRIS (Cuban Knight Anole). ENVIRONMEN-
TALLY CUED HATCHING. Embryo hatching in response to im-
minent predation has been documented in Agalychnis callidryas
(Warkentin 2005. Anim Behav. 70:59–71), and is considered a
form of environmentally cued hatching (ECH). Recently, more
attention has been directed at this phenomenon in reptiles. ECH
has been reported in several lizard species, but many of these ob-
servations are anecdotal and the vast majority of lizard species
lack any observations at all, anecdotal or otherwise (Doody 2012.
Int. Comp. Biol. 1:49–61). One study demonstrated ECH in the
eggs of the skink Lamprophis delicata induced by simulating egg
predation, and described the hatching as “explosive” because the
embryos hatched in seconds and subsequently sprinted from the
egg (Doody et al. 2013. Copeia 2013:160–165).
Lizards belonging to the genus Anolis have been used
extensively as model organisms in ecology and evolutionary
biology, but despite the volume of research dedicated to this
genus, ECH remains almost totally unexplored. Anecdotal
evidence exists for Norops sagrei suggesting ECH, although
whether this is attributable to physical disturbance or saltwater
immersion is unclear (Losos et al. 2003. Oecologia 137:360–362).
Here we describe a possible incident of ECH in response to
perceived predation in Anolis equestris.
At 2130 h on 6 January 2015 in Miami, Florida, USA (25.757°N,
80.416°W; WGS 84), AH and WV excavated an egg from an
aboveground plastic pot containing semi-dry potting soil and
cow manure. The pot was in a residential yard alongside a
wooden fence. The egg was ca. 15 cm deep in the soil, and shared
the pot with a jalapeno plant (Capsicum sp.). Upon discovery, the
egg was gently pinched between the index finger and the thumb
and removed from the soil. The egg was held for ca. 1 minute
when an individual A. equestris rapidly hatched from the egg (ca.
5 seconds) and jumped from AH’s hand to the ground, where it
remained motionless ca. 30 cm from AH’s foot.
The rapidity and circumstances of the hatching suggests ECH
in response to perceived predation. This is the first observation
of ECH in A. equestris and suggests further investigation of
ECH in response to predation among Anolis is worthwhile. The
implications for this behavior are particularly interesting for
Anolis because members of this genus generally lay a single egg,
and are not necessarily communal nesters (Losos 2009. Lizards in
an Evolutionary Tree: Ecology and Adaptive Radiation of Anoles.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California. 528 pp.).
ADAM HERNANDEZ (e-mail: ahern129@u.edu); WENDY VILLAVI-
CENCIO (e-mail: wvill009@u.edu); OLIVER LJUSTINA (e-mail: oliver.
ljustina@selu.edu); and J. SEAN DOODY, Southeastern Louisiana Univer-
sity Department of Biological Sciences, SLU 10736, Hammond, Louisiana
70402, USA (e-mail: jseandoody@gmail.com.
ANOLIS SAGREI (Brown Anole). COMMUNAL NESTING. Com-
munal nesting is common and widespread in lizards (Doody et
al. 2009. Quart. Rev. Biol. 84:229–252), and appears to be wide-
spread in anoles (reviewed in Doody et al., op. cit.; Alfonso et al.
2012. Herpetol. Notes 5:73–77; Robinson et al. 2014. Reptiles and
Amphibians 21:71–72). Surprisingly, however, it has not been
reported for Anolis sagrei, despite the increasing range of that
species and its exceptional abundance. This species is native to
Cuba and the Bahamas, and introduced into most of peninsular
Florida, other Caribbean Islands, and parts of the U.S. gulf states,
Central America, Hawaii, and Taiwan (Meshaka et al. 2004. The
Exotic Amphibians and Reptiles of Florida. Krieger Publishing,
Melbourne, Florida. 166 pp.). Here we report communal nesting
in A. sagrei in southern Florida.
At ~1400 h on 25 August 2017 we found eggs and eggshells
of A. sagrei in between stacked bricks (log concrete edger®) in a
backyard in St. Petersburg, Florida (27.72876°N, 82.63675°W).
Each brick was 40 cm long × 7 cm wide × 14 cm tall, and the
bricks were on their sides stacked four deep by four across. There
were small spaces in between the brick layers due to their shape
(when viewed from above, each brick standing on end appeared
as seven rounded areas connected by a slightly thinner area;
thus, stacking them created tight spaces in which lizards could
enter). The bricks were located against the west-facing wall of a
house, and thus received sunlight in the afternoon but not in the
morning; however, the backyard possessed some shading canopy
cover. The bricks were stacked on top of concrete slabs, and so
were ~30–60 cm above ground, and had been there, undisturbed,
for 5+ years. We found seven intact eggs and 34 hatched eggshells,
including 23 from this year and 11 that were likely from the
previous year, as evidenced by their yellowish-brownish color
compared to the whitish eggshells from the present year. The
egg distributions across the bricks were: three together within 5
cm of one another, two together within 3 cm of one another, and
the last two were solitary. Many of the eggshells were displaced
as the bricks were moved, precluding our ability to determine
their spatial arrangement. The spaces between the bricks were
moist and the eggs appeared healthy. Invertebrates near the eggs
included pillbugs (Armandillidiidae), slugs (Gastropoda), and
ants (Hymenoptera).

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
842 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
One egg hatched on 28 August, and a second egg hatched
on 15 September, confirming species identification. Although
the other eggs were not incubated, there are no other anole
species present in the backyard, and A. sagrei is extremely
abundant there. The only other small lizard species present is
the gecko Hemidactylus turcicus, which has a larger, broader
egg. Such commonness undoubtedly increases the frequency of
communal nesting, as can the availability of suitable nest sites
(Doody et al., op. cit.). However, conspecific attraction to eggs
has been revealed in other small lizard species in the laboratory
(e.g., Radder and Shine 2007. J. Anim. Ecol. 76:881–887; Paull
2010. Honours Thesis, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia),
indicating that our communal nest and others may involve true
social interactions. Laboratory trials should reveal whether
mothers of this species are attracted to conspecific eggs.
J. SEAN DOO DY, Department of Biological Sciences, University of
South Florida – St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701, USA (e-mail:
jseandoody@gmail.com); KATHRYN COLEMAN, 4321 Sunrise Dr. South, St.
Peter sburg, Flori da 33705, USA (e -mail: Ka thryn. coleman@ selu.ed u); LYN-
DA COLEMAN, 9393 Pecan Tree Dr., Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70810, USA;
GREG STEPHENS, 4337 Sunrise Dr., St. Petersburg, Florida 33705, USA.
ANOLIS SAGREI (Brown Anole) and LEIOCEPHALUS CARINA-
TUS (Northern Curlytail Lizard). ECTOPARASITES. Both Ano-
lis sagrei and Leiocephalus carinatus are relatively small lizards
that are indigenous to the Bahamas and Cuba. Anolis sagrei has
also been introduced to several other islands and regions, espe-
cially in the Western Hemisphere, and L. carinatus has been in-
troduced to Florida. Chiggers collected in the Bahamas have not
previously been identified to species (Brennan 1967. Stud. Fauna
Curacao Carib. Islands 24:146–156). In this note, we report two
species of chiggers from the Bahamas, one species associated
with A. sagrei, and the other with L. carinatus.
In connection with a study of the costs of reproduction in
A. sagrei, larval chiggers were counted on reproductive males
and females of this lizard at Regatta Point, Great Exuma in the
Bahamas (23.50°N, 75.75°W ) in 2013 by Reedy et al. (2016. Biol.
J. Linn. Soc. 117:516–527). Chiggers were not identified during
that study but voucher specimens (N = 6) were retained in vials
containing 95% ethanol. These chiggers were later cleared in
lactophenol, slide-mounted in Hoyer’s medium, and ringed
with glyptal ( Walter and Krantz 2009. A Manual of Acarology, 3rd
edition. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, Texas. 807 pp.).
Examination of the slide-mounted chiggers using a high power-
phase-contrast binocular BH-2 Olympus microscope (Olympus
Corporation of the Americas, Center Valley, Pennsylvania)
revealed that they belong to the genus Eutrombicula. Detailed
examination of the gnathosoma, palpal claw, scutum shape, and
scutum setation, identified them as E. anguliscuta. Eutrombicula
anguliscuta was described in 2004 from Cuba based on
collections from seven species of lizards (Anolis bartschi [West
Cuban Anole], A. chamaeleonides [Short-Bearded Anole], A.
equestris [Knight Anole], A. sagrei, Leiocephalus cubensis [Cuban
Curlytail Lizard], L. macropus [Monte Verde Curlytail Lizard], and
L. stictigaster [Cabo Corrientes Curlytail Lizard]) and two species
of bats (Nyctiellus lepidus [Gervais’s Funnel-eared Bat] and
Pteronotus macleayii [MacLeay’s Moustached Bat]) (Daniel and
Stekolnikov 2004. Folia Parasitol. 51:359–366).
During June 2016, larval chiggers were observed parasitizing
a population of L. carinatus on a small un-named island
(23.4279°N, 75.8857°W) in the Bahamas. Many of these chiggers
were attached inside skin invaginations, sometimes referred to
as “mite pockets” (Arnold 2008. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 29:1–21) behind
the ears on each side of the body (Fig. 1). Chiggers (N = 5) were
stored in 95% ethanol and later cleared and slide-mounted, as
described above. These specimens also belong to the genus
Eutrombicula and were identified as E. leiocephali. This chigger
was described in 2004 from Cuba where it was reported from
three species of lizards (L. carinatus, L. macropus, and L. raviceps
[Mountain Curlytail Lizard]) (Daniel and Stekolnikov, op. cit.).
Several faunal elements are shared between Cuba and the
Bahamas (Matos-Maraví et al. 2014. BMC Evol. Biol. 14:199),
including the lizard hosts and chiggers reported in this note from
the Bahamas. Geologically, most of the Bahamian islands and
Cays were repeatedly submerged during the past 0.5–4 million
years and Cuba was fragmented into separate landmasses until
~6 million years ago. Therefore, a common origin of these lizards
and chiggers on the same landmass during a previous ice age or
a landbridge dispersal mechanism between the Bahamas and
Cuba does not seem plausible. With respect to the two bat host
species recorded for E. anguliscuta by Daniel and Stekolnikov
(op. cit.), N. lepidus is endemic to Cuba and the Bahamas,
whereas P. macleayii is endemic to Cuba and Jamaica (Simmons
2005. In Wilson and Reeder [eds.], Mammal Species of the
World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, 3rd edition, pp.
312–529. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland).
Therefore, if N. lepidus still migrates or flies between Cuba and
the Bahamas, this host could act as a link for transferring E.
anguliscuta between these two island groups where both lizards
and bats could be parasitized. Other mechanisms would be
implicated for lizard dispersal between the Bahamas and Cuba.
Slide-mounted, voucher chigger specimens from this study
are deposited in the Entomology Collection at Georgia Southern
University, Statesboro, Georgia, USA (accession numbers: L3798
and L3799).
We thank R. Calsbeek and A. Kahrl for assistance with
fieldwork, and R. Bottomley for permission to work at Regatta
Point. James W. Mertins (USDA, Ames, Iowa, USA) provided
access to literature that facilitated chigger identifications.
Research was conducted under permits from The Bahamas
Environment, Science and Technology (BEST) Commission and
Ministry of Agriculture and with approval from the Animal Care
and Use Committee of the University of Virginia (protocol 3896).
LAUREN K. NEEL (e-mail: ln00773@georgiasouthern.edu), LANCE
A. DURDEN (e-mail: ldurden@georgiasouthern.edu), and CHRISTIAN L.
COX, Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, 4324 Old Regis-
ter Road, Statesboro, Georgia 30458, USA (e-mail: clcox@georgiasouthern.
edu); AARO N M. REEDY (e-mail: amr3mb@virginia.edu), and ROBERT M.
COX, Department of Biology, University of Virginia, 485 McCormick Road,
PO Box 400328, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA (e-mail: rmc3u@vir-
ginia.edu).
ASPIDOSCELIS SEXLINEATA SEXLINEATA (Eastern Six-lined
Racerunner). PREDATION. Aspidoscelis sexlineata sexlineata
occurs throughout the southeastern U.S. in open dry habitats,
especially sandhills, scrub, dunes, and disturbed sites (Gibbons
et al. 2009. Lizards and Crocodilians of the Southeast. University
of Georgia Press, Athens. 235 pp.). Predators include salamanders
(Camper 1986. Herpetol. Rev. 17:19), other lizards (Gibbons et al.,
op. cit.), and snakes (Halstead et al. 2008. Copeia 2008:897–908).
Birds and mammals have been mentioned generally as potential
predators, but specific details are lacking. I report here the first
documented case of Falco sparverius paulus (Southeastern
American Kestrel) preying on A. sexlineata.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 843
On 3 April 2012, I found an adult female kestrel incubating
five eggs in a nest box located ca. 12 km SW of Williston, Levy
County, Florida, USA. When the female kestrel flushed off
the nest, I discovered the bloody remains of a freshly killed
A. sexlineata (Fig. 1), presumably delivered by the adult male
kestrel to its mate (Smallwood and Bird 2002. The Birds of
North America No. 602). The lizard was missing its head and
half of its tail. The nest box was located 4.6 m above ground on
a utility pole surrounded by pastures interspersed with patches
of sandhill pine forest. It is surprising that A. sexlineata has not
been recorded in the diet of F. sparverius in Florida given that
the two species have extensive spatial and temporal overlap in
their habitat use. In contrast, Anolis spp. and Sceloporous spp.
are commonly observed kestrel prey items in Florida (Smallwood
and Bird, op. cit.; pers. obs.). It is possible that A. sexlineata is an
important but previously undocumented prey item for kestrels
under certain environmental conditions. Further study is needed
to determine whether the well documented running speed and
vigilance behavior of A. sexlineata (Trauth and McAllister 1996.
Cat. Amer. Amphib. Rept. 628:1–12) protect it from capture by
kestrels and other predatory birds.
KARL E. MILLER, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and
Wildlife Conservation Commission, 1105 SW Williston Road, Gainesville,
Florida 32601, USA; e-mail: karl.miller@myfwc.com.
ASPIDOSCELIS SEXLINEATUS VIRIDIS (Prairie Racerunner).
SECOND EXTREME COLOR VARIANT. We recently reported
the occurrence of a rare color variant in Aspidoscelis sexlineatus
viridis (spelling of specific name based on Steyskal 1971. Proc.
Biol. Soc. Washington 84:7–11) from western Nebraska (Trauth
et al. 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:254–255). The color pattern of
this unusual adult female (Arkansas State University Museum
of Zoology = ASUMZ 33235) was considered unique in that
it lacked the normal green suffusion on the head and anterior
region of the body. Moreover, the ventrolateral, lateral, and
vertebral striping pattern of this individual was faint, being less
conspicuous compared to striping normally seen in this taxon.
At that time we mentioned that our collective examination of
>10,000 specimens and numerous photographs of A. sexlineatus
from many parts of its vast geographic range in the United States
(Trauth 1980. Ph.D. Dissertation, Auburn University, Auburn,
Alabama. 201 pp.; Trauth 1992. Texas J. Sci. 44:437–443; Trauth
and McAllister 1996. Cat. Amer. Amphib. Rept.: 628.1–628.12)
and Mexico (Pérez-Ramos 2010. Southwest Nat. 55:419–225)
yielded no additional specimens with a similar color and body
striping morphology. Herein, we report on a second color variant
of Prairie Racerunner, inadvertently overlooked by one of us, that
is morphologically similar to the Nebraska specimen.
On 26 June 1978, one of us (SET) unearthed an adult female A.
s. viridis from a retreat in a west-facing, red clay roadcut along US
Highway 167, ~ 0.8 km S Ash Flat (36.217994°N, 91.60822°W, WGS
84; 182 m elev.), Sharp County, Arkansas, USA. The specimen
was logged at that time as being “melanistic” according to a
description documented in field notes of SET and was placed
in a holding bag along with two other specimens of the same
subspecies taken from the same site. These three lizards
became a subsample of 12 lizards collected in a two-county
area on that day. All lizards were processed within 24 h using a
standard museum specimen protocol for lizards—sacrificed
Fig. 1. Freshly killed Aspidoscelis sexlineata sexlineata in a Falco
sparverius (American Kestrel) nest.
Fig. 1. Dorsal (A) and ventral (B) color patterns of normal female
(ASUMZ 33741) and male (ASUMZ 33742) Aspidoscelis sexlineatus
viridis in contrast to the variant female (ASUMZ 33743). (ASUMZ
33742 was collected at the same site as ASUMZ 33743, whereas
ASUMZ 33741 was collected 27 km NW of ASUMZ 33743.)

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
844 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
with a pleuroperitoneal injection of a dilute solution of sodium
pentobarbital, fixed in 10% formalin for two days, and then
preserved in 70% ethanol for permanent storage.
In a recent re-examination of this particular lizard subsample,
the unusual female (SET 2867) along with two other specimens
(SET 2862 and 2865) were retagged as ASUMZ 33743 and ASUMZ
33741–33742, respectively (Fig. 1). The dorsal color pattern in
ASUMZ 33743 (SVL = 67 mm; incomplete tail) corresponded well
with the description of the Nebraska variant female (Trauth et al.,
op. cit.); i.e., there was an absence of the green suffusion on the
head and anterior body, which is typically present in adult males
and females of A. s. viridis (Fig. 1A). Also, the striping pattern
(ventral to dorsal) of ASUMZ 33743 matched well with that of
ASUMZ 33235 (pair of barely visible ventrolaterals, three pairs of
primary stripes, and a secondary vertebral stripe). The striking
ground color, apparent between the stripes (termed fields),
consisted of shades of dark brown (Fig. 1A) rather than the hues
of green suffusions on tan or light brown characteristic of normal
adult males and females of A. s. viridis (Trauth et al., op. cit.). A
dusky black pigmentation, also present in the scalation of the
thoracic and abdominal surfaces of ASUMZ 33743 coincided with
the ventral distribution of pigmentation on the entire venter of
ASUMZ 33235. Data for the following meristic variables in ASUMZ
33743 were also within the range of variation for A. s. viridis from
Arkansas ( Trauth 1980, op. cit.; JMW, unpubl.): granules = scales
around midbody, 83; granules from occipital scales to first row of
caudal scales, 211; granules between the paravertebral stripes, 17;
femoral pores, 15 left/16 right; subdigital lamellae of longest digit
of each pes, 25 left/25 right; circumorbital scales series on each
side, 4 left/5 right; and lateral supraocular granules, 16 left/14
right. Finally, enlarged yolked ovarian follicles were possessed by
ASUMZ 33743: 1 left/2 right.
A typical preserved adult female from the subsample
collected near the Sharp County site had an immaculate all
white ventral surface (Fig. 1B). A male (ASUMZ 33742) collected
along with the color variant from the Sharp County site also
had a predominantly white venter with evidence of faint hues
of blue laterally in the thoracic and abdominal region (Fig. 2B).
In addition, ASUMZ 33743 had a dusky black chin and throat
similar to Nebraska color variant, a feature that has not been
observed in the normal color pattern of any other species in the
A. sexlineatus species group in the United States.
The extreme dorsal and ventral color patterns of ASUMZ
33235 and 33743 were combined with normal features of both
scutellation and meristic variables for this species. In both
specimens, the mesoptychial scales bordering the gular fold
were abruptly enlarged, and the postantebrachial scales on the
posterior aspects of the forearms were only slightly enlarged from
granular size. Although the causation of the extreme color pattern
variation in ASUMZ 33235 and 33743 cannot be ascertained, there
are only two possible explanations for its common existence.
Either it was the product of a rare non-genetic developmental
anomaly, from which normally patterned offspring would be
expected, or it is the result of one or more mutations, from which
the aberrant pattern could be perpetuated in future generations
had reproduction occurred.
STANLEY E. TRAUTH, Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas
State University, P.O. Box 599, State University, Arkansas 72467, USA (e-
mail: strauth@astate.edu); JAMES M. WALKER, Department of Biological
Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, USA (e-mail:
jmwalker@uark.edu).
AURIVELA LONGICAUDA (Long-tailed Whiptail). PREDATION.
Arthropods are potential predators of smaller reptiles and am-
phibians, with numerous reports in the literature (Armas 2000.
Rev. Iber. Aracnol. 3:87–88; Barbo et al. 2009. Herpetol. Notes
2:99–100; Bauer 1990. Herpetol. Rev. 21:83–87; Jehle et al. 1996.
Herpetozoa 9:157–159; Manzanilla et al., 2008. Bol. Soc. Entomol.
Aragon 42:317–319; McCormick and Polis 1982. Biol. Rev. 57:29–
58). In particular, spiders are known to capture and consume
vertebrates (including rodents, birds, frogs, snakes, and lizards)
both in webs (Cokendolpher 1978. J. Arachnol. 5:184; Groves
and Groves 1978. Bull. Maryland Herpetol. Soc. 14:44–46; Konig
1987. Herpetofauna 9:6–8; Neill 1948. Herpetologica 28:200), and
in the case of terrestrial species, directly on the ground or in bur-
rows. Lycosa poliostoma (Araneomorphae) is a spider distribut-
ed in Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. Several authors
have made various contributions on the biology of the species
(Bertka 1880. Mém. Cour. Acad. Belg. 43:1–120; Boeris 1889. Atti.
Soc. Nat. Modena, Mem. 8:123–135; Capocasale 1971. Rev. Brasil.
Biol. 31:367–370); however, there are still uncertainties about tax-
onomy, distribution, and habits.
On 9 October 2015, during the course of an investigation to
monitor herpetofauna at Monte-Chaco (30.7306ºS, 67.4859°W;
3331 m elev.) in La Majadita, Valle Fértil, San Juan, Argentina, we
found an adult L. poliostoma feeding on an adult male Aurivela
longicauda inside a pit-fall trap (Fig. 1). The lizard, which had
a length of 47.1 mm, exhibited a right dorsolateral injury. The
collected spider and lizard were deposited in the Museo de
Ciencias Naturales de la Universidad Nacional de San Juan
(UNSJ) (Lycosa polyostoma), and in the Herpetological Collection
of the UNSJ (UNSJ-2258), respectively. Although it is possible
that the lizard died before the spider began consuming it, this is
unlikely because spiders tend to prey upon live prey.
Although there are many reports of Lycosa preying upon
toads (McCormick and Polis, op. cit.; Owen and Johnson 1997.
Herpetol. Rev. 28:200), there is just one report of wolf spiders
preying upon lizards (Maffei et al. 2010. Herpetol. Notes 3:167–
170); our case is the second documented predation on lizards
by Lycosa. Furthermore, even though there are previous records
on predator-prey interactions between spiders and lizards, this is
the first documented record of the predation of A. longicauda by
an arachnid.
ANA PAULA GALDEANO(e-mail:anapaulitas@gmail.com),RODRI-
GO GÓMEZ ALÉS(e-mail:rodri.gomezales@gmail.com),JUAN CARLOS
Fig. 1. Lycosa poliostoma preying upon an adult male Aurivela lon-
gicauda.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 845
ACOSTA,andGRACIELA BLANCO, Departamento de Biología, Facultad
de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales. Universidad Nacional de San Juan,
Avenida Ignacio de la Roza 590 (N), Caixa Postal J5402DCS, San Juan, Ar-
gentina.
BUNOPUS BL ANFORDII (Blanford’s Rock Gecko).
REPRODUCTION. Bunopus blanfordii occurs in Israel and
Jordan (Uetz et al. 2017. The Reptile Database. http://www.
reptile-database.org, accessed 4 April 2017). The status of B.
blanfordii remains unclear and it may be conspecific with
Bunopus tuberculatus, However, until further study, B. blanfordii
is considered valid (Bauer et. al. 2013. Zootaxa 3599:301–324). Bar
and Haimovitch (2011. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians
of Israel. Pazbar Ltd, Herzliya, Israel. 245 pp.) reported multiple
clutches of two eggs were laid each year by B. blanfordii (as
B. tuberculatus) in Israel. In this note we present additional
information on the reproductive cycle of B. blanfordii from Israel
based on a histological examination of museum specimens.
The gonads of 16 adults of B. blanfordii consisting of nine
males (mean SVL = 40.3 mm ± 5.9 SD, range = 28–47 mm) and
seven females (mean SVL = 46.6 mm ± 5.9 SD, range = 38–53
mm) from Israel deposited in the Steinhardt Museum of Natural
History (TAUM), Tel Aviv University were histologically examined.
These were all from the A’rava Valley Region: TAUM 573, 1278,
1802, 1803, 1809, 1810, 2189, 2190, 2225, 2233, 3345, 5089, 5090,
10021, 10929, 13002. Bunopus blanfordii were collected 1950
to 1985. The lower part of the body cavity was opened and the
left testis or ovary was removed. Histological sections were cut
at 5 μm and stained by Harris hematoxylin followed by eosin
counterstain. Histology slides were deposited at TAUM.
Two stages were present in the B. blanfordii testis cycle: 1)
Spermiogenesis, in which the seminiferous tubules are bordered
by sperm or clusters of metamorphosing spermatids; 2)
Regressed, germinal epithelium within the seminiferous tubules
is reduced to a few layers of spermatogonia and interspersed
Sertoli cells. Males in spermiogenesis were by month: March (N
= 1), April (N = 5), May (N = 1), July (N = 1). The one October male
had a regressed testis. The smallest reproductively active male
(TAUM 3345) measured only 28 mm SVL and was collected in
April. The rate of sperm production in this small male was not as
high as seen in testes of larger males in which the inner border of
each seminiferous tubule was lined by sperm or metamorphosing
spermatids. Nevertheless, there was at least one cluster of sperm
in virtually all seminiferous tubules of TAUM 3345.
Two stages were present in the ovarian cycle of B. blanfordii:
1) Quiescent, no yolk deposition was present: April (N = 2), May
(N = 1), October (N = 1), November (N = 2); 2) Oviductal eggs, two
were present in TAUM 1810 (SVL = 52 mm), collected in April.
In view of our small female sample (N = 7) we did not report a
minimum size for female reproductive activity.
We thank Shai Meiri (TAUM) for permission to examine B.
blanfordii and the National Collections of Natural History at Tel
Aviv University for providing the B. blanfordii to examine.
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: sgoldberg@whittier.edu); EREZ
MAZA, , Tel-Aviv University, Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Tel Aviv
6997801, Israel (e-mail: mazaerez@post.tau.ac.il).
CRYPTOBLEPHARUS BUCHANANII (Fence Skink). BEE HO-
TELS AS RESOURCES. Bee or insect hotels, also known as bee
condos or, in the scientific literature, “trap nests,” are installed as
a resource to encourage cavity-nesting hymenopterans to nest.
Not only are bee hotels useful for scientific purposes for monitor-
ing species diversity, abundance, and reproductive output of na-
tive bees and their natural enemies, but the installation of these
hotels can boost bee numbers given that nest sites are often lim-
iting (e.g., Torné-Noguera et al. 2014. PLoS ONE 9: e97255). Adult
female bees gather food provisions for the offspring, deposit the
provisions in the cavity, and then lay eggs. Typically a number of
cells, each containing one food provision with an egg, are laid,
the number being dependent on the species and the depth of the
tube.
Despite good intentions, many bee hotels are not designed
by bee scientists, and the proliferation of bee hotels being
sold in various gardening venues have questionable value for
supporting their intended occupants. For example, given that
most cavity-nesting bees are smaller than honeybees, holes of
diameters larger than 10 mm are unlikely to be occupied by bees
(Prendergast, unpubl. data). This does not mean, however, that
they are useless and will remain barren, as we describe below.
These observations occurred at a commercially manufactured
bee hotel located on a tree at about 1 m high in the corner of a
vegetable garden near the outdoor eating area of the Kings Park
Biodiversity and Conservation Centre in Kings Park Botanic
Gardens, Western Australia (31.57210°S, 115.59345°E).
Cryptoblepharus buchananii (SVL 45 mm) are common
lizards endemic to Western Australia, with a distribution
concentrated in the southwest region. On 26 May 2017 at about
midday, two C. buchananii were observed, one occupying a large
(approx. 2-cm diameter) bamboo tube, the other occupying a
crevice between bamboo tubes that were part of a bee hotel. Both
had partly emerged, and appeared to be basking, apparently
taking advantage of the safety the crevices provided. A second
observation occurred on 20 June 2017. One C. buchananii was
observed basking, with almost half of its body protruding from
one of the largest bamboo tubes. When approached, rather than
flee, it retreated back into the end of the tube and curled up,
suggesting that C. buchananii was using the bamboo tube as a
refuge. A few hours later, the bee hotel was checked again and
a C. buchananii, presumably the same one, was still present,
but had moved into a crack at the bottom of the hotel between
two bamboo tubes. A third observation on 26 June 2017 revealed
three C. buchananii at the bee hotel (Fig 1.)
The recorded daily temperature extremes at the time of
the first observation were 19°C/8°C and 22°C/8°C for the two
following observations. Under cooler winter temperatures the
Fig. 1. Cryptoblepharus buchananii using a bee hotel for shelter (left);
three C. buchananii using both bamboo tubes and cracks between
them at the same bee hotel (right).

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
846 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
bee hotel may provide a safe, insulated place for C. buchananii
to rest in between foraging bouts and at night, as well as a high,
thermally-favorable and safe location for them to bask in. The
design of the bee hotel was ill-suited to bees, and none of the
bamboo tubes or holes drilled in the lower part of the hotel
showed evidence that bees had nested in them, but ants–a
known prey item of C. buchananii (Pianka and Harp 2011. WA
Nat. 28:43–49), were observed nesting in some of the bamboo
tubes; however, no observations of predation by C. buchananii
on ants were observed, as has been observed for anoles, Anolis
sagrei, predating on caterpillars at bee hotels (Bateman 2012.
Herpetol. Rev. 43:641–642).
Despite substantial urban development in the southwest of
WA, C. buchananii appears to be resilient to these changes and
can be considered an urban adapter. They are one of the most
commonly encountered skink species in the region, abundant
in bushland and in urban gardens where they may find many of
the resources (food, basking sites, etc.) that they need; however,
in many gardens ‘natural’ shelter such as dead branches and
peeling bark on moribund trees may be limited. In such cases the
provision of bee hotels may be highly beneficial to C. buchananii,
providing shelter and basking opportunities.
Our observations indicate that bee hotels can serve as valuable
habitat for hosting other species, not just Hymenoptera, but even
vertebrate taxa like small skinks. Whether these C. buchananii
are displaying novel behaviour, or whether the utilisation of bee
hotels is a fairly common phenomenon is unknown. Citizen
science projects, which encourage people to report the “other”
bee hotel check-ins, may provide further information.
KIT (AMY) PRENDERGAST (e-mail: amy.prendergast@postgrad.cur-
tin.edu.au) and PHILIP W. BATEMAN, Department of Environment & Ag-
riculture, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, Perth, Western Australia,
6102 Australia (e-mail: bill.bateman@curtin.edu.au).
DRACO CORNUTUS (Horned Flying Lizard). REPRODUCTION.
Draco cornutus, known from Sumatra, Borneo, Java, the Bangu-
nan Archipelago, and the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines, is report-
ed to produce clutches of 3–4 eggs (Das 2010. A Field Guide to the
Reptiles of South-East Asia, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambo-
dia, Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo,
Java, Bali. New Holland Publishers [UK] Ltd, London. 376 pp.). In
this note I provide additional information on the reproductive
biology of D. cornutus from a histological examination of gonads
from museum specimens.
A sample of 23 D. cornutus collected between 1947 and 1991
consisting of 8 adult males (mean SVL = 70.4 mm ± 2.4 SD, range
= 66–73 mm), 13 adult females (mean SVL = 77.5 mm ± 4.6 SD,
range = 71–83 mm), and one juvenile (SVL = 48 mm) collected in
Sarawak and Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia, was examined from the
herpetology collection of the Field Museum of Natural History
(FMNH), Chicago, Illinois, USA. The following D. cornutus were
examined by Division: Sarawak: First, FMNH 67330, 673232;
Kuching, FMNH 71566; Miri, FMNH 67335, 120034, 128321,
129472, 129474; Third, FMNH 138422; Forth, FMNH 150609,
150610, 150614, 150619, 150620, 158774, 158775–158777;
Seventh, FMNH 221424, 221428, 221429; Sabah: Interior, FMNH
235160; Tawau, FMNH 248963.
For histological examination, the left gonad was removed to
examine for yolk deposition or corpora lutea in females, and to
identify the stage of the testicular cycle in males. Counts were
made of enlarging follicles (> 5 mm) or oviductal eggs. Tissues
were embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 5 μm, and stained with
hematoxylin followed by eosin counterstain. Histology slides
were deposited at FMNH.
The only stage noted in the testis cycle was spermiogenesis in
which the seminiferous tubules were lined by sperm or clusters
of metamorphosing spermatids. Monthly samples (one male
in each month) were: February, March, May, June, July, August,
October; (two males) December. The smallest reproductively
active male (FMNH 120034) measured 66 mm SVL and was from
August. Extended periods of spermiogenesis have been reported
for other Draco species (Inger and Greenberg 1966. Ecology
47:1007–1021; Goldberg and Grismer 2015. Hamadryad 37:117–
121) and may be typical for Draco males.
Four stages were present in the ovarian cycle of D. cornutus
(Table 1): 1) Quiescent, no yolk deposition; 2) Early yolk
deposition, basophilic yolk granules in the ooplasm; 3) Enlarged
ovarian follicles > 5 mm diameter; 4) Oviductal eggs. Mean
clutch size (N = 8) = 3.0 ± 1.2 SD, range = 1–4. One and two eggs
are new minimum clutch sizes for D. cornutus. The smallest
reproductively active D. cornutus female measured 71 mm SVL
(FMNH 129474) contained three enlarged ovarian follicles (>
5 mm) and was from June. Draco cornutus females exhibited
reproductive activity in 9/11 (82%) of the months sampled. One
female from October with quiescent ovaries ( Table 1) contained
a corpus luteum indicative of recent reproduction. Despite
my small monthly sample sizes, it is evident that D. cornutus
females exhibit an extended period of reproductive activity.
This is in keeping with previous information on Draco female
reproduction: (Inger and Greenberg, op. cit.; Goldberg and
Grismer, op. cit.). I did not find evidence of D. cornutus producing
multiple clutches, however, this has been reported for other
species of Draco: D. melanopogon, D. quinquefasciatus (Inger
and Greenberg, op. cit.), D. blanfordii, D. formosus, D. maximus,
D. sumatranus (Goldberg and Grismer, op. cit.), and D. volans
(Auffenberg 1980. Bull. Florida St. Mus. 25:40–156).
I thank A. Resetar (FMNH) for permission to examine D.
cornutus.
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
Whittier, California 90608, USA; e-mail: sgoldberg@whittier.edu.
EUTROPIS ALLAPALLENSIS (Allapalli Grass Skink). CLOACAL
PROLAPSE. Cloacal prolapses have been reported in a variety of
table 1. Monthly stages in the ovarian cycle of 13 adult female Draco
cornutus from Sarawak and Sabah, Borneo. *One ovary contains a
corpus luteum from a previously deposited egg.
Month N Quiescent Early yolk Enlarged Oviductal
deposition follicles eggs
> 5 mm
February 1 1 0 0 0
March 1 1 0 0 0
April 1 0 0 0 1
May 1 0 0 0 1
June 1 0 0 1 0
July 1 0 0 0 1
August 1 0 0 1 0
September 1 0 0 0 1
October 2 1* 1 0 0
November 2 1 0 0 1
December 1 1 0 0 1

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 847
reptilian species including crocodilians, chelonians, snakes, and
lizards (Hedley and Eatwell 2014. J. Small Anim. Pract. 55:265–
268). The skink Eutropis allapallensis is endemic to India and is
reported from the following states: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Kerala, and Tamil Nadu (Uetz et al. 2017. The Reptile Database.
http://www.reptile-database.org; accessed 20 October 2017).
Herein we report an observation of cloacal prolapse in E. allapal-
lensis.
At ca. 1030 h on 13 November 2016, during a morning field
session to document reptiles in a dry deciduous forest patch near
Dhulda village in Dang, Gujarat, India (20.9558°N, 73.6595°E;
WGS 84), we found an E. allapallensis (SVL = 48 mm) with some
everted tissues on its cloaca (Fig. 1A). The specimen was brought
to the field station for further observation. On closer inspection
we noticed that it was suffering from a cloacal prolapse with
some fecal matter attached to the cloacal mucosa (Fig. 1B). The
prolapsed tissue was washed with normal saline and we applied
an ice cube on it with gentle pressure for about 2 minutes and
the prolapsed cloacal tissues reduced smoothly (Fig. 1C). The
specimen was kept under observation for a couple of hours and
then released back at the site of capture. To our knowledge, this is
the first report of cloacal prolapse in E. allapallensis.
HP would like to thank Department of Science & Technology
(DST), New Delhi for their support in terms of INSPIRE
Fellowship (IF 130480).
HARSHIL PATEL, Department of Biosciences, Veer Narmad South Gu-
jarat University, Surat 395007, India (e-mail: harshilpatel121@gmail.com);
VAIBHAV NAIK, Valsad Pardi, Gopi Street, Valsad, 396001, Gujarat, India
(e-mail: vaibhavdesai09@gmail.com).
HEMIDACTYLUS MABOUIA (Tropical House Gecko). ECTO-
PARASITISM. The geckonid lizard Hemidactylus mabouia is
a nocturnal medium-sized species (SVL = ca. 67.9 mm) that is
commonly found in anthropic environments and is native from
tropical Africa and widely distributed in the tropics of South
America, Central America, and Caribbean (Vanzolini et al. 1980.
Répteis das Caatingas. Academia Brasileira de Ciências. Rio de
Janeiro. 161pp.). Some previous studies revealed the composi-
tion of ectoparasites present in H. mabouia (Rivera et al. 2003.
Caribb. J. Sci. 39:321–326; Corn et al. 2011. J. Med. Entomol.
48:94–100), but information on external parasites in this species
is scarce for South America, and especially for Brazil, where
this species is considered invasive and associated with human
buildings (Rocha et al. 2011. Zoologia 28:747–754). We report
herein an infestation in H. mabouia by the ectoparasite Ambly-
omma sp.
During field work at 2145 h on 29 August 2017 we observed
two ticks from the genus Amblyomma sp. attached to the ventral
surface on the skull of one individual H. mabouia (SVL = 57
mm; 5 g) found in an urban area in the municipality of Santana,
Amapá State, Brazil (0.0501ºS, 51.1490ºW; WGS84). The ticks
were observed as two red dots located near the labial region of
the lizard (Fig. 1) and were collected for morphological analysis
in laboratory (Clifford and Anastos 1960. J. Parasitol. 46:567–
578). The ticks were identified as larval forms in the genus
Amblyomma. Our study represents the first report of parasitism
in H. mabouia by a tick of the genus Amblyomma, and thus
enhances the knowledge on ectoparasitism for this species.
PATRICK R. SANCHES, ERCILEIDE S. SANTOS, C ARLOS E. COSTA-
CAMPOS, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade
Federal do Amapá, Campus Marco zero do Equador, 68.903-419, Macapá,
Amapá, Brazil (e -mail: eduardocampos@unifap.br); HERMES R. LUZ, De-
partamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal Faculdade
de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo,
SP, Brazil (e-mail: hermesluz@usp.br); JOÃO LUIZ H. FACCINI, Departa-
mento de Parasitologia Animal, UFRRJ, Seropédica, RJ, Brazil (e -mail: fac-
cinijlh@ufrrj.br).
KENTROPYX ALTAMAZONICA (Cocha Whiptail). HABITAT USE.
Kentropyx altamazonica is a small teiid lizard often associated
with waterways and seasonally flooded forest (Ribeiro-Júnior
and Amaral 2016. Zootaxa 4205:401–430). It is distributed in the
Amazon Basin, mainly across lowland humid forest along the
larger rivers. It is a diurnal, heliothermic species, basking and
foraging in floating leaf litter above ground, on logs, low vegeta-
tion, and floating trunks (Vitt et al. 2001. Can. J. Zool. 79:1855–
1865). However, there are no records of K. altamazonica forag-
ing in Victoria amazonica (Giant Waterlily). This Amazon native
plant is the largest of the waterlily species, occupying both flood
plains and riverine environments. Its leaves can reach more than
three meters in diameter (Prance 1974. Act. Amaz. 4:5–8).Herein
we report the first record of use of V. amazonica as a foraging site
by K. altamazonica.
Fig. 1. A) Eutropis allapallensis with everted cloacal tissue. B) En-
larged view of cloacal prolapse in E. allapallensis. C) Complete re-
duction in cloacal prolapse.
Fig. 1. Parasitism in an adult male Hemidactylus mabouia by two lar-
val Amblyomma sp.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
848 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
At 1241 h on 5 May 2017, in a floodplain habitat of Lake Catalão
(3.1630°S, 59.9080°W; WGS 84), located near the confluence
of the Negro and Solimões rivers, Iranduba municipality,
Amazonas, Brazil, at least five individuals of K. altamazonica
were observed foraging on an ephemeral island mainly formed
by V. amazonica. The agglomeration was located near Cecropia
latiloba trees and another flooded forest area with canopy above
water. One individual lizard climbed a C. latilobia trunk with
the approximation of our motorboat and the others hid among
leaves of V. amazonica. All individuals were mainly using the
gaps between the leaves, and the surface of these leaves was used
only to move from one gap to another. The use of V. amazonica
as a foraging site may be due to the greater availability of insects
in its leaves when in a flooded habitat, but also by the size and
stability of them, compared to other surfaces.
DANIEL A A. S. BÔLLA (e-mail: danielabolla@hotmail.com), LUCAS
NICIOLI BANDEIRA, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA),
Avenida Bem-te-vi, 478, Petrópolis, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil; FERNANDO
CARVALHO, Laboratório de Zoologia e Ecologia de Vertebrados, Avenida
Universitária, 1105, Bairro Universitário,Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
LEIOCEPHALUS CARINATUS (Northern Curlytail Lizard). GO-
PHER TORTOISE BURROW ASSOCIATE. Gopherus polyphemus
(Gopher Tortoise) is a keystone species, in part because their bur-
rows host a large number of facultative and obligate commen-
sal species ( Jackson and Milstrey 1989. In Diemer et al. [eds.],
Proceedings of the Gopher Tortoise Relocation Symposium, pp.
86–98. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Tal-
lahassee, Florida). Several aggressive invasive lizards have re-
cently been noted inside Gopher Tortoise burrows (Engeman et
al. 2011 Curr. Zool. 57:599–612). Leiocephalus carinatus armouri
is expanding its distribution into much of peninsular Florida,
particularly in areas where roads, sidewalks, and other hard
structures are juxtaposed with sandy soil and plantings of shrub-
bery or low ground cover vegetation (Meshaka et al. 2005 South-
east. Nat. 4:521–526; Moore and Smith 2005 Natural Area News
10:1,4). Curlytail Lizards have been spreading around the Jupiter,
Florida community for the last decade (JAM, pers. obs.), and it
has been proposed that L. carinatus could expand into natural
areas by following sidewalks and roadways (Moore and Smith
2005, op. cit.). We have been studying Gopher Tortoise ecology
at a site in the Abacoa Greenway in Jupiter, Florida (see Wetterer
and Moore 2005. Florida Entomol. 88:349–354 for a site descrip-
tion). To our knowledge, L. carinatus has not been noted previ-
ously in Gopher Tortoise burrows, but we have now observed on
several occasions Curlytail Lizards running into Gopher Tortoise
burrows upon our approach. Most of those burrows were within
15 m of sidewalks alongside a road. We have also found L. cari-
natus inside tortoise burrows (Fig. 1). Immediately after taking
this photo, the L. carinatus scampered over the carapace of the
tortoise and ran deeper into the burrow. One significant point of
this photo is that this particular burrow is 180 m from the nearest
sidewalk. Tortoise burrows are possibly allowing L. carinatus to
gain entry into more interior portions of the natural area. Tor-
toise burrows might provide forage for L. carinatus by virtue of
the arthropod fauna also found within the burrows.
JON A. MOORE, Wilkes Honors College, Florida Atlantic University, Ju-
piter, Florida 33458, USA (e-mail: jmoore@fau.edu); AMANDA C. HIPPS,
Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton,
Florida 33431, USA; CAROLYN REILAND-SMITH, Environmental Science
Graduate Program, Florida Atlantic University, Davie, Florida 33314, USA;
LAUREN FREMONT, Wilkes Honors College, Florida Atlantic University, Ju-
piter, Florida 33458, USA.
LEIOCEPHALUS CARINATUS (Northern Curly-tailed Lizard).
DIET. Leiocephalus carinatus is native to the Little Bahama Bank,
Great Bahama Bank, Cayman Islands, and Cuba (Schwartz and
Henderson 1991. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies:
Descriptions, Distributions, and Natural History. University of
Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida. 720 pp.). The species was in-
tentionally introduced in Florida in the 1940s through the release
of 20 pairs of lizards in Palm Beach County (Weigl et al 1969. Co-
peia 1969:841–842). Leiocephalus carinatus has been described
as mostly insectivorous in Florida, feeding primarily on beetles,
roaches, and ants (Meshaka et al 2004. The Exotic Amphibians
and Reptiles of Florida. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar,
Florida. 155 pp.). In their native range, L carinatus consumes
vegetation such as flowers and fruits (Schoener et al 1982. Oeco-
logia 53:160–169). However, to our knowledge there is no report
Fig. 1. a–b) Two individual Kentropyx altamazonica foraging in Vic-
toria amazonica; C) another individual climbing a Cecropia latiloba
trunk; and D) flooaded environment where the observations oc-
curred.
Fig. 1. Leiocephalus carinatus inside Gopher Tortoise burrow.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 849
of herbivory in Florida. Here we report L. carinatus feeding on
vegetation, invertebrates, and three species of small vertebrates
(one frog and two lizards) in Florida.
Individuals (N = 364) were captured with a noose or glue
traps between April 2015 and October 2015 in Broward County,
Florida, USA (26.26069°N, 80.24944°W, WGS 84; 3.35 m elev.),
and were euthanized via injection of tricaine methansulfonate
(MS222). We use a dissecting scissors to cut the lizards open
along the mid-ventral body axis and carefully removed the GI
tract. We rinsed the GI tracts with water into a petri dish and then
examined gut contents.
To the best of our knowledge, we report the first instance of
predation on anurans by L. carinatus. We found the remains of a
small frog in the stomach of one of our study lizards. We presume
it was Eleutherodactylus planirostris (Greenhouse Fog) but the
frog was quite digested so we cannot be certain. However, E.
planirostris is a ground-dwelling frog commonly observed in the
same locations where our L. carinatus were collected, and we
have not seen other frog species at these sites. We also recovered
the identifiable remains of a juvenile Anolis sagrei (Brown
Anole) in the same location. Similarly, on 20 July 2016 also in
Broward County (26.227122°N, 80.205374°W, WGS 84; 3.35m
elev.), we found a juvenile L. carinatus in the stomach of an adult
conspecific.
Additionally, on 18 April 2016 in Plantation, Broward County
(26.147762°N, 80.286271°W, WGS 84; 2.44 m elev.), we observed
an adult male (SVL = 9.05 cm) consuming the fruit of Eugenia
uniflora (Surinam Cherry) (Fig. 1). The lizard was also eating a
lepidopteran larva. Eugenia unif lora is native to South America
and was introduced into south Florida as an ornamental plant
(Gordon and Thomas 1997. In Simberloff et al. [eds.], Strangers in
Para dise: Impact and Man ageme nt of No nindi genou s Speci es in
Florida, pp. 21–38. Island Press, Washington, D.C.). It is considered
an invasive species that may have spread over Florida because of
its tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions (Staples
and Herbst 2005. Tropical Garden Flora: Plants Cultivated in the
Hawaiian Islands and other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum
Press, Honolulu, Hawaii. 918 pp.). Because this plant is not only
used by L. carinatus as a food source but also as refugia, it may
have played a role in facilitating the colonization of this lizard in
south Florida. In addition, on 16 June 2016, in the same location,
we found the remains of a second juvenile A. sagrei in one of
the stomachs of our sample of lizards. Finally, on 17 October
2016 we observed a juvenile L. carinatus eating a Lumbricus sp.
(earthworm); to our knowledge, our observation is the first report
of consumption of this prey item for L. carinatus.
We thank Kathryn Sieving and David Pais for helping to
identify the Surinam Cherry, and Juan Salvador Mendoza-Roldán
for his assistance.
CAMILA A. RODRIGUEZ-BARBOSA (e-mail: camila.rodriguez@u.
edu), STEVE A. JOHNSON (e-mail: tadpole@u.edu), and COURTENAY L.
HARDING, Department Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of
Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (e-mail: chardinglou@u.edu).
LEIOCEPHALUS CUBENSIS (Cuban Curlytail Lizard). SEXUAL
DISPLAY BEHAVIOR. Sexual display behavior is common in liz-
ards, and is mainly associated with mate acquisition and male-
male confrontation (Andersson 1994. Sexual Selection. Princ-
eton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 624 pp.). In the
genus Leiocephalus, this phenomenon is more intense during
antagonistic encounters between males, is composed of differ-
ent postures and movements of the body and head, and has been
recorded in some species inhabiting islands of the Bahamas and
Hispaniola (L. inaguae, L. personatus, and L. schreibersii; Noble
and Bradley 1933. Annals New York Acad. Sci. 35:25–100). Howev-
er, for many species antagonistic behavioral data are lacking, as
is the case of the endemic L. cubensis (Rodríguez-Schettino et al.
2013. Smithson. Herpetol. Inf. Serv. 144:1–96). Here, we describe
the aggressive intrasexual behavior between two adult males of
L. cubensis.
Fig. 1. A) Leiocephalus carinatus consuming a fruit of Eugenia uniflo-
ra; B) mature fruit of Eugenia uniflora at Plantation, Broward County,
Florida; c) inflorescence of Eugenia uniflora at Plantation, Broward
County, Florida.
Fig. 1. Components of agonistic intrasexual behavior between two
males of Leiocephalus cubensis. A) Initial lateral position with tails
crossed. B) Face-to-face position. C) Open-mouthed displays. D)
Circular movements (presumably opponent evaluation). E) Arched
bodies, raised dorsal crests and tail. F) Tongue display.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
850 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
At approximately 1235 h on 14 July 2016 one of us (LAAJ)
observed male-male confrontation of L. cubensis in Palma
Soriano, province of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba (20.20565°N,
75.99093°W, WGS 84; 163 m elev.). Prior to the confrontation,
a male was observed chasing other males (of smaller size),
presumably reflecting territorial behavior. The confrontation
occurred when one male of similar size did not flee the area.
Both males immediately adopted a lateral position, crossing
and moving the tails on each side for approximately one minute
(Fig. 1A). The lizards subsequently separated, assumed a face-to-
face stance (Fig. 1B), and continued to move sideways until tails
were once again crossed and mouths were open (Fig. 1C). These
behaviors were repeated for approximately two more minutes,
while moving from one side to another in a circular fashion
(Fig. 1D), with heads pointed down, bodies arched, dorsal crests
extended, and tails raised in a straight line with the body (Fig. 1E).
The males rarely separated, but when they did, they extended
their four limbs, showed their tongues and performed a lateral
flattening that highlighted conspicuous coloration on the flanks
(Fig. 1F). The confrontation lasted approximately three min, and
ended when one of the males fled the area.
The observed male-male confrontation within L. cubensis
is very similar to those observed in other species of the genus.
In general, the agonistic behavior in Leiocephalus is considered
“largely bluff,” given that bites apparently never happen (Noble
and Bradley 1933, op. cit.). Leiocephalus are known to be
saurophagus, which suggests a strong bite force (Schoener et
al. 1982. Oecologia 53:160–169; Milera 1984. Misc. Zool. 22:2).
Perhaps a disinclination to bite has been favored by natural
selection, thereby reducing the possiblity of severe injuries
caused by aggressive combat.
In contrast, the elongation of limbs and dorso-lateral
compression are conserved behavioral traits throughout other
lizard families including Phrynosomatidae (Carpenter and
Murphy 1978. Contr. Biol. Geol. Milwaukee Publ. Mus. 18:1–71)
and Agamidae (Carpenter 1970. Copeia 1970:497–505). Similarly,
the tongue display during male agonistic interactions has been
recorded in the Scincidae (Carpenter and Murphy 1978, op. cit.)
and Agamidae (Goniocephalus; Murphy et al 1978. J. Herpetol.
12:455–460), and is also widely distributed in Anolis species
(Schwenk and Mayer 1991. In Losos and Mayer [eds.], Anolis
Newsletter IV, pp. 131–140. National Museum of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.). The conservative
components of agonistic intrasexual behavior suggest that
intrasexual selection could have an important role in the
evolution of diverse lizard families.
We thank Ansel G. Fong for providing important literature.
We thank Christopher Blair and Sean Doody for their invaluable
suggestions to improve the English and overall manuscript
quality.
LIZ A. ALFARO-JUANTORENA, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Uni-
versidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Av. Universidad 1001, 62209
Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico (e-mail: liz.alfaroj@uaem.edu.mx); VÍC-
TOR H. JIMÉNEZ-ARCOS, UBIPRO, Laboratorio de Ecología, Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México, FES Iztacala, Av. De los Barios No. 1., Los
Reyes Ixtacala, Tlalnepantla, México, C.P. 54090, Mexico (e-mail: biol.victor.
jimenez@comunidad.unam.mx).
LEPIDODACTYLUS MOESTUS (Micronesian Scaly-toed Gecko).
REPRODUCTION. Lepidodactylus moestus occurs in Micronesia,
from Palau east through the Caroline Islands to the Marshall Is-
lands (Buden and Taborosi 2016. Reptiles of the Federated States
of Micronesia. Island Research and Education Initiative, Kolonia,
Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei. 311 pp.). Lepidodacty-
lus moestus is nocturnal and was common on Scaevola shrubs
and buildings on Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia
(Buden and Taborosi, op. cit.). Lepidodactylus moestus females
commonly produce clutches of two eggs (Zug 2013. Reptiles and
Amphibians of the Pacific Islands, A Comprehensive Guide. Uni-
versity of California Press, Berkeley. 306 pp.). In this note, I pro-
vide additional information on L. moestus reproduction gathered
from a histological examination of museum specimens.
A sample of 48 L. moestus consisting of 27 males (mean SVL =
35. 4 mm ± 2.6 SD, range = 30–40 mm) and 21 females (mean SVL
= 35.9 mm ± 2.4 SD, range = 30–40 mm) from Oceania collected
between 1991 and 2015, were borrowed from the herpetology
collection of the California Academy of Sciences (CAS), San
Francisco, California, USA. The following G. moestus were
examined by island: Kosrae Island (5.3096°N, 162.9815°E; WGS
84) (N =1) CAS 181167; Marshall Islands (7.1315°N, 171.1845°E;
WGS 84) (N = 3) CAS 191107, 191235, 191243; Palau Islands
(7.5150°N, 134.5825°E; WGS 84) (N = 45) CAS 122505, 236322,
236460, 236461, 236607, 236623, 236996, 236997, 237057, 237058,
237745, 237746, 237756, 237757, 237885, 237886, 248057, 248058,
248081, 248665, 248666, 248679, 249026, 249027, 249175, 249215,
249221, 249299, 249300, 249344, 251555, 251656, 251684, 251685,
251850, 253003, 253102, 254699, 254714, 254715, 255022, 257428,
257845, 257846.
A cut was made in the lower abdominal cavity and the left
testis or ovary was removed, embedded in paraffin, cut into 5-μm
sections, and stained with Harris hematoxylin followed by eosin
counterstain. Enlarged follicles (> 4 mm) or oviductal eggs were
counted. Histology slides were deposited at CAS.
The only stage present in the testis cycle was spermiogenesis
(= sperm formation) in which the seminiferous tubules were
lined by sperm or groups of metamorphosing spermatids.
Lepidodactylus moestus males in this stage were found
throughout the year: January (N = 2); January–February (N = 1);
February (N = 1); March (N = 2); April (N = 3); May (N = 2); June
(N = 2*); July (N = 1); August (N = 4); September (N = 2); October
(N = 2); November (N = 2); December (N = 3); *one June male
slide (CAS 254714) did not contain a testis, however since the
sperm-filled epididymis was present, I counted this L. moestus
table 1. Monthly stages in the ovarian cycle of 21 Lepidodactylus
moestus from Oceania.
Month N Quiescent Early yolk Enlarged Oviductal
deposition follicles eggs
> 4 mm
January 2 1 0 0 1
February 1 0 1 0 0
March 3 2 0 1 0
April 2 0 1 0 1
May 1 0 0 0 1
June 2 1 0 0 1
August 3 2 0 1 0
September 2 0 0 1 1
October 1 0 0 1 0
November 2 0 1 0 1
December 2 0 0 0 2

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 851
as a spermiogenic male. The smallest reproductively active male
(spermiogenesis) measured 30 mm SVL (CAS 253003) and was
collected in October.
Four stages were noted in the ovarian cycle ( Table 1):
1) quiescent, no yolk deposition; 2) early yolk deposition
(basophilic granules in ooplasm); 3) enlarged follicles > 3 mm; 4)
oviductal eggs. Mean clutch size (N = 12) was 1.67 ± 0.49, range
= 1–2. The smallest reproductively active females measured 33
mm SVL: CAS 236461, one oviductal egg; CAS 236997, early yd;
CAS 237885, two enlarged follicles > 3 mm. One slightly smaller
female with quiescent ovaries (SVL = 30 mm, CAS 248666) was
arbitrarily considered as an adult.
The presence of reproductively active males in twelve
months and female reproductive activity in eleven months
(no July sample was available) indicates L. moestus reproduces
throughout the year. Year-round reproduction appears to be
common in lizards from Oceania (Goldberg and Kraus 2012.
Russian J. Herpetol. 19:199–202).
I thank Lauren A. Scheinberg (CAS) for permission to examine
L. moestus.
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
Whittier, California 90608, USA; e-mail: sgoldberg@whittier.edu.
MICROLOPHUS BIVITTATUS (San Cristóbal Lava Lizard). DIET.
The diet of Microlophus lizards is variable and the primary for-
aging mode largely reflects differences in habitat, ranging from
primarily herbivory to primarily carnivory (Fariña et al. 2008. J.
Anim. Ecol. 77:458–468). Diets of Microlophus of the Galápagos
Islands are incompletely known and only for a small number of
species. Galápagos Microlophus species are primarily insectivo-
rous but will opportunistically ingest spiders, centipedes, other
vertebrates, and vegetation that includes flowers, fruits, seeds,
and pollen (Stebbins et al. 1967. Ecology 48:839–851; Werner
1978 Tierpsychol. 47:337–395l; Schluter 1984. Oikos 43:291–300;
East 1995. Noticias de Galapagos 55:8–14). Body size variation
among Galápagos Microlophus does not seem to be an adapta-
tion to variation in prey size as large prey items have been in-
frequently reported, even for the species with the largest aver-
age body sizes (Schluter, op. cit.). Relatively large prey items of
Galápagos Microlophus include centipedes in all species studied,
newly hatched finches in M. delanonis on Isla Española (Werner,
op. cit.), and in M. indefatigabilis on Isla Santa Cruz, small geckos
and tails of conspecifics (Stebbins et al., op. cit.) and smaller con-
specifics by relatively large adult males (J. Rowe, pers. obs.; Lew-
bart et al. 2017. Herpetol. Rev. 48: this issue). Conspecific tails
and integuments have been reported in the guts of M. pacifica
on Isla Pinzón (Schluter 1984). Here we report the first accounts
of the diet of M. bivittatus on Isla San Cristóbal.
During spatial ecology and genetic studies of M. bivittatus
on Isla San Cristóbal, we opportunistically observed individuals
foraging and chance regurgitations that were unintentionally
induced during lizard sampling between March 2015 and
August 2017. Ingestion of plant material included fruits of
Palo Santo trees (Bursera graveolens) and leaflets of Jerusalem
Thorn (Parkinsonia aculeata; Fig. 1A and B, respectively). Most
frequently, lizards were observed foraging on small insects such
as ants (Fig. 1C) and occasionally on crickets, moths, spiders,
and dragonflies (Fig. 1D–F). Of particular interest was a small
Galápagos Giant Centipede (Scolopendra galapagoensis; Fig.
1H) that was ingested by a male M. bivittatus (83 mm SVL and
weighed 23.6 g). The centipede measured 80 mm total length
and weighed 2.3 g although the terminal caudal segment
was missing. Our observation is unusual as the centipede
represented approximately 96% of the SVL, and 10% of the mass
of the lizard. Similarly, Stebbins et al. (op. cit.) observed a female
M. indefatigabilis (average SVL of 63 mm) attempting to ingest
a S. galapagoensis that measured in excess of 100 mm. Clearly,
our observations illustrate the potential for M. bivittatus to ingest
formidable but potentially energetically profitable prey items
such as centipedes, as well as ubiquitous but less energetically
profitable food items such as small insects and plant matter.
We thank the Galapagos National Park (GNP) and Carlos
Mena (Galapagos Science Center, Universidad San Francisco de
Quito) for supporting and approving our research. This work was
conducted under GNP permit number PC-13-16.
JENNIFER A. MOORE, Biology Department, Grand Valley State Univer-
sity, Allendale, Michigan 49401, USA (e-mail: moorejen@gvsu.edu); JOHN
W. ROWE, Biology Department, Alma College, Alma, Michigan 48801, USA
(e-mail: rowe@alma.edu); DANA WESSELS, Biology Department, Grand
Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan 49401, USA (e-mail: wesselsd@
mail.gvsu.edu); MICHAEL T. PLIVELICH, Red Castle Resources, Salt Lake
City, Utah, 84103 USA (e-mail: Plivelich@gmail.com); CARLOS A. VALLE,
University of San Francisco de Quito, Galápagos Science Center, Colegio de
Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales, Campus Cumbayá Av. Diego de Robles
S/N e Interoceánica, Quito, Ecuador (e-mail: cvalle@usfq.edu.ec).
MICROLOPHUS INDEFATIGABILIS (Lava Lizard). DIET. Lava
lizards are a diverse group of nine small terrestrial species inhab-
iting most of the Galápagos archipelago (Benavides et al. 2009.
Evolution 63:1606–1626). The species found on the small island
of Daphne Major has been classified as Microlophus indefatiga-
bilis and occurs on Santa Cruz, Santa Fe, and over a dozen small
islands surrounding the larger island of Santa Cruz ( Jordan and
Snell 2008. Mol. Ecol. 17:1224–1237). Lava lizards are known to
be omnivores consuming primarily arthropods and plant ma-
terial (Stebbins et al. 1967. Ecology 48:839–851; Schluter 1984.
Oikos 43:291–300; East 1995. Noticias de Galapagos 55:8–14).
Schluter (op. cit.) examined the stomach contents of 60 lava liz-
ards on the island of Pinta at two different sites and two different
Fig. 1. Diet of Microlophus bivittatus on San Cristóbal, Galápagos,
Ecuador: A) consumption of fruit from Bursera graveolens; B) brows-
ing on leaflets from Parkinsonia aculeate; C) ants recovered from the
stomach of a necropsied lizard we found dead on a road; D) cricket
consumption; E) feeding on moth; F) spider ingestion; G) dragonfly
comsumption; and H) an adult male lizard with a regurgitated cen-
tipede.
PHOTOS BY JOHN ROWE, CA RLOS VALLE, DANA WESSELS

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
852 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
times of year. The predominant food item by number was ants,
but, numerous other arthropods, berries, flowers, and leaves
were consumed. One stomach contained part of a lava lizard tail
and another some lava lizard skin. Close relatives of lava lizards
(Tropidurus spp.) are known to consume amphibians and rep-
tiles as part of their diet (Van Sluys et al 2004. J. Herpetol. 38:606–
611; Ribeiro and Freire 2009. Herpetol. Rev. 40:228; Pergentino et
al 2017. Herpetol. Notes 10:225–228). Cannibalism among lava
lizards of the Galápagos is known by Galápagos naturalists and
has been mentioned in the popular literature. However, the sci-
entific literature is lacking reports of actual observations or evi-
dence for this type of feeding behavior among lava lizards. Steb-
bins et al (op. cit.) reported finding a gecko in the stomach of one
lava lizard. A photograph of a lava lizard eating another lizard of
its own kind on Fernandina Island appears in a book (Jackson
1993. Galapagos: A Natural History. University of Calgary Press,
Calgary, Alberta), and one of us (CAV) has observed that adult
lava lizards occasionally prey upon juveniles of its own species
on Santa Cruz Island.
On 28 June 2017 an adult M. indefatigabilis was observed
grasping a juvenile conspecific in its jaws (Fig. 1). The animals
disappeared before complete ingestion could be observed. This
is the first reported case of any species of lava lizard (Microlophus
spp.) predating a member of its own species. in the central Galá-
pagos archipelago.
GREGORY A. LEWBART, North Carolina State University College of
Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA (e-mail: greg_
lewbart@ncsu.edu); CARLOS A. VALLE, University San Francisco de Quito,
Galápagos Science Center, Campus Cumbayá Av. Diego de Robles S/N e In-
teroceánica, Quito, Ecuador; JUAN PABLO MUNOZ-PEREZ, University San
Francisco de Quito, Galápagos Science Center, Puerto Baquerizo Moreno,
Galápagos, Ecuador.
PAR VO SC IN CU S ST EE RE I (Steere’s Sphenomorphus). REPRO-
DUCTION. Parvoscincu s steerei is endemic to the Philippines
(Brown et al. 2013. ZooKeys 266:1–120) where it is distributed on
numerous islands (Uetz et al. 2017. The Reptile Database. http://
www.reptile-database.org). It is found across a wide variety of
habitats but is most common in leaf litter and woody debris
(Brown et al., op. cit.). Brown and Alcala (1980. Silliman Univ. Nat.
Sci. Monogr. Ser. 2:1–264) gave body size (SVL) of mature males of
P. s t e e r e i (as Sphenomorphus steerei) as 26.4–36.0 mm and females
as 27.5–35.5 mm. Seven hatchlings of P. s t e e r e i (as S. steerei) mea-
sured 13.2–15.2 mm SVL (Brown and Alcala, op. cit.). Gaulke (2011.
The Herpetofauna of Panay Island, Philippines. Edition Chimaira,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany. 390 pp.) reported a P. s t e e r e i (as S.
steerei) hatchling that measured 16 mm (SVL). Alcala (1986. Guide
to Philippine Flora and Fauna. Amphibians and Reptiles, X. Natu-
ral Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources
and University of Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. 195 pp.)
published size data of 27–36 mm (SVL) for mature specimens of
P. s t e e r e i (as S. steerei). In this note I present the first histological
information on the P. s t e e r e i reproductive cycle.
The gonads of 19 adult P. steerei consisting of eight males
(mean SVL = 31.6 mm ± 4.8 SD, range = 27–42 mm) and 11
females (mean SVL = 31.1 mm ± 3.3 SD, range = 28–39 mm)
collected in the Philippine Islands during 2014 and 2016 were
histologically examined. The above P. steerei are within the range
of mature P. steerei in Brown and Alcala (op. cit.). Parvoscincus
steerei were deposited in the herpetology collection of the Sam
Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History (OMNH), the
University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA (by island): Luzon Island:
OMNH 45069, 45085, 45086, 45097, 45106, 45115, 45116, 45118,
45120, 45486–45488, 45491, 45493, 45495, 45496, 45504, 45505;
Samar Island: OMNH 44707, 44713. A cut was made in the lower
abdominal cavity and the left testis or ovary was removed,
embedded in paraffin, cut into 5-μm sections, and stained with
Harris hematoxylin followed by eosin counterstain. Slides of
testes were examined to determine the stage of the testicular
cycle. Slides of ovaries were examined for yolk deposition.
Enlarged follicles = yolking (> 2 mm) were counted. Histology
slides were deposited at OMNH.
Males from the following months were examined: February
(N = 2), March (N = 2), May (N = 1), June (N = 3). All males were
undergoing spermiogenesis in which the seminiferous tubules
were lined by sperm or clusters of metamorphosing spermatids.
The smallest reproductively active male (spermiogenesis)
measured 27 mm (OMNH 45115) and was collected in February.
Three stages were present in the ovarian cycle of P. steerei
(Table 1): 1) Yolk deposition, ooplasm contains basophilic
granules; 2) Enlarging follicles > 2 mm; 3) Oviductal eggs. The
smallest reproductively active females both measured 28 mm
SVL and were collected on Luzon Island in February (OMNH
45118, one oviductal egg; OMNH 45120, one enlarged follicle, 3
mm). Mean clutch size (N = 10) was 1.1 ± 0.32 SD, range = 1–2.
Examination of P. steerei from additional months is needed
before the sequence of events in the reproductive cycle can be
ascertained.
I thank Cameron D. Siler for permission to examine
Parvoscincus steerei and Jessa Watters (OMNH) for facilitating
the loan. This research was supported by National Science
Foundation grant NSF IOS 1353683 to CDS.
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
Whittier, California 90608, USA; e-mail: sgoldberg@whittier.edu.
Fig. 1. Adult male Microlophus indefatigabilis consuming a juvenile
of the same species.
table 1. Monthly stages in the ovarian cycle of 11 Parvoscincus steerei
females from the Philippine Islands.
Month N Yolk Enlarging Oviductal
deposition follicles > 2 mm eggs
February 2 0 1 1
March 3 1 1 1
May 3 0 0 3
June 2 0 1 1
July 1 0 0 1

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 853
PHRYNOSOMA HERNANDESI (Greater Short-Horned Lizard).
PREDATION. Phrynosoma hernandesi is a broadly but patchily
distributed lizard that nears its northern range limit in south-
ern Saskatchewan, Canada. Due to its generally low density and
cryptic nature, few predation events have been recorded for this
species. Considering its size and limited defenses it is likely to be
preyed upon opportunistically by a variety of vertebrate preda-
tors. Here we present an observation of avian predation.
On 25 August 2013, in the west block of Grasslands
National Park (GNP) in Saskatchewan, Canada (49.241965°N,
107.733582°E), 11 P. hernandesi were observed impaled on
the barbs of a wire fence in the caching style typical of Lanius
ludovicianus (Loggerhead Shrike). We visited the site three days
later and observed the nine remaining lizards more closely.
Lizards were impaled on the 3rd wire of a five-wire fence, 91 cm
above ground-level, where the top two wires are smooth and the
bottom 3 wires are barbed. Lizards were impaled through the
dorsum and into the thoracic cavity, through the thick skin at the
nape of the neck or through the throat into the skull (Fig. 1). The
impaled lizards were in various stages of consumption, some
were relatively untouched while others had the thoracic and
abdominal cavities opened presumably to extract viscera. Many
were dehydrated and likely were no longer being eaten. Those
lizards captured by shrikes represented neonates, juveniles, and
adult males but no adult females were observed. Grasshoppers
(orthoptera) were also present impaled on the fence. Lizard
observations were restricted to a ~260-m length of fence. We have
not observed P. hernandesi in any other L. ludovicianus larders
in or around GNP, even in areas where P. hernandesi is relatively
common. It is not uncommon for L. ludovicianus to prey on
lizards, including this genus (Clark 2011. Son. Herpetol. 24:20–
21), but to our knowledge this is the first verified instance of P.
hernandesi as prey for L. ludovicianus (E. R Pianka, pers. comm.;
W. C. Sherbrooke, pers. comm.; G. L. Powell, pers. comm.).
KRISTA A. CAIRNS, Parks Canada, PO Box 150, Val Marie, Saskatch-
ewan S0N 2T0, Canada (e-mail: krista.cairns@gmail.com ); JULIEN BABI-
NEAU, Cornwall Collegiate and Vocational School 437 Sydney St, Cornwall,
Ontario K6H 3H9, Canada (e-mail:verogelinas@hotmail.fr); NICH OLAS A.
CAIRNS, Queen’s University, Department of Biology, 116 Barrie St. Kings-
ton, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada (e-mail: nacairns@gmail.com).
PHRYNOSOMA PLATYRHINOS (Desert Horned-lizard). SCAV-
ENGED BY TARANTULA. Arachnids are known to prey on Phry-
nosoma lizards; for example, by Latrodectus hesperus (Western
Black Widow Spider; Painter and Kamees 2010. Herpetol. Rev.
41:227) and Hadrurus arizonensis (Arizona Giant Hairy Scorpi-
on; Turner and Rorabaugh 1998. Herpetol. Rev. 29:101). However,
here we report an arachnid scavenging a dead Phyrnosoma.
At 2240 h on 13 September 2015, I found a large Aphonopelma
prenticei (Desert Tarantula) feeding on an adult road-killed
Phrynosoma platyrhinos on Nipton Road, in San Bernardino
County, California, USA, in the eastern Mojave Desert (35.46648°N,
115.42955°W). I first spotted the animals from a moving vehicle,
and as I approached them on foot for photographs, the spider
continued to feed for at least an additional 6 min (2240–2246 h).
This is the first recorded account of an arachnid scavenging a
Phrynosoma.
JACOB A. DALY, 108 E. Green St., Warnell School of Forestry and Natu-
ral Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA; e-mail:
jacobadaly@gmail.com.
PTYODACTYLUS PUISEUXI (Israeli Fan-fingered Gecko). RE-
PRODUCTION. Ptyodactylus puiseuxi is known to occur in a
variety of rocky habitats in Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and
Syria (Bar and Haimovitch 2011. A Field Guide to Reptiles and
Amphibians of Israel. Pazbar Ltd, Herzliya, Israel. 245 pp.). Sev-
eral clutches of two eggs are deposited between May and August
Fig. 1. Two adult male Phrynosoma hernandesi impaled on a barbed
wire fence by a shrike (Lanius ludovicianus). The lizard in the bottom
photograph is mostly consumed. Note the different way in which
each lizard is impaled.
Fig. 1. Aphonopelma prenticei (Desert Tarantula) feeding on a road-
killed specimen of Phrynosoma platyrhinos (Desert Horned-lizard).

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
854 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
(Bar and Haimovitch, op. cit.; Disi et al. 2001. Amphibians and
Reptiles of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, An Atlas and Field
Guide. Edition Chimaira, Franfurt am Main. 408 pp.). In this note
we add additional information on the reproductive biology of P.
puiseuxi, including sizes at maturity from a histological exami-
nation of gonadal material from museum specimens.
A sample of 29 P. puiseuxi consisting of 14 adult males (mean
SVL = 67.1 mm ± 8.8 SD, range = 53–83 mm) 10 adult females
(mean SVL = 66.0 mm ± 4.6 SD, range = 60–75 mm), and five
juveniles (mean SVL = 40.8 mm ± 1.9 SD, range = 39–44 mm)
collected between 1953 and 2012 from Israel was examined from
the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History (TAUM) University
of Tel Aviv, Israel. The following P. puiseuxi were examined by
District: HaGolan: 7526, 11660, 12964, 12965; Hermon Mountain:
7117, 9926, 9935, 9937, 12507, 12803, 16205; Jordan Valley: 1187,
1188, 1190, 16173, 16508; Lower Galil: 1181; Shomeron: 12683;
Upper Galil: 494, 496, 497, 501, 1517, 4892, 7829, 13426, 13619–
3621. For histological examination, the left gonad was removed
to examine for yolk deposition or corpora lutea in females and
to identify the stage of the testicular cycle in males. Counts were
made of oviductal eggs. Tissues were embedded in paraffin,
sectioned at 5 μm, and stained with hematoxylin followed by
eosin counterstain. Histology slides were deposited at TAUM.
Three stages were noted in the testicular cycle (Table 1): 1)
Late recrudescence, in which numerous spermatids of which
a few were metamophosing, but no sperm were observed. In
early recrudescence, there is a proliferation of spermatogonia
and spermatocytes for the next period of spermiogenesis;
2) Spermiogenesis (sperm formation) in which lumina of
the seminiferous tubules are lined by sperm or clusters of
metanmorphosing spermatids; 3) Late spermiogenesis in which
the germinal epithelium is reduced to a few layers of cells, sperm
formation is coming to a close. The smallest mature male (TAUM
11660) measured 53 mm SVL, was undergoing spermiogenesis
and was from April.
Two stages were present in the ovarian cycle (Table 2): 1)
(quiescent), no yolk deposition; 2) oviductal eggs. Females
contained oviductal eggs in spring and summer (Table 2). The
mean clutch size (N = 4) was 1.8 ± 0.5 SD, (range = 1–2). The
smallest mature female (TAUM 1188) measured 60 mm SVL,
contained one oviductal egg and was from July.
The presence of two July males in late spermiogenesis likely
reflects the breeding period is nearly over. In contrast, the
congener P. guttatus from Israel (Goldberg 2011. Herpetol. Rev.
42:433) exhibited spermiogenesis in October and November
and one clutch (two eggs) in October. Examination of P. puiseuxi
gonads from autumn is warranted to ascertain whether P.
puiseuxi also exhibits autumn reproduction.
We thank Shai Meiri (TAUM) for permission to examine P.
puiseuxi and THE Steinhardt Museum of Natural History at Tel-
Aviv University for providing the P. puiseuxi to study.
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: sgoldberg@whittier.edu); EZRA
MAZA, Tel-Aviv University, The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Tel
Aviv 6997801, Israel (e-mail: mazaererz@post.tau.ac.il).
SCELOPORUS BULLERI (Buller’s Spiny Lizard). REPRODUC-
TION. Sceloporus bulleri is a conspicuous diurnal species in-
habiting boreal-tropical forests and tropical deciduous forests in
the Sierra Madre Occidental of western Mexico, from southern
Sinaloa and southwestern Durango to the highlands of Jalisco
(Webb 1967. Copeia 1967:202–213). This species can be observed
on large boulders, steep-sided rock walls, logs, and upright de-
ciduous or pine trees (Webb 1967, op. cit.). Currently, the conser-
vation status of S. bulleri is listed as Least Concern by the Inter-
national Union for Conservation of Nature (Frost et al. 2007. The
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2007:e.T64090A12736680).
Although the distribution of S. bulleri is well known and it is an
abundant species in mountainous habitats ( Webb 1967, op. cit.;
Frost et al. 2007, op. cit.), a number of aspects of its life history
are unknown. Herein, we provide data on reproductive biology
of females and males, clutch size, and egg attributes of S. bulleri
in a tropical deciduous forest.
We conducted diurnal surveys during November 2015 to
collect S. bulleri from San Sebastián del Oeste, in the state of
Jalisco, Mexico (20.76167°N, 104.08667°W, WGS 84; 1480 m elev.).
Vegetation adjacent to San Sebastián del Oeste is dominated by
pines (Pinus sp.), oaks (Quercus sp.), and some patches of cloud
forest. Climate of the area is temperate, with the rainy season
between June and October (Dueñas et al. 2006. Ibugana: Bol.
Inst. Bot. 14:51–91). In the town of San Sebastían, we collected
three males and three females killed by local people. Lizards were
transported to the laboratory. A cut was made in the abdominal
cavity to observe enlarged follicles or oviductal eggs in females;
for males, we assumed sexual maturity by the enlarged testes
(Goldberg 1971. Herpetologica 27:123–131; Guillette and Casas-
Andreu 1980. J. Herpetol. 14:143–147). We measured three
standard morphological variables: snout–vent length (SVL),
dorsal–cranial length (CL), and cranial width (CW). We measured
length and width of left and right testes, and we also measured
length of oviductal eggs. All measurements were taken with a
digital caliper (scale 150 mm, precision 0.1 mm).
Morphological data of females and males are shown in Table
1. The number of oviductal eggs ranged from six to eight. The size
of oviductal eggs was 6.8 ± 0.5 mm (SVL 90.2 mm; N = 6 eggs),
9.7 ± 0.5 mm (SVL 93.8 mm; N = 6 eggs), and 10.2 ± 0.3 mm (SVL
96.8, N = 8 eggs). The mean length and width of left testes was
table 1. Monthly stages in the testis cycle of 14 adult male Ptyodactylus
puiseuxi from Israel. *Only the sperm-filled epididymis was present
in TAUM 7829.
Month N Late Spermiogenesis Late
recrudescence spermiogenesis
March 2 1 1 0
April 3 0 3 0
May 6 0 6* 0
June 1 0 1 0
July 2 0 0 2
table 2. Monthly stages in the ovarian cycle of 10 adult female
Ptyodactylus puiseuxi from Israel.
Month N Quiescent Oviductal eggs
April 2 1 1
May 1 1 0
June 1 0 1
July 4 2 2
October 1 1 0
November 1 1 0

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 855
8.1 ± 2.2 mm and 5.7 ± 2.0 mm, respectively, whereas the mean
length and width of right testes was 8.2 ± 2.7 mm and 6.2 ± 2.3
mm, respectively.
Our observations suggest that the reproductive activity of S.
bulleri is similar to other species of the torquatus group, which
occurs from autumn to spring (Ramírez-Bautista and Dávila-
Ulloa 2009. Southwest. Nat. 54:400–408). However, our data are
insufficient to determine whether there is asynchrony between
the sexes, as occurs in other montane lizard species (Feria-
Ortíz et al. 2001. J. Herpetol. 35:104–112; Gadsden et al. 2005.
Acta Zool. Mex. [n.s.] 21:93–107). The number of oviductal eggs
is within the range reported for other viviparous species of the
torquatus group (see Ramírez-Bautista and Dávila-Ulloa 2009,
op. cit.). Our observations, to our knowledge, are the first data on
reproductive biology of S. bulleri. Further studies are needed of
additional specimens to understand the reproductive cycles and
characteristics in this lizard.
ARMANDO H. ESCOBEDO-GALVÁN, UBALDO S. FLORES-GUER-
RERO, Centro Universitario de la Costa, Universidad de Guadalajara, Av.
Universidad 203, 48280 Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico (e-mail: elchorvis@
gmail.com); MARIANA GONZÁLEZ-SOLÓRZANO, Instituto de Neu-
roetología, Universidad Veracruzana, Dr. Luis Castelazo s/n Col. Industrial
Ánimas, 91000 Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico; JUAN J. LÓPEZ DE LA CRUZ,
Universidad Politécnica del Centro, 22.5 km carretera Villahermosa-Teapa,
86290 Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico.
SCELOPORUS OLIVACEUS (Texas Spiny Lizard). RECORD
CLUTCH SIZE, NESTING, INCUBATION, AND HATCHLINGS. At
1830 h on 6 May 2014, on a sunny day when the high tempera-
ture was 30.6°C and low was 17.8°C, while passing the Environ-
mental Science Building at University of North Texas, Denton,
Texas, USA (33.21376°N, 97.15123°W ), I observed a Sceloporus
olivaceus in a hole in a landscaped area to the south of the build-
ing. I slowly approached on foot to a distance of two meters, and
captured a photograph of the wary lizard (Fig. 1A). I inadver-
tently disturbed the lizard, and she fled from the burrow into a
nearby tree. I approached the burrow to find she had been nest-
ing and had laid several eggs. I did not further disturb the nest
site at this time.
I returned to the location at 1940 h to find that the lizard had
not returned to the burrow, but had remained in the nearby tree,
and continued to lay her eggs in a split in the tree, approximately
0.5 m above the ground. She was still laying eggs when I returned,
but many of the eggs were falling to the ground. Although they
did not break, they were soft, exposed, and some were showing
signs of desiccation (i.e. dimpling). I retrieved vermiculite and a
Gladware container with an interlocking lid (and small air holes
in the lid to allow ventilation), and returned by 2010 h. The female
had completed laying and watched from the tree as I collected
the eggs from the surface of the ground, from the crevice, and
from the burrow.
The nest site was alongside a stump with stones embedded
at the base, in an area with loose soil and mulch. This nest cavity
had been excavated to 8–9 cm in depth and 6–7 cm wide at the
entrance. The location is exposed to the sun for several hours
during late morning and early afternoon, with trees and planted
bushes immediately surrounding it on its north side, shading it
for part of the day.
The lizard remained in the area for several weeks, appearing
gravid once more approximately a month after the observed
reproductive episode. Sceloporus olivaceus are previously
known to lay multiple clutches of eggs per year, with females
two or more years of age producing an average of 3–4 clutches
per year (blair 1960. The Rusty Lizard. University of Texas Press,
Austin, Texas. 185 pp.). The female was captured, measured with
calipers, and released (SVL = 11.5 cm; total length = 27.1 cm);
she was relatively large, but did not represent the record for S.
olivaceus; Smith (1939. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. Ser. 26:1–397)
reported a maximum SVL of 12.1 cm in S. olivaceus, and McCoid
and Hensley (1996. Herpetol. Rev. 27:21) reported a maximum
total length of 29.9 cm.
Although the female was not directly observed laying each
egg, it is reasonable to assume that the eggs around the tree
and those already in the nest cavity all belonged to this female
and the same nesting event. Sceloporus olivaceus are not known
to nest communally, and no additional females were observed
in the vicinity, the eggs appeared freshly deposited at the time
when they were found, and all of the eggs hatched nearly
simultaneously. Eighteen eggs were recovered from the nest
cavity, and an additional 16 were recovered from the ground
beside the tree or from the split in the tree; hence, 34 eggs where
recovered. The average number of eggs per clutch varies with age
in S. olivaceus; one-year olds average 11.3 eggs per clutch, two-
year olds average 18.4 eggs per clutch, and females three plus
years of age average 24.5 eggs per clutch (blair, op. cit.). Whereas
fecundity may decrease with age, the largest clutches are known
from females three or more years of age, in which the maximum
clutch size reported by Blair (op. cit.) was 30 eggs.
I collected the eggs and buried them halfway in vermiculite
mixed with water at a 2:3 ratio of water:vermiculite, by mass (Fig.
1B), with water replenished to the original mass every 4–5 days.
The eggs were incubated at 28.0–30.0°C. The eggs measured
approximately 8–11 mm at the time of collection, although
some may have been partially desiccated. When I first set the
eggs to incubate, I candled a few eggs; no blood vessels were
visible. By day 10, one egg had discolored and collapsed, and it
was removed and discarded. By day 15, another egg had done
the same and it was removed, and by day 40, a third. The three
eggs that did not survive to hatching were all among the first 18
laid that were recovered from the nest cavity, and they were likely
exposed for the longest period of time before collection; these
three eggs may have been negatively affected by exposure to the
conditions at the time of laying, perhaps dying from desiccation
during the first two hours post laying. In undisturbed (i.e., neither
collected, nor predated) S. olivaceus nests, 2.4–13.4% of eggs,
and primarily those eggs located higher in the nest cavity, fail
to hatch, apparently due to desiccation (blair, op. cit.). Further,
nest failure, wherein all eggs in a clutch fail to survive to hatching
occurs in 75–78% of S. olivaceus nests; predation plays a major
role in this mortality, but desiccation is also a potential cause for
mortality in disturbed nests (blair, op. cit.).
table 1. Morphological variables (mean ± SD mm; range), for male
and female Sceloporus bulleri.
Variable Females Males
Snout–vent length 93.6 ± 3.3 80.4 ± 13.7
(90.2–96.8) (76.9–95.5)
Head length 19.6 ± 1.4 19.2 ± 3.8
(18.0–20.8) (15.7–18.7)
Head width 18.2 ± 0.4 17.6 ± 4.5
(17.8–18.5) (13.1–22.1)

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
856 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
By day 50, the eggs had swollen to range between 13–19 mm
in length (Fig. 1C). A few eggs were candled at day 56, embryos
with blood vessels around the corioallantois were observed, and
each embryo appeared to fill approximately half of its egg (Fig.
1D). The eggs began hatching on day 58 (3 July 2014) during the
morning hours (between 0330 h and 1000 h), during which time,
the first 16 fully hatched, and several more pipped. During this
time, a rainstorm was moving through the area, and sudden
changes in pressure may have cued the hatching event. Between
1000 h and 1900 h, the rest of the clutch hatched, for a total of 31
hatchlings (Fig. 1E). This incubation period is within the range
of 43–83 days observed by Blair (op. cit.) in naturally incubated
nests, and incubation period in S. olivaceus likely varies with
temperature, and potentially other variables (blair, op. cit.).
Hatchling sex was visually determined by post-cloacal
scalation, where males have two relatively flat enlarged scales
easily distinguished from the smaller heavily keeled scales
surrounding them (Fig. 1F), whereas females have more uniform
scalation consisting entirely of small heavily keeled scales (Fig.
1G). The sex ratio in the clutch was 12:19 (males:females), which
is not significantly different from an expected ratio of 1:1 (Chi-
squared test of goodness of fit; χ2 = 1.58, df = 1, P = 0.21), a result
that is not surprising in a species that is thought to possess
genetic sex determination (blair, op. cit.). Sceloporus olivaceus
has a diploid set of 22 chromosomes, as do all members of the
clade comprised of the S. undulatus, S. formosus, and S. spinosus
species groups (Leaché et al. 2016. BMC Evol. Bio. 16:1–16).
However, the sex chromosomes appear indistinct throughout
this clade, whereas many Sceloporus species outside this group
display heteromorphic X and Y sex chromosomes (Leaché et al.,
op. cit.).
There were no differences between male and female
hatchlings in mean total length, mean SVL, mean tail length,
and mean mass (Student’s t-tests, P > 0.05 for all comparisons;
mean total length = 64.23 ± 1.89 mm; mean SVL = 26.79 ±1.05
mm; mean tail length = 37.44 ± 1.29 mm; mean mass = 702.4 ±
28.9 mg). Whereas the observed lengths herein are consistent
with those observed by Blair (op. cit.), the mass of these animals
is greater than the range observed by Blair (op. cit.; 340–570 mg
in ten hatchlings). This may reflect any or all of several variables:
a genetic predisposition to large size in this biased sample of one
clutch, or the conditions of incubation promoting growth and/or
uptake of water, whereas the animals reported on by Blair (op. cit.)
were incubated in the wild, where the wet masses of lizards were
possibly limited by reduced water availability during embryonic
development. Photos of the nesting female, eggs (day 1, day 15,
and day 50), a day-56 candled egg, hatchlings, and post-cloacal
scales viewed for sexing have been deposited at University of
Texas at Arlington (UTA DC 8179–8189).
I thank Carl J. Franklin for cataloguing photos and offering
thoughts on the observations. I thank Edward M. Dzialowski for
thought-provoking discussion on the case.
CHRISTOPHER S. MALLERY JR., Department of Biological Sciences,
University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76203, USA; e-mail: christopher-
mallery@my.unt.edu.
SQUAMATA — SNAKES
BUNGARUS CAERULEUS (Common Krait). DIET. Bungarus
caeruleus is a nocturnal elapid that is widely distributed
throughout the Indian subcontinent (www.reptile-database.
org; 30 Mar 2017). It feeds primarily on snakes, lizards, frogs,
Fig. 1. A) Female Sceloporus olivaceus laying in nest cavity. B) Day 1
S. olivaceus eggs set to incubate. United States dime included for size
reference. C) The same eggs at day 56 of incubation. D) One of the
eggs being candled at day 56 of incubation. E) The 31 hatchling S.
olivaceus. F) Post-cloacal scalation of a male S. olivaceus hatchling.
Arrows indicate enlarged scales. G) Post-cloacal scalation of a female
S. olivaceus hatchling.
Fig. 1. Bungarus caeruleus feeding on Eryx whitakeri in India.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 857
and sometimes small mammals (Whitaker and Captain 2004.
Snakes of India. Macmillan India Ltd., New Delhi. 354 pp.).
Cannibalism and scavenging are also known in this species
(Smith 1913. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23:373; Mohapatra 2011
Herpetol. Rev. 42:436–437; Deshmukh et al. 2016. ICRF Reptiles
and Amphibians 23:169–170). On 30 November 2015, at ca. 0052
h, we observed a B. caeruleus (total length ca. 128 cm) preying
on an Eryx whitakeri (Whitaker’s Boa; total length ca. 45 cm) at
Goa University Campus, Goa, India (15.2736°N, 73.5008°E, WGS
84; 57 m elev.). Eryx whitakeri is a medium-sized nocturnal
constrictor in the family Boidae, endemic to Western Ghats of
India (Whitaker and Captain, op. cit.). The B. caeruleus bit and
held the prey mid body and the snakes struggled for ca. 43 min,
until venom began to subdue the E. whitakeri (Fig. 1). The prey
was then devoured headfirst in approx. 5 min. After ingesting
its prey, the B. caeruleus moved into the nearby forest. We thank
Amay Bhogte for his help.
SUBHADEEP CHOWDHURY, Krishnachak, Dhurkhali, Howrah
711410, West Bengal, India (e-mail: isuvodeep@gmail.com); ANIRBAN
CHAUDHURI), 211, Jodhpur Park, Kolkata 700068, West Bengal, India (e-
mail: abchaudhuri@gmail.com.
BUNGARUS CAERULEUS (Common Krait). DIET / SCAVENG-
ING. On 13 June 2013, at 2018 h, after a heavy rainfall, we en-
countered a Bungarus caeruleus on the road feeding on a dead
gecko at Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary, Balasore, Odisha, India
(21.4490°N, 86.6830°E, WGS 84; 149 m elev.). The head of the prey
was inside the krait’s mouth. The body of the prey was mutilated,
exposing its intestine and abdominal parts (Fig. 1), apparently
indicating a roadkill incident. After close observation, the dead
prey was identified to be a Hemidactylus sp. (East Indian forest
gecko). It took around 6 min for the krait to swallow the prey,
after which the snake crossed the road and moved into the leaf
litter.
Bungarus caeruleus is known to feed on frogs, lizards, and
other snakes (Whitaker and Captain 2016. Snakes of India, the
Field Guide. Westland/DracoBooks, Chennai. 400 pp.). Recently,
scavenging behavior of this snake has been reported from India
(e.g., Mohapatra 2011. Herpetol. Rev. 42:436–437; Deshmukh
et al. 2016. IRCF Reptiles & Amphibians 23:169–170), which
a common opportunistic foraging strategy in many snakes
(DeVault and Krochmal 2002. Herpetologica 58:429–436). This
is an additional report of B. caeruleus scavenging on lizard prey.
I thank Manuwar Khan and Nilakantha Jena for their help in
the field.
SUBRAT DEBATA, Department of Biodiversity and Conservation of
Natural Resources, Central University of Orissa, Koraput, Odisha, India; e-
mail: subrat.debata007@gmail.com.
CHILABOTHRUS CHRYSOGASTER CHRYSOGASTER (Turks
Island Boa). DIET. Chilabothrus chrysogaster chrysogaster con-
sumes a variety of small to medium-sized endothermic and ecto-
thermic prey (Reynolds and Gerber 2012. J. Herpetol. 46:578–586).
On small islands, adults and juveniles are largely saurophagous
(Reynolds and Niemiller 2011. Herpetol. Rev. 42:290), or sea-
sonally prey on native or migratory songbirds (Schwartz and
Henderson 1991. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies:
Descriptions, Distributions, and Natural History. University of
Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida. 720 pp.; Tolson and Hender-
son 1993. The Natural History of West Indian Boas. R&A Publish-
ing Ltd., Taunton, UK. 68 pp.). Although these snakes consume a
variety of native prey species, no records exist of them consum-
ing introduced prey species.
At 2103 h on 15 March 2017, we found an adult female C.
c. chrysogaster (SVL = 757 mm) in the process of consuming
an adult Hemidactylus mabouia (Woodslave). The snake was
positioned at the base of a grass tussock, with 1/3 of the anterior
body length extended and coiled around the lizard (Fig. 1). The
observation occurred in heavily modified habitat near a series
of large buildings on Big Ambergris Cay, located on the Caicos
Bank, Turks and Caicos Islands. This island is privately owned
and undergoing development. Hence there are serious risks
for the introduction of invasive species. The Big Ambergris Cay
population of H. mabouia, first documented in 2011 (Reynolds
2011. Caribbean Herpetol. 28:1), remains restricted to buildings
on the island, and is not yet found in native vegetation. It is
possible that the population is being kept in check by predation,
as the boa population on this island is exceptionally dense
(Reynolds and Gerber 2012. J. Herpetol. 46:578–586).
R. GRAHAM REYNOLDS, Department of Biology, University of North
Carolina Asheville, Asheville, North Carolina 28804, USA (e-mail: greynold@
unca.edu); JOSEPH BURGESS, Guana Tolomato Matanzas National Estua-
rine Research Reserve, Ponte Vedra, Florida 32082, USA (e-mail: Joseph.
Burgess@dep.state..us); GEOR GE WATER S, Gwanda LLC, Saint Augustine,
Florida 32095, USA (e-mail: george@gwanda.com); GLENN P. GERBER, In-
stitute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global, Escondido, Cali-
fornia 92027, USA (e-mail: ggerber@sandiegozoo.org).
Fig. 1. Bungarus caeruleus scavenging on a dead Hemidactylus sp.
Fig. 1. Adult female Chilabothrus chrysogaster chrysogaster consum-
ing an adult Hemidactlyus maboiua, an introduced species, on Big
Ambergris Cay, Turks and Caicos Islands.
PHOTO BY JOSEPH BURGESS

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
858 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
COLUBER L ATERALIS (= MASTICOPHIS LATERALIS) (Striped
Racer). DIET. Coluber lateralis is an active-foraging diurnal
colubrid endemic to California and the northern Baja California
peninsula. Coluber lateralis is a generalist that preys upon a
wide variety of taxa, but lizards are the most common prey
(Ernst and Ernst 2003. Snakes of the United States and Canada,
Smithsonian Books, Washington, DC. 668 pp.). On 14 September
2008 and again on 5 September 2009, RD observed as individual
C. lateralis successfully captured and consumed hovering
Calypte anna (Anna’s Hummingbirds) as they fed at a residential
hummingbird feeder in Westlake Village on the south side of
the Simi Hills, Ventura County, California, USA (34.19221°N,
118.77354°W; WGS 84). On the first occasion the snake rapidly
swallowed a bird, and was photographed laying on the feeder
with a distended abdomen. On the second occasion RD obtained
photographs of the snake swallowing a bird (Fig. 1). Photographs
of both observations were deposited as digital photo vouchers
into the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History (LACM
PC 2135–2136).
Published avian prey of C. lateralis includes goldfinches
(Carduelis psaltria), orioles (Icterus glabula), and wrens (Shafer
and Hein 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:195; Ernst and Ernst, op.
cit.). However, to our knowledge this is the first report of any
hummingbird species in the diet of C. lateralis.
ROY DUNN, Roy Dunn Photography, Westlake Village, California
91362, USA (e-mail: hsfpix@gmail.com); MARK W. HERR, Tejon Ranch
Conservancy, 1037 Bear Trap Road, Lebec, California 93243, USA (e-mail:
mwherr@gmail.com).
CROTALUS HORRIDUS (Timber Rattlesnake). REPRODUC-
TION. Crotalus horridus is a large, heavy bodied, crotaline snake
that ranges across 30 states from Wisconsin south to Texas, east
to Florida and north to New Hampshire, USA (Brown 1993. SSAR
Hepetol. Circular 22:1–78). It has been extirpated from portions
of its range and is of conservation concern in many states due to
habitat modification and loss and persecution (Brown, op. cit.).
Conservation actions to protect and conserve C. horridus pop-
ulations in parts of its range include translocation (Sealy 1997.
Son. Herpetol. 10:94–99) and construction of artificial rooker-
ies and hibernacula (Brown, op. cit.), but the efficacy of such
measures is unclear (Griffith et al. 1989. Science 245:477–480;
Wolf et al. 1999. Conserv. Biol. 10:1142–1154). Here we report on
the reproductive characteristics of C. horridus from two sites in
north central Missouri, Crowder State Park (CSP) and Premium
Standard Farm (PSF). Crowder State Park, in Grundy County, is a
natural site that offers protection due to park regulations. Premi-
um Standard Farm Grundy and Daviess County, is a secure com-
mercial hog breeding facility with a patch of natural woodland
habitat surrounding a man-made reservoir with a rip rap dam.
Crotalus horridus utilize the artificial rip rap dam as a rookery
and for hibernation.
From March 2008 to September 2010 we captured six
pregnant C. horridus from the two sites (two from CSP; four from
PSF). Gravid females were held in the lab until parturition. All
snakes were returned to the site of capture within one week of
parturition. One additional litter was discovered without the
mother at PSF.
The six females averaged 86.98 cm (+/- 7.13 cm 1 SD) snout–
vent length (SVL) and 656.31 (+/- 89.39) g body mass. The smallest
female was 76.7 cm. Reproductive female size was similar to
other populations across the range (Fitch 1985. Occ. Pap. Mus.
Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas 118:1–11; Martin 1988. Catesbeiana
8:9–12; Martin 1993. J. Herpetol. 27:133–143). Females from CSP
were longer than at PSF (t-test; p < 0.001) and were heavier at
a given length (ANCOVA; p < 0.001). There were 49 offspring
produced with an average litter size of 7 (+/- 1.41). The sex ratio
of 33M:16F was significantly male biased (χ²; p = 0.0152). There
was no significant effect of maternal SVL on clutch size (ANOVA;
p = 0.358). Litter size at both sites was similar to those reported
throughout the range (Galligan and Dunson 1979. Biol. Conserv.
15:13–56; Fitch, op. cit.; Martin, op. cit.).
Average neonate size was 30.25 (+/- 2.27) cm SVL and 25.23
(+/- 5.85) g mass. There was no significant difference between
female and male neonates in SVL (t-test; p = 0.287) or mass (t-test;
p = 0.198). Neonate size was within the range reported across all
populations (Galligan and Dunson, op. cit.; Martin, op. cit.), but
smaller than those from the closest population in Kansas (Fitch,
op. cit.). Neonates from the natural site (CSP) were longer at a
given female body size (ANCOVA; p = 0.004) than those from
artificial rookeries and den sites at PSF. Our results indicate that
C. horridus are able to survive and reproduce utilizing artificial
rookeries and hibernacula (i.e., rip rap). However, C. horridus
at the more natural site (CSP) are larger and produce larger
offspring. The difference between two sites, all other things
being equal, indicates that artificial rookeries and hibernacula
can support C. horridus populations, although they may not be
optimal.
We thank the staff at Premium Standard Farms Scott-Colby
farm and Crowder State Park, especially L. Lash, J. Helton, and
A. Persell for logistical support, the Missouri Department of
Conservation and Missouri Department of Natural Resources for
permits, and Truman State University for IACUC approval and
financial support.
PETER J. MUELLEMAN, OCÉANE DA CUNHA, and CHAD E. MONT-
GOMERY, Department of Biology, Truman State University, Kirksville, Mis-
souri, USA (e-mail: chadmont@truman.edu).
DRYOCALAMUS NYMPHA (Indian Bridal Snake). REPRODUC-
TION. Few published observations exist on the reproductive
ecology of Dryocalamus nympha, a rare colubrid snake found in
India and Sri Lanka (Whitaker and Captain 2004. Snakes of India:
The Field Guide. Draco Books, Chennai. 479 pp.). Here I present
three records of neonate D. nympha from Tamilnadu, South In-
dia.
Fig. 1. Coluber lateralis swallowing a male Calypte anna (Anna’s
Hummingbird) that it seized in-flight.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 859
The first specimen (SVL = 16.2 cm, tail length [TL] = 6.4 cm; 223
ventrals, 82 subcaudals) was captured in a residence in Akkarai,
Chennai district on 17 March 2016. The second specimen (SVL
= 18.0 cm, TL = 7.2 cm; 209 ventrals, 71 subcaudals) was found
in the garden of a residence in Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram
district on 11 October 2016, 35 km S of the first location. Another
neonate (SVL = 16.9 cm, tail length = 6.8 cm; 214 ventrals, 79
subcaudals) was observed at Manimutharu, Tirunelveli district
on 16 August 2015 by Surya Narayanan. The only published
observation of copulation in free-ranging D. nympha was by
Krishnakumar (2014. Herpetol. Notes 7:337–338) who observed
a copulating pair during August 2013. The same author reported
a female with eggs found during August 2015 (Krishnakumar
et al. 2016. Entomol. Ornithol. Herpetol. 5: e120). Based on the
above observations, it is likely that D. nympha has an extended
reproductive season in this part of its range.
AJAY KARTI K, Madras Crocodile Bank Trust and Centre for Herpetolo-
gy, Post Bag No 4, Mamallapuram, 603104, India; e-mail: ajay@madrascroc-
odilebank.org.
ERYTHROLAMPRUS MILIARIS (Military Ground Snake). DIET.
Erythrolamprus miliaris is a small to medium-sized snake that
often preys on fishes and anurans (Dixon 1979. In Duellman [ed.],
Origin and Distribution of the Reptiles in Lowland Tropical Rain-
forests of South America, pp. 217–240. Monogr. Mus. Nat. Hist.
Univ. Kansas). The species occurs across South America (Uetz
[ed.], The Reptile Database, http://www.reptile-database.org, ac-
cessed June 10, 2017), usually in moist or aquatic habitats. Dur-
ing fieldwork in Monte Alegre municipality, State of Pará, Brazil
(1.17869ºS, 54.18683ºW; WGS 84), on 5 July 2014 at 2000 h, we
found a young male E. miliaris (Fig. 1A; LZATM 930) foraging in a
pond formed by a small spring. There were several Phyllomedusa
bicolor tadpoles in the pond, including some metamorphs (Fig.
1B–D). We found two whole P. bicolor tadpoles (length = 20 and
19 mm) in the snake’s stomach, as well as the mostly digested tail
of a third tadpole. Predation of E. miliaris on adult Phyllomedusa
frogs (Sazima 1994. J. Herpetol. 8:376–377) and eggs inside nests
(Figueiredo-de-Andrade and Kindlovits 2012. Herpetol. Notes
5:229–230) has been reported, but we are unaware of previous
reports of E. miliaris feeding on Phyllomedusa tadpoles.
RAUL DE PAULA DA S. FRÓIS, Instituto de Ciências e Tecnologia das
Águas (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Oeste do Pará, CEP: 68.040-460, San-
tarém, Pará, Brazil (e-mail: radulfrois@gmail.com); REUBER A. BRANDÃO,
Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação (LAFUC) - Departamento
de Engenharia Florestal - Universidade de Brasília, CEP: 70910-900, Brasília,
Distrito Federal, Brazil (e-mail: reuberbrandao@gmail.com); JOYCE CEL-
ERINO DE CARVALHO, Laboratório de Paleontologia, Universidade de
Brasília, CEP: 73300-000, Planaltina, Distrito Federal, Brazil (e-mail: joyce.
celerino@gmail.com).
ERYTHROLAMPRUS VIRIDIS (Green-snake). DEFENSIVE BE-
HAVIOR. Hooding behavior is an anti-predation mechanism
known in some elapid snakes of the Old World, characterized by
extending the anterior ribs and stretching the neck skin later-
ally (Greene 1997. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature.
University of California Press, Berkeley. 337 pp.). However, this
behavior also has been described in some genera of New World
snakes including Thamnodynastes (Franco et al. 2013. Zootaxa.
334:1–7), Hydrodynastes ( Young and Kardong 2010. J. Exp. Biol.
213:1521–1528), Xenodon (Kahn 2011. Herpetotropicos 6:25–26),
Heterodon (Edgren 1955. Herpetologica 11:105–117), and Eryth-
rolamprus (Menezes et al. 2015. Herpetol. Notes 8:291–293). On
27 February 2016 we recorded the first occurrence this behavior
in Erythrolamprus viridis (Fig. 1), a Neotropical dipsadid snake
with terrestrial and diurnal activity (Vanzolini et al. 1980. Répteis
das Caatingas. Academia Brasileira de Ciências, Rio de Janeiro.
161 pp.). The specimen was observed in a tree along a roadside
near the River Vaza-Barriz (10.6211°S, 37.7316°W; WGS 84), Mu-
nicipality of Pedra Mole, Sergipe, Brazil. When observed, it raised
the anterior part of its body and displayed a flattened nuchal re-
gion, stretching the neck skin laterally. We suggest this behavior
is a synapomorphy for the genus Erythrolamprus and serves a
defensive function in the presence of potential predators (Mene-
zes et al., op. cit.).
HUGO ANDRADE (e-mail: hugoandrade915@gmail.com) and EDU-
ARDO JOSÉ DOS REIS DIAS, Laboratório de Biologia e Ecologia de Ver-
tebrados, Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Sergipe
- Campus Prof. Alberto Carvalho, Av. Vereador Olímpio Grande, s/n - CEP
49500-000 - Itabaiana – SE, Brazil (e-mail: ejrdias@hotmail.com).
LAMPROPELTIS TRIANGULUM (Milksnake). PREDATION.
Lampropeltis triangulum is a medium-sized terrestrial colubrid
snake found in North American grasslands and forests (Ruane
et al. 2014. Syst. Biol. 63:231–250). It is thought to be a Batesian
mimic of venomous coralsnakes (genus Micrurus), although the
Fig. 1. A) Young male Erythrolamprus miliaris; B) Phyllomedusa bicol-
or swimming in the puddle; C) side view of one of the tadpoles taken
from the snake’s stomach; D) tadpoles found in the snake’s stomach.
Fig. 1. Erythrolamprus viridis displaying hooding defensive behavior.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
860 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
extent to which this is protective in allopatry is debated (Pfennig
and Mullen 2010. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B Biol. 277:2577–2585).
Known predators of this species include conspecifics, Lithobates
catesbeianus (Bullfrog), Toxostoma rufum (Brown Thrasher),
hawks (Buteo jamaicensis, B. nitidus), and an apparent attack
by a Mutsela nigripes (Black-footed Ferret; Ernst and Ernst 2002.
Snakes of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington D.C. 661 pp.). Here, we report a new predator
on L. triangulum—the opportunistically carnivorous mustelid
Neovison vison (Mink, formerly Mustela vison).
On 13 June 2013, at ca. 1400 h, one of us (TS) was hiking
the Ohio & Erie Canal Towpath along the Cuyahoga River
(41.48964°N, 81.69442°W; WGS 84) in Cleveland, Ohio, USA,
when he observed an N. vison running towards him along the
path carrying a snake in its mouth (Fig. 1). Once it was about 20
m away, it dropped the snake onto the path, abruptly turned, and
ran off into the underbrush. This allowed TS to photograph and
identify the deceased snake. After continuing on, TS was able to
observe the N. vison retrieving the snake from where it had been
dropped in the path.
Most studies of N. vison diet have either taken place in winter,
when snakes are inactive, or were conducted in parts of its range
uninhabited by snakes (Larivière 1999. Mammalian Species Ar-
chive 608:1–9). Reptiles made up a minor component (0–5%) of
N. vison diet in the few warm-season studies in temperate North
America (Hamilton 1940. J. Wildl. Manage. 4:80–84; Wilson 1954.
J. Wildl. Manage. 18:199–207; Arnold and Fritzell 1987. Can. J.
Zool. 65:2322–2324). Snakes in the genera Nerodia, Panthero-
phis, and Thamnophis are known to be consumed.
TIM SPUCKLER, 8213 Wyatt Rd., Broadview Heights, Ohio 44147, USA
(e-mail: tim@thirdeyeherp.com); ANDREW M. DURSO, Department of Bi-
ology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA (e-mail: amdurso@
gmail.com).
LEPTOPHIS AHAETULLA (Parrot Snake). DIET. On Novem-
ber 2002, in the Amolar region, Mato Grosso, Brazil (17.81666°S,
57.55000°W; WGS 84), we recorded two events of predation on
birds, Passer domesticus (House Sparrow) and Tangara palmarum
(Palm Tanager), by Leptophis ahaetulla. In the first event, we re-
corded an adult L. ahaetulla in the top (ca. 4 m) of a tree prey-
ing on a nest of P. domesticus with two nestlings (71.46 and 83.07
mm length). After the observation, the snake was captured and
deposited in the Collection Zoological of Reference of the Cam-
pus of Corumbá (CEUCH 2091). In the second event, an adult L.
ahaetulla (SVL = 703 mm; Tail length = 403 mm; 83.5 g) was found
preying on a T. palmarum. After a few minutes of observing the
predation event, the snake was collected, and was subsequently
marked and released. The diet of L. ahaetulla is composed pri-
marily of amphibians and lizards ( Vitt 1996. Herpetol. Nat. Hist.
4:69–76; Martins and Oliveira 1999. Herpetol. Nat. Hist. 6:78–150;
Albuquerque et al. 2007. J. Nat. Hist. 41:1237–1243). This is the
first record of L. ahaetulla preying on P. domesticus and on T. pal-
marum.
EDNA PAULINO DE ALCANTARA (e-mail: ednnapaulino@gmail.
com), CRISTIANA FERREIRA-SILVA, HEITOR TAVARES MACHADO,
and DRAUSIO HONORIO MORAIS, Laboratório de Herpetologia, Depar-
tamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Regional do Cariri - URCA,
Campus do Pimenta, Rua Cel. Antônio Luiz, 1161, Bairro do Pimenta, CEP
63105-100, Crato, Ceará, Brazil.
LIODYTES ALLENI (Striped Crayfish Snake). PREDATION.
Liodytes alleni (formerly Regina alleni) is a small semi-aquatic
natricine snake found in peninsular Florida and southeastern
Georgia, USA (Ernst and Ernst 2002. Snakes of the United States
and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 661
pp.). Predators of L. alleni include crayfish, large fishes, sirens,
alligators, other snakes (Coluber constrictor, Lampropeltis getula,
Agkistrodon piscivorus), river otters, raccoons, Red-shouldered
Hawks, Great Blue Herons, Great Egrets, and Sandhill Cranes
(Gibbons and Dorcas 2004. North American Watersnakes: A Nat-
ural History. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 438 pp.; Ernst and
Fig. 1. Neovison vison (Mink) carrying a dead Lampropeltis triangu-
lum (Milksnake) along a trail in Ohio, USA.
Fig. 1. Liodytes alleni being eaten by Mycteria americana.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 861
Ernst, op. cit.). Here we report three records of predation and one
record of attempted predation on L. alleni by three novel avian
predators.
At 1645 h on 5 March 2017, one of us (DM) saw and
photographed an adult L. alleni in the bill of a Mycteria americana
(Wood Stork) at Orlando Wetlands Park, Orange County, Florida
(28.580758°N, 80.9989167°W; WGS 84; Fig. 1). The M. americana
was standing in ca. 10 cm of water. The M. americana attempted
to swallow the L. alleni but the smooth scales of the snake
prevented the bill of the M. americana from gaining purchase.
The outcome of the interaction is unknown. Mycteria americana
eat mostly fishes, as well as crabs, insects, and anurans (Coulter
et al. 1999. In P. G. Rodewald [ed.], The Birds of North America
Online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York. DOI:
10.2173/bna.409), although there are records of M. americana
eating Nerodia erythrogaster (Plain-bellied Watersnake; Depkin
et al. 1992. Colon. Waterbirds 15:219–225), Nerodia floridana
(Florida Green Watersnake; Durso et al. 2017a. Herpetol. Rev.,
in press), and an unspecified “thick-bodied snake some twelve
inches long” (Rand 1956. Am. Midl. Nat. 55:96–100).
We present two records of predation on L. alleni by
Eudocimus albus ( White Ibis). At ca. 1300 h on 3 February 2017,
one of us (JM) observed and photographed an L. alleni being
eaten by an E. albus on the La Chua Trail at Paynes Prairie
Preserve State Park, Alachua County, Florida, USA (29.605978°N,
82.302639°W; WGS 84; Fig. 2A). The E. albus repeatedly shook
the L. alleni and slapped it against the ground, to which the L.
alleni responded by attempting to wrap its body around the bill
of the E. albus. After ca. 2 min the E. albus dropped L. alleni on
the ground, pecked its head aggressively, and then swallowed
it. At 0930 h on 10 February 2017, one of us (RH) observed and
photographed an L. alleni being eaten by an E. albus on the
La Chua Trail at Paynes Prairie Preserve State Park, Alachua
County, Florida, USA (29.605978°N, 82.302639°W; WGS 84; Fig.
2B). The E. albus was foraging in the only remaining water in a
drying wetland, alongside numerous other birds. It captured and
consumed an L. alleni. At the same site within 15 min, a second
E. albus caught and consumed a Seminatrix pygaea (Black
Swampsnake) under similar circumstances. The diet of E. albus
is comprised mostly of fishes, crustaceans, and aquatic insects,
although they also, rarely, eat other vertebrates, including frogs,
salamanders, lizards (Moore et al. 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:182),
and at least three species of snakes (“moccasins,” presumably A.
piscivorus; Baynard 1912. Wilson Bull. 24:167–169; Thamnophis
sirtalis; Eastern Gartersnake; Dorn et al. 2011. Ibis 153:323–335;
Seminatrix pygaea; Durso et al., in press. Herpetol. Rev.).
At ca. 1545 h on 11 November 2016, one of us (JM) saw and
photographed an L. alleni being captured by a Podilymbus
podiceps (Pied-billed Grebe) at Watertown Lake, Columbia
County, Florida (30.193795°N, 82.602697°W; WGS 84; Fig. 3).
The capture occurred out of sight among emergent vegetation
(mostly Pontedaria and Cyperaceae) along the shore. The P.
podiceps emerged onto the open water carrying the L. alleni in
its bill, hotly pursued by another P. podiceps. Both birds moved
away from the observer too quickly to determine the ultimate
outcome. Podilymbus podiceps are dietary opportunists that
mostly feed on crustaceans (especially crayfish), aquatic insects,
and fishes, as well as occasionally on leeches, snails, frogs and
tadpoles, and salamanders, including Ambystoma tigrinum
(Tiger Salamander) and Taricha granulosa (Rough-skinned
Newt), which proved lethal to three young P. podiceps (Storer
2000. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zoo. Univ. Michigan 188:1–100). This is
the second record of P. podiceps feeding on a snake; the other is
of an unidentified Liophis sp. in Brazil (Sick 1993. Birds in Brazil.
Princeton University Press, New Jersey. 703 pp.).
ANDREW M. DURSO, Department of Biology, Utah State University,
Logan, Utah 84322, USA (e-mail: amdurso@gmail.com); DAVID MARQUEZ
(e-mail: dmarquez.me@gmail.com), JOHN MIDDLETON (e-mail: John@
FrogmoreFocus.com), ROY HERRERA (e-mail: papi_roy@yahoo.com).
Fig. 2A–B. Liodytes alleni being eaten by Eudocimus albus.
PHOTO BY JOHN A. MIDDL ETON JR [TOP] PHOTO BY ROY H ERRERA [BOTTO M]
Fig. 3. Liodytes alleni being eaten by Podilymbus podiceps.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
862 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
MICRURUS CORALLINUS (Coralsnake). REPRODUCTION.
Coral snakes have a characteristic aposematic color pattern, but
their semifossorial habits (Campbell and Lamar 2004. The Ven-
omous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Cornell University
Press, Ithaca, New York. 870 pp.) makes it difficult to sight speci-
mens in the field. Micrurus corallinus has a wide distribution in
the Atlantic Forest biome of South America, preferentially in ar-
eas with high humidity, such as the Serra do Mar (Marques et al.
2006. South Amer. J. Herpetol. 1:114–120). This species displays
seasonal reproduction, concentrating its activities mainly during
the spring (Marques 1996. Amphibia-Reptilia 17:277–285), and
shows female-biased sexual size dimorphism in length, which
may be related to the absence of combat (Marques et al. 2013.
Herpetologica 69:58–66). Moreover, there is possibly a sexual ag-
gregation behavior where many males may compete for a female
(Almeida Santos et al. 2006. Herpetol. J. 16:371–376). Here we re-
port an observation, made by an amateur photographer, of the
first copulation report of M. corallinus in nature during summer
and the first photographic record of such behavior.
The snakes were found on 8 January 2016 at 1123 h, on a
pathway of Saco do Céu - Freguesia de Santana, near Japariz
beach in the municipality of Angra dos Reis – RJ, Brazil, 10 m
from a small pool of water. The female was identified by greater
SVL and had its body fully stretched along the path. The male’s
tail curved over the female’s tail in copula (Fig. 1). The snakes
tried to flee when touched with a stick, but could not because
they were linked by the tails. The copulation was observed during
the day, which reinforces the diurnal activity of this species
(Marques 1996, op. cit.). The coral snakes were on the surface
of the ground between shrubs and rocks, partially hidden in
the leaf litter. The copulation period described for this species
is restricted to spring, from October to November (Marques et
al. 2013, op. cit.), so the observation of summer mating implies
that other reproductive events also may occur later. On the
coast, due to the hot weather, breeding season may be extended
further, which was observed for other females of this species (E.
Bassi, pers. obs.). Thus, oviposition may occur in late summer
and hatching in early autumn, increasing the hatching period of
offspring during the dry season.
We thank Pedro Carvalho for providing the photo, Cristiene
Rodrigues Martins and Rogério Botion Lopes for preparing
photo, and Ivan Nery Cardoso for English review.
SELMA MARIA DE ALMEIDA-SANTOS, Instituto Butantan, Avenida
Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil (e-mail: selma.san-
tos@butantan.gov.br); RAFAELA Z. COETI, Faculdade de Medicina Veter-
inária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, Departamento de Cirurgia,
Av. Orlando Marques de Paiva, Cidade Universitária, 8705508-000, São
Paulo, SP, Brazil (e-mail: coeti_rafaela@usp.br); ERICK A. BASSI, Instituto
de Biociências, Letras e Ciências Exatas, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rua
Cristóvão Colombo, 2265, 15054-000 - São José do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil (e-
mail: masterbassi@hotmail.com).
MICRURUS IBIBOBOCA (Caatinga Coralsnake). DEFENSIVE
BEHAVIOR. Hooding behavior is an anti-predator mechanism
characterized by extending the anterior ribs to stretch the neck
skin laterally. It is best known in elapid snakes of the Old World
(Young and Kardong 2010. J. Exp. Biol. 213:1521–1528), howev-
er it is phylogenetically and geographically widespread among
snakes (Carpenter and Ferguson 1977. In Gans and Tinkle [eds].
Biology of the Reptilia. Ecology and Behaviour A, pp. 335–555.
Academic Press, London; Myers 1986. Amer. Mus. Novit. 2853:1–
12). In particular, this behavior has been described in some
genera of New World xenodontine and dipsadine snakes, such
as Erythrolamprus (Myers, op. cit.; Menezes et al. 2015. Her-
petol. Notes. 8:291–293), Thamnodynastes (Franco et al. 2013.
Zootaxa 334:1–7), Philodryas ( Jara and Pincheira-Donoso 2015.
Anim. Biol. 65:73–79), Hydrodynastes (Young and Kardong, op.
cit.), Xenodon (Kahn 2011. Herpetotropicos 6:25–26), and Ninia
(Greene 1975. Amer. Midl. Nat. 93:478–484; Henderson and Ho-
evers 1977. J. Herpetol. 11:106–108).
On 7 March 2013 we observed this behavior in Micrurus
ibiboboca, a terrestrial and nocturnal elapid of the Neotropics
(Vanzolini et al. 1980. Répteis das Caatingas. Academia Brasileira
de Ciências, Rio de Janeiro. 161 pp.). The M. ibiboboca was seen in
a fragment of Atlantic Forest in National Park Serra de Itabaiana
(10.7488°S, 37.3419°W; WGS 84), Municipality of Itabaiana,
Sergipe, Brazil. It raised the anterior portion its body when we
approached, flattening the nuchal area, and stretching the neck
skin laterally (Fig. 1). Although neck-flattening displays have
been described from coralsnake mimics such as Ninia sebae (Red
Coffee Snake; Greene, op. cit.; Henderson and Hoevers, op. cit.),
this is the first observation of hooding behavior in the diverse
genus Micrurus, a group that is more well-known for relying
on aposematic coloration for defense (Smith 1975. Science
187:759–760; Smith 1977. Nature 265:535–536). We suggest
that this behavior could be a synapomorphy for elapid snakes
and another way for coralsnakes and their mimics to enhance
aposematic signals.
Fig. 1. Micrurus corallinus in copulation (arrow). The female is
stretched out, and the male is positioned above the female with his
tail wrapped around hers.
Fig. 1. Micrurus ibiboboca displaying defensive hooding behavior.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 863
CLEVERTON DA SILVA (e-mail: silvac.bio@gmail.com), HUGO AN-
DRADE (e-mail: hugoandrade915@gmail.com), and EDUARDO J. R. DIAS,
Laboratório de Biologia e Ecologia de Vertebrados, Departamento de Bio-
ciências, Universidade Federal de Sergipe - Campus Prof. Alberto Carvalho,
Av. Vereador Olímpio Grande, s/n - CEP 49500-000 - Itabaiana – SE, Brazil
(e-mail: ejrdias@hotmail.com).
NERODIA FLORIDANA (Florida Green Watersnake). PREDA-
TION. Nerodia floridana is a medium-sized semi-aquatic natri-
cine snake found in the southeastern USA (Ernst and Ernst 2002.
Snakes of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington D.C. 661 pp.). Relatively few records of pre-
dation on N. floridana have been reported in the literature, in-
cluding that by American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis),
Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) and conspecifics (in cap-
tivity; Van Hyning 1931. Copeia 1931:59–60), river otters (Lontra
canadensis), as well as “large fish” and “predatory birds” (Ernst
and Ernst, op. cit.). Krysko (2002. Am. Midl. Nat. 148:102–114)
found the skeleton of a N. floridana under a Buteo lineatus (Red-
shouldered Hawk) roost. The most comprehensive recent review
does not list any specific predators (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004.
North American Watersnakes: A Natural History. University of
Oklahoma Press, Norman. 438 pp.), although it is generally pre-
sumed that wading birds are among the potential predators of
most semi-aquatic snake species. Here we report three records
of predation on N. floridana by wading birds.
At 1040 h on 25 February 2017, one of us (LS) saw and
photographed an adult N. floridana (HerpMapper173068) being
eaten by a Mycteria americana (Wood Stork) at Sweetwater
Wetlands Park, Alachua County, Florida, USA (29.61841°N,
82.32692°W; WGS 84). The M. americana was standing in ca. 15
cm of water near the bank of a permanent wetland with moderate
emergent vegetation, mostly reeds (Fig. 1). It consumed the
snake, which appeared to have had its head crushed and was
still moving but not actively trying to escape, within 5 min.
Mycteria americana eat mostly fishes, as well as crabs, insects,
and anurans (Coulter et al. 1999. In P. G. Rodewald [ed.], The
Birds of North America Online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology,
Ithaca, New York. DOI: 10.2173/bna.409), although there is at
least one record of one eating a Nerodia erythrogaster (Plain-
bellied Watersnake; Depkin et al. 1992. Colon. Waterbirds
15:219–225) and another of one capturing an unspecified “thick-
bodied snake some twelve inches long” (Rand 1956. Am. Midl.
Nat. 55:96–100).
At 1148 h on 17 December 2016, one of us (SL) saw and
photographed an adult N. floridana being eaten by a Botaurus
lentiginosus (American Bittern) at Lake Apopka, Orange
County, Florida, USA (28.68300°N, 81.60063°W; WGS 84). The B.
lentiginosus was standing on the edge of thick vegetation next
to a canal (Fig. 2). It consumed the snake, which was alive and
struggling, within 4 min, dipping it in the water a few times.
The diet of B. lentiginosus consists mainly insects, amphibians,
crayfish, and small fishes and mammals; it has also been
reported to eat gartersnakes (Thamnophis sp.; Gabrielson 1914.
Wilson Bull. 87:51–68; Ingram 1941. Auk 58:253), watersnakes
(Nerodia sp.; Lowther et al. 2009. In P. G. Rodewald [ed.], The
Birds of North America Online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology,
Ithaca, New York. DOI: 10.2173/bna.18), and Seminatrix pygaea
(Black Swampsnake; Durso et al. 2017. Herpetol. Rev. in press).
At 0833 h on 6 June 2015, one of us (RL) saw and photographed
an adult N. floridana being eaten by an Ardea herodias (Great
Blue Heron) at the Circle B Bar Reserve, Polk County, Florida,
USA (27.99009°N, 81.870679°W; WGS 84; Fig. 3). The predation
event occurred in ca. 15 cm deep water with significant aquatic
vegetation. Ardea herodias are dietary generalists that feed
mostly on fishes, but also eat invertebrates, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds (Vennesland and Butler 2011. In
P. G. Rodewald [ed.], The Birds of North America. Cornell Lab of
Ornithology, Ithaca, New York. DOI: 10.2173/bna.25). Although
few quantitative data are available, mostly from outside the range
of semi-aquatic snakes, A. herodias are undoubtedly frequent
predators of semi-aquatic snakes.
ANDREW M. DURSO, Department of Biology, Utah State University,
Logan, Utah 84322, USA (e-mail: amdurso@gmail.com); LUKE SMITH,
Fig. 1. Nerodia floridana being eaten by Mycteria americana.
Fig. 2. Nerodia floridana being eaten by Botaurus lentiginosus.
Fig. 3. Nerodia floridana being eaten by Ardea herodias.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
864 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA (e-mail: smithsqrd@gmail.com); STEVEN
LONG (e-mail: stevenlongphotography@gmail.com); RICK LOTT (e-mail:
ricklott012@gmail.com).
OLIGODON TAENIATUS (Striped Kukri Snake). ENDOPAR-
ASITE. Oligodon taeniatus is known to occur from parts of
Thailand, Paksé, Champasak Provinces, Laos, Cambodia, and
Vietnam (Das 2010. A Field Guide to the Reptiles of South-east
Asia, Myanmar Thailand Laos Cambodia, Vietnam. Peninsular
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali. New Holland
Publishers, London, UK. 376 pp.). We know of no reports of en-
doparasites from O. taeniatus. In this note we establish the initial
helminth list for O. taeniatus.
One O. taeniatus from Don Khong Island (14.11739°N,
105.85548°E; WGS 84), Champasak Province, southern Laos
was collected on 3 December 2016. On external examination,
two dozen bumps with coiled helminths were noted under the
integument. Small incisions were made through which helminths
were removed (Fig. 1). The helminths were preserved in 70%
ethanol and shipped to CRB for identification. The O. taeniatus
was subsequently released. On the basis of morphology (white,
wrinkled, ribbon-shaped unsegmented strobila approximately
25 mm in length; anterior end rounded with suggestions of
sucking grooves that are present in the scolex of Spirometra),
the helminths were identified as sparagnum (Smyth 1976.
Introduction to Animal Parasitology, 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ.
Press, UK. 549 pp.). The sparagnum was sent to the Harold W.
Manter Parasitology Laboratory, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Nebraska, USA, as HWML 99820.
A sparagnum is a larval form (plerocercoid) of a Spirometra
tapeworm (Smyth, op. cit.). The O. taeniatus likely became
infected with the sparagnum by eating infected prey; frogs or
lizards are known parts of their diet (Das, op. cit.). No further
development will occur in the O. taeniatus, which would have
served as a transport (paratenic) host until it was eaten by a
carnivore in which development to the adult Spirometra would
have occurred. The sparagnum in O. taeniatus represents a new
host record.
Export of collected samples was done under export permit
number 0331. This work was supported by the Slovak Research
and Development Agency under the contract no. APVV-15-0147.
DANIEL JABLONSKI, Comenius University in Bratislava, Department
of Zoology Bratislava, Slovakia (e-mail: daniel.jablonski@balcanica.cz);
CHARLES R. BURSEY, Pennsylvania State University, Department of Biol-
ogy, Shenango Campus, Sharon, Pennsylvania 16146, USA (e-mail: cxb13@
psu.edu); JANA CHRISTOPHORYOVÁ, Comenius University in Bratislava,
Department of Zoology Bratislava, Slovakia (e-mail: christophoryova@
gmail.com); VINH QUANG LUU, Vietnam National University of Forestry,
Department of Wildlife, Xuan Mai, Chuong My, Hanoi, Vietnam (e-mail:
qvinhfuv@yahoo.com.au); STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, De-
partment of Biology, Whittier, California 90608, USA (e-mail: sgoldberg@
whittier.edu).
OPHEODRYS VERNALIS (=LIOCHLOROPHIS VERNALIS)
(Smooth Greensnake). FIR E MOR TALIT Y AND P HENO LOGY. On
11 April 2017, we discovered two Opheodrys vernalis (total lengths
= 31 and 39 cm; Fig. 1) deceased among ashes, along with one de-
ceased Thamnophis sirtalis (Common Gartersnake; total length =
63 cm), following a prescribed burn to control woody encroach-
ment in the flood plain of the Platte River on Shoemaker Island,
Hall County, Nebraska, USA (40.796 60°N, 98.4697 8°W, WGS 84;
597 m elev.). The long rectangular burn consisted of 0.26 ha (40
× 650 m) of shrub-encroached, lowland tallgrass prairie bordered
on the north by the Platte River. A pre-burn assessment of veg-
etation noted extensive encroachment by Eastern Red Cedar
(Juni perus vi rgini ana) and American Plum (Prunus americana).
The burn unit was largely dominated by senesced Big Bluestem
(Andropogon gerardii) with emerging green vegetation that in-
cluded Western Marbleseed (Onosmodium molle) and Kentucky
Bluegrass (Poa prat ensis). The area had predominantly sandy
soils and also contained a significant amount of Brittle Prickly
Pear Cactus (Opuntia fragilis). The controlled burn was a back-
ing and flanking fire that covered the unit in about 35 min begin-
ning at 1404 h. The burn was relatively hot, leaving little remain-
ing vegetation; relative humidity at time of ignition was 39% and
ambient temperature was 16°C. Our observations represent the
first recorded mortality for O. vernalis as a result of a prairie fire
(Ernst and Ernst 2003. Snakes of the United States and Canada.
Smithsonian Books, Washington, D.C. 680 pp.) and an in-depth
description of habitat for this species in Nebraska (Ballinger et al.
2010. Amphibians and Reptiles of Nebraska. Rusty Lizard Press,
Oro Valley, Arizona. 400 pp.). Our observations also represent the
earliest reported records of activity in Nebraska, as little is known
about the phenology of O. vernalis in the state (Ballinger et al.
2010, op. cit.; Fogell 2010. A Field Guide to the Amphibians and
Fig. 1. Oligodon taeniatus from southern Laos infected by Spirometra
sp.
Fig. 1. One of two Opheodrys vernalis collected following a controlled
burn on 11 April 2017 at Shoemaker Island, Hall County, Nebraska.
Left: Ventral side of snake placed next to cm ruler. Right: Dorsal side
of individual upon collection in situ.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 865
Reptiles of Nebraska. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. vi +
158 pp.). Research from Wisconsin and throughout most of its
range indicates an active period from mid-April to October ( Vogt
1981. Natural History of Amphibians and Reptiles of Wisconsin.
Milwaukee Public Museum. 205 pp.; Ernst and Ernst 2003, op.
cit.). The earliest prior state record was collected on 4 June 1983
in Merrick County, 0.8 km S, 13.7 km E of Palmer, Nebraska (Uni-
versity of Nebraska State Museum ZM#8580). The latest specimen
collection date for O. vernalis in Nebraska was 15 October 2011
from Phelps County (Geluso 2012. Collinsorum 1:3–6).
We thank T. E. Labedz at the University of Nebraska State
Museum for museum related matters associated with this
research as well as T. Smith, B. Krohn, and B. Winter for their
expert management of the controlled burn.
ANDREW J. CAVEN (e-mail: acaven@cranetrust.org) and JACOB
SALTER, Crane Trust, 6611 W Whooping Crane Drive, Wood River, Nebras-
ka, USA (e-mail: jsalter@cranetrust.org); KEITH GELUSO, Department of
Biology, University of Nebraska at Kearney, Kearney, Nebraska, USA (e-mail:
gelusok1@unk.edu).
PANTHEROPHIS ALLEGHANIENSIS (Eastern Ratsnake). FOR-
AGING. Pantherophis alleghaniensis are well-known predators of
birds and their eggs (DeGregorio et al 2014. J. Avian Biol. 45:325–
333). Some birds incorporate snake sheds into the construction
of their nests, the function of which is not entirely clear (Medlin
and Risch 2006. Condor 108:963–965; Trnka and Prokop 2011.
Ibis 153:627–630).
We documented predation of a Thryothorus ludovicianus
(Carolina Wren) nest containing a shed of a Coluber constrictor
(Racer) by a P. alleghaniensis. The nest was located inside the
carport of a private residence in Alachua County, Florida, USA
(29.658926°N, 82.379202°W; WGS 84), in a folded lawn chair (Fig.
1A). The nest was discovered on 16 March 2016, the first egg laid
on 26 March, and the 4th and final egg laid on 29 March. The
snake shed was added between 19 March and 14 April, when the
eggs hatched (Fig. 1B; T. ludovicianus often adds nest material,
including shed snake skins, after incubation has begun; Haggerty
and Morton 2014. In P. G. Rodewald [ed.], The Birds of North
America. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York. DOI:
10.2173/bna.188). The predation event occurred on 16 April at
ca. 2030 h, consistent with the idea that P. alleghaniensis often
depredate bird nests after dark (DeGregorio et al. 2015. Ethology
121:1225–1234).
Most sheds incorporated into bird nests and identified were
from widespread, generalist species such as P. alleghaniensis,
C. constrictor, C. flagellum (Coachwhip), and Thamnophis sp.
(gartersnakes); Miller and Lanyon 2014. In P. G. Rodewald [ed.],
The Birds of North America. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca,
New York. DOI: 10.2173/bna.300), not to snake-eating specialists
like Lampropeltis; thus, there is no obvious mechanism by
which this adaptation might deter snake predators. Instead,
because snake sheds contain skin-derived semiochemicals used
as pheromones for communication (Mason and Parker 2010. J.
Comp. Physiol. A 196:729–749) and snake sheds in active bird
nests deteriorate much more slowly than those in artificial nests
(Medlin and Risch, op. cit.), it is possible that P. alleghaniensis
and other nest-depredating snakes could use olfactory as well
as visual cues to locate nests that contact snake sheds (Mullin
and Cooper 1998. Am. Midl. Nat. 140:397–401). The possible risk
of providing chemical cues to snake predators suggests that the
benefits to birds of incorporating snake sheds into their nests
must be substantial.
LUKE SMITH, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA (e-mail: smithsqrd@
gmail.com); ANDREW M. DURSO, Department of Biology, Utah State Uni-
versity, Logan, Utah 84322, USA (e-mail: amdurso@gmail.com).
PHILODRYAS CHAMISSONIS (Chilean Green Racer). DIET.
Philodryas chamissonis is a medium-sized, oviparous, diurnal
and predominantly terrestrial colubrid. It is endemic to Chile
and is usually found in dry and warm environments such as
grasslands and rocky slopes (Demangel 2016. Reptiles en Chile.
Fauna Nativa Ediciones. 619 pp.). Philodryas chamissonis has a
generalist diet, including different taxa of small vertebrates, but
particularly lizards (Sepulveda et al. 2006. Herpetol. Rev. 37:224–
225; Machado-Filho 2015. Master’s Thesis, Paulista State Univer-
sity, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo State, Brazil. 99 pp.). Here,
we report predation by P. chamissonis upon Liolaemus tenuis
(Thin Tree Lizard), a small, diurnal, and predominantly arboreal
lizard (Demangel, op. cit.).
Fig. 1. A) Nest of Thryothorus ludovicianus (Carolina Wren) shortly
after depredation by Pantherophis alleghaniensis (Eastern Ratsnake).
B) Nest of Thryothorus ludovicianus (Carolina Wren) constructed
with shed skin of Coluber constrictor (Racer). Identification of the
shed was based on geography, size, and the presence of unkeeled
dorsal scales.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
866 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
Around noon on 31 December 2012, ES-L found an adult P.
chamissonis ingesting an adult male L. tenuis on leaf litter under
the creeper plant Dioscorea brachybotrya (Fig. 1). The observa-
tion was made in a garden of a house located in Río Blanco, Los
Andes, Valparaiso Province, Chile (32.9106°S, 70.3059°W, WGS 84;
1429 m elev.). The lizard was being ingested by the head, with
its limbs and body still exposed, and its tail was partially autoto-
mized. A few minutes after being spotted, the snake released the
lizard and escaped. To our knowledge this is the first record of P.
chamissonis preying on L. tenuis, despite these two species being
sympatric along most of their geographical distributions in Chile
(Demangel, op. cit.). Philodryas chamissonis and L. tenuis are
mostly terrestrial and arboreal, respectively, and the observed
predatory event may reflect the flexibility in the microhabitat use
by both species.
CR-O thanks the fellowship CONICYT-PCHA Doctorado Na-
cional/2015 21150353.
CLAUDIO REYES-OLIVARES, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas,
Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 70005, Correo 7,
Santiago, Chile (e-mail: creyeso@ug.uchile.cl); EMILIO SEPULVEDA-
LUNA, Liceo Mixto Los Andes, Código Postal 2100480, Los Andes, Chile
(e-mail: emilio.sepulvedal@yahoo.es); ANTONIETA LABRA, Centre for
Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Bioscience,
University of Oslo, P.O.Box 1066 Blinder, N-0316, Oslo, Norway (e-mail:
a.l.lillo@bio.uio.no).
PYTHON MOLURUS (Indian Rock Python). PREDATION.
Python molurus is a very large pythonid snake found in southern
Asia (Wallach et al. 2014. Snakes of the World: A Catalogue of
Living and Extinct Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 1227
pp.), ranging in size from ca. 60 cm at hatching to > 6 m as adults
(Dorcas and Willson 2011. Invasive Pythons in the United States:
Ecology of an Introduced Predator. University of Georgia Press,
Athens. 156 pp.). Its close relative, P. bivittatus (Burmese Python;
Jacobs et al. 2009. Sauria 31:5–11) has been introduced to
southern Florida, USA (Dorcas and Willson, op. cit.) where they
are occasionally eaten by Alligator mississippiensis (American
Alligator). Documentation of predators of P. molurus in its native
range is almost non-existent (Dorcas and Willson, op. cit.).
Krishna (2002. Herpetol. Rev. 33:141) reported two instances of
predation by Ophiophagus hannah (King Cobra). Other known
sources of mortality in the wild are trampling by ungulates and
attempting to consume Hystrix indica (Indian Porcupine), as well
as possibly predation by Canis aureus (Golden Jackal), Hyena
hyena (Striped Hyena), large eagles (Aquila spp.), and predation
of the eggs by Varanus bengalensis (Bengal Monitor Lizard;
Bhupathy and Vijayan 1989. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86:381–
387). Here we report two records of predation on P. molurus by
Spilornis cheela (Crested Serpent Eagle), a medium-sized bird of
prey found in forests across tropical Asia.
At 0808 h on 27 December 2011, two of us (VKG and BG)
saw and photographed a ca. 1.5-m P. molurus being eaten by
an S. cheela at Dudhwa National Park, Lakhimpur Kheri, Uttar
Pradesh, India (28.49948°N, 80.79961°W; WGS 84), ca. 2.5 km S
of the border with Nepal. The S. cheela was perched on a tree
branch ca. 4–5 m above the ground at a distance of ca. 45 m (Fig.
1A). The mahout driving our elephant maneuvered us within 6 m
of the S. cheela, which continued to feed calmly on the P. molurus
Fig. 1. Philodryas chamissonis preying on Liolaemus tenuis at a hu-
man settlement in the locality of Río Blanco, Los Andes, Valparaiso’s
Province, Chile. The red arrow indicates the partial automization of
the lizard’s tail.
Fig. 1. Python molurus predation by Crested Serpent Eagles (Spilor-
nis cheela) in India: A) Dudhwa National Park, Uttar Pradesh; and B)
Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 867
for 22 min. The mahout reported never having seen this kind of
predation in >17 years of working for the park.
At 0722 h on 12 October 2013, one of us (BG) saw and
photographed a juvenile P. molurus being eaten by an S. cheela at
Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan, India
(26.02944°N, 76.44339°W; WGS 84). The S. cheela was perched
in a tree clutching a dead P. molurus in its talons (Fig. 1B). The
head had already been consumed, and without the head the P.
molurus was ca. 1.2 m in length. This S. cheela was disturbed and
flew away with the kill within 8 min. Forest officials and local
wildlife enthusiasts also reported never having observed this
kind of predation before.
Spilornis cheela eat mostly snakes, including Oligodon
arnensis, Dendrelaphis tristis, Xenochrophis piscator, Ahaetulla
nasuta, Naja naja, Daboia russellii (Gokula 2012. Taprobanica
4:77–82), Cyclophiops major, Ptyas mucosa, Trimeresurus
stejnegeri, and Naja atra (Chou et al. 2004. In Chancellor and
Meyburg [eds.], Raptors Worldwide, pp. 557–568. World Working
Group on Birds of Prey/MME-BirdLife, Hungary, Berlin.). This is
the first report of an S. cheela feeding on a pythonid snake.
VINOD K. GOEL (e-mail: vinodkumargoel394@gmail.com), BHARAT
GOEL (e-mail: bharat@wildnest.in); ANDREW M. DURSO, Department of
Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA (e-mail: amdurso@
gmail.com).
SIBYNOMORPHUS NEUWIEDI (Neuwiedi’s Snail-eating
Snake). CHROMATIC ANOMALY. Chromatic anomalies in snakes
are divided into two main groups: I) aberrant coloration and II)
aberrant dorsal pattern (Bérnils et al. 1991. Rev. Biotemas 3:129–
132). Reports of such anomalies have been published sporadi-
cally since the beginning of the 20th century (e.g., Amaral 1925.
Contrib. Harvard Inst. Trop. Biol. Med. 2:44–46). The rarity of
such anomalies is attributed to stabilizing selection against them
(Amaral 1932. Mem. Inst. Butantan. 7:81–87). However, despite
their rarity, reports of chromatic anomalies are important to bet-
ter understand the development and evolution of color pattern
variation in snakes (Lema 1960. Iheringia [Zool.] 13:20–27).
The South American genus Sibynomorphus (Dipsadidae)
comprises eleven species of medium-sized, gastropod-eating,
nocturnal snakes found west of the Andes in northern Peru and
southwestern Ecuador, and east of the Andes south of the Ama-
zon basin in South America (Cadle 2007. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
158:183–283; Costa and Bérnils 2015. Herpetol. Bras. 4:75–93).
Several cases of type I anomalies are reported in the literature,
including both xanthism and albinism in S. mikanii (originally
misidentified as S. turgidus; Amaral 1934. Mem. Inst. Butantan.
8:151–153; Sazima and Di-Bernardo 1991. Mem. Inst. Butantan
53:167–173), and albinism in S. neuwiedi (Sazima and Di-Bernar-
do, op. cit.) and S. ventrimaculatus (Abegg et al. 2014. Herpetol.
Notes 7:475–476).
Here we report an adult female S. neuwiedi (Museu de Zoo-
logia João Moojen [MZUFV ] 1682; total length = 367 mm) from
Mata do Paraíso (municipality of Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil:
20.8023°S, 42.8585°W, WGS 84; 750 m elev.) with a type II chro-
matic anomaly (Bérnils et al., op. cit.; Fig. 1). Non-anomalous
individuals have a dorsal pattern of dark transverse blotches
that decrease in thickness and regularity from head to tail, usu-
ally separated by lighter, wider interspaces and alternating with
subtle longitudinal blotches. The ventral pattern is typically
homogeneously scattered lateral dark pigments against a light
background (Franco 1994. Dissertação de Mestrado, Instituto de
Biociências, PUCRS. 148 pp.). Instead, MZUFV 1682 has two rows
of fused blotches that are much longer than they are wide, with
reduced interspaces, one above and the other below a continu-
ous thin dark lateral line. The ventral region is almost completely
depigmented.
Some studies suggest that type I chromatic anomalies might
play a role in the ecology of the carrying animal, especially on
the ecology of fossorial or nocturnal foraging behavior snakes
(e.g., Sazima and Di-Bernardo 1991, op. cit.; Silva et al. 2010, op.
cit.; Sueiro et al. 2010, op. cit.; Abegg et al. 2014, op. cit.; Abegg et
al. 2015, op. cit.). However, little is known about the influence of
type II chromatic anomalies, if any, on snake ecology. We thank
Henrique C. Costa for a critical reading and helpful comments
and Katie Lempke for the English review.
LARISSA F. ARRUDA (e-mail: larissaf.arruda@gmail.com), HENRIQUE
FOLLY, JHONNY J. M. GUEDES, and RENATO N. FEIO, Museu de Zoolo-
gia João Moojen, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade Federal
de Viçosa. CEP 36570-000, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
SIPHLOPHIS LEUCOCEPHALUS (Common Spotted Night
Snake). DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOR. Defense strategies are quite
diverse among snakes (Greene 1988. In Gans and Huey [eds.],
Biology of the Reptilia, Volume 16, Ecology B: Defense and Life
History, pp. 1–152. Alan R. Liss Inc., New York). Most tactics
are used against visually oriented predators and are related to
habitat. Terrestrial species display defensive behaviors against
Fig. 1. Sibynomorphus neuwiedi (MZUFV 1682) with a type II chro-
matic anomaly. A) Dorsal view; B) ventral view; and C) lateral view.
Fig. 1. Siphlophis leucocephalus forming a ball and hiding its head.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
868 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
predators that normally come from above, whereas arboreal
species must protect themselves from threats that come from
several directions (Greene 1979. Experientia 35:747–748).
Snakes as diverse as boids, colubrids, and elapids form
their bodies into a ball and hide their head when threatened
(Lewis and Lewis 2010. Herpetozoa 23:79–81). This behavior is
widespread within dipsadine colubrids (Cadle and Myers 2003.
fiAm. Mus. Novit. 3409:1–47). Within the genus Siphlophis, this
behavior is known from two species: S. cervinus (Martins 1996.
Anais de Etologia 14:185–199) and S. compressus (Sena et al.
2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:315–316), and may represent evidence
of phylogenetic conservatism in the defense strategies of this
group (Martins 1996, op. cit.). Siphlophis leucocephalus is a
semiarboreal species with nocturnal habits (Argôlo 2004. As
Serpentes Dos Cacauais do Sudeste da Bahia. Editus, Ilhéus,
Bahia. 260 pp.) and endemic to the Brazilian states of Bahia,
Tocantins, and Minas Gerais (Thomassen et al. 2015. Check List
11:1637). Here we report ball-forming and head-hiding defensive
behavior from an individual S. leucocephalus found in a cocoa
plantation shaded by Atlantic rainforest on the Universidade
Estadual de Santa Cruz campus (14.79547°S, 39.17251°W; WGS
84), municipality of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil. The S. leucocephalus
hid its head amid the body when it was not given an opportunity
to escape, holding that position when it was touched with a
stick (Fig. 1). When there was the possibility of escape, the S.
leucocephalus hid beneath the foliage or moved around actively.
BRUNO TEXEIRA DE CARVALHO (e-mail: teixeirabruno395@gmail.
com), LEILDO MACHADO CARILO FILHO(e-mail:leildocarilo@gmail.
com),ANTÔNIO JORGE SUZART ARGÔLO, Departamento de Ciências
Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA,
Brazil. Laboratório de Herpetologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológi-
cas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil (e-
mail:ajargolo@gmail.com).
TROPIDOCLONION LINEATUM (Lined Snake), THAMNOPHIS
SIRTALIS (Common Gartersnake). REFUGIA AND MORTAL-
ITY. On 22 January 2017, six Tropidoclonion lineatum and three
Thamnophis sirtalis where found deceased and frozen near and
within a partially overturned cow patty (Fig. 1) in a grazed pasture
on Mormon Island, Hall County, Nebraska, USA (40.79591°N,
98.42111°W, WGS 84; 595 m elev.). The island is approximately
1100 ha of sub-irrigated wet meadow and tallgrass prairie habi-
tat bordered on the north and south by channels of the Platte
River. A potential hibernaculum was located 3 m west of the cow
patty in a burrow (about 12 cm in diameter) where another de-
ceased T. lineatum was found in frozen mud near the opening
(Fig. 2). Abutting the patty was a small mammal midden that was
composed of senesced grass blades and held the shed skin of a
T. lineatum. All T. sirtalis (total lengths 38–58 cm) were found
relatively intact, whereas all T. lineatum (total lengths 18–24 cm)
carcasses demonstrated some tearing and damage. Within the
cow patty, hundreds of frozen isopods (Armadillidiidae) were
also found. The ground below the patty was thawed, whereas
the ground surrounding the patty was frozen. Ten additional cow
patties were flipped within 5 m of the suspected burrow hiber-
naculum, but all lacked any sign of snakes. Temperatures were
highly variable during January 2017 (min. = -23°C, max = 15°C,
mean = -3°C), with periods of sustained warmth well above aver-
age temperatures, which may have prompted early emergence
from brumation.
We suspect that the cow patty was used as an emergency
refugium offering physical protection from quickly falling
temperatures following premature emergence from hibernation.
Environmental insulation has been demonstrated to promote
survival in T. sirtalis by slowing the rate of ice formation within
the snake’s body, preventing damage from rapid expansion
(Costanzo et al. 1988. Cryo-Letters 9:380–385). Microbial
thermogenesis would have sustained a higher-than-ambient
temperature within the manure, possibly attracting the snakes
to the cow patty (James 1928. J. Bacteriol. 15:117). As a food
source, the isopods may have initially drawn T. lineatum and T.
sirtalis to the manure microsite (Hamilton Jr. 1951. Am. Midl.
Nat. 46:385–390; Oldfield and Moriarty 1994. Amphibians and
Reptiles Native to Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press,
Minneapolis, Minnesota. 237 pp.). The snakes may have also
simply have been sharing the thermal refugium with the isopods
(Carpenter 1953. Ecology 34:74–80). We believe this to be the
first account of either T. sirtalis or T. lineatum utilizing ungulate
manure as refugia from cold. In Europe, oviparous Natrix natrix
(Grass Snakes) have evolved nesting behaviors closely associated
with manure and compost heaps, which provide more stable
thermal conditions, higher mean temperatures, and much
higher egg survival than “natural” nest sites, likely allowing the
species to extend its distributional range into cooler climates
(Löwenborg et al. 2010. Funct. Ecol. 24:1095–1102; Löwenborg et
al. 2012. Biodivers. Conserv. 21:2477). We suspect that emergent
snakes are opportunistic in cow manure microsite selection
Fig. 1. Disturbed cow patty where three Thamnophis sirtalis and six
Tropidoclonion lineatum were found dead on 22 January 2017 within
grazed wet meadow habitat on Morman Island, Hall County, Nebras-
ka, USA.
Fig. 2. Tropidoclonion lineatum partially frozen in mud near suspect-
ed hibernaculum entrance located 3 m west of the cow patty in Fig. 1.

Herpetological Review 48(4), 2017
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 869
for survivorship during cold conditions, although Bison (Bison
bison) manure would have been available to them historically.
Winter-kill within hibernacula is a well-documented source
of T. sirtalis mortality (Shine and Mason 2004. Biol. Conserv.
120:201–210). Thamnophis sirtalis are regularly active beginning
in late February in Kansas (Fitch 1965. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus.
Nat. Hist. 15:493–564) and T. lineatum are known to be active
from “late April to October” in Nebraska (Ballinger et al. 2010.
Amphibians and Reptiles of Nebraska. Rusty Lizard Press, Oro
Valley, Arizona. 400 pp.). Early emergence and patrolling within 3
m of den entrances by male T. sirtalis has been noted as early as
mid-February in Missouri (Sexton and Bramble 1994. Amphibia-
Reptilia 15:9–20). Activity outside of hibernacula earlier than
22 January 2017 is unseasonable, especially in the case of T.
lineatum. Mortality within and adjacent to the cow patty and
den indicates risk of snake mortality associated with early
hibernaculum emergence ( Wiese et al. 2016. Collinsorum 5:3–
5), which may become more common as seasonal temperature
variability and the frequency of temperature anomalies increase
(Singh et al. 2016. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 121:9911–9928).
JOSHUA D. WIESE (e-mail: jwiese@cranetrust.org) and ANDREW J.
CAVEN, Crane Trust, 6611 W Whooping Crane Drive, Wood River, Nebraska
68883, USA (e-mail: acaven@cranetrust.org).
TROPIDODIPSAS SARTORII (Terrestrial Snail Sucker). REPRO-
DUCTION. Tropidodipsas sartorii ranges from central Nuevo
Léon, Mexico to northeastern Honduras on the Atlantic versant
and from eastern Oaxaca, Mexico to western El Salvador, west-
ern Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica (McCranie. 2011.
The Snakes of Honduras Systematics, Distribution, and Conser-
vation. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Ithaca,
New York. 714 pp.). Information on reproduction of T. sartorii is
limited and consists of a report of 3–5 eggs produced during late
in the dry season or early in the rainy season (Campbell 1998.
Amphibians and Reptiles of Northern Guatemala, the Yucatán
and Belize. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 380 pp.). In
this note I present a new maximum clutch size for T. sartorii.
One female T. sartorii (SVL = 508 mm) collected February
1983 at Cuautlapan (18.871256°N, 97.022963°W; WGS 84),
Veracruz, Mexico, and deposited in the herpetology collection of
the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (LACM), Los
Angeles, California, USA as LACM 154846 was examined. A mid-
ventral cut was made in the lower part of the abdomen and six
eggs (mean length = 27.0 mm ± 3.1 SD, range = 22–30 mm) were
counted in the oviducts. All possessed leathery shells and were
presumably close to being deposited. Six is a new maximum
clutch size for T. sartorii.
I thank Greg B. Pauly (LACM) for permission to examine T.
sartorii.
STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,
Whittier, California 90608, USA; e-mail: sgoldberg@whittier.edu.
XENOCHROPHIS PISCATOR (Checkered Keelback). DIET and
MORTALITY. Xenochrophis piscator is a common species of non-
venomous snake found throughout South Asia, except Andaman
and Nicobar islands (Whitaker and Captain 2004. Snakes of
India, The Field Guide. Draco Books, Chennai, India. 495 pp.). It
is primarily found in and around fresh water bodies and paddy
fields. Young snakes prey on frog eggs, tadpoles, and water insects;
while adults feeds on fishes, frogs, and occasionally rodents and
birds (Whitaker and Captain 2004, op. cit.). Herein we report an
observation of death of an X. piscator after attempted predation
on a fish.
At ca. 2130 h on 20 August 2015, during a night survey
near the Ambika River in Bilimora, Gujarat, India (20.7868°N,
72.9723°E; WGS 84), we encountered a dead sub-adult X. piscator
(total length = 34.5 cm) with a dead fish, Anabas tertudineus, in
its mouth (Fig. 1). Anabas tertudineus has a long dorsal fin with
sharp spines; which are used in defense (Storey et al. 2002. Int. J.
Ecol. Environ Sci. 28:103–114). It is likely that the sharp spines of
the fish stuck in the snake’s mouth, ruptured soft inner tissues,
and might have caused the snake to die by suffocation. Snakes
typically feed on large prey relative to their body size. However,
many times young snakes mis-evaluate prey size, resulting in
their death (Sazima and Martins 1990. Mem. Inst. Butantan
52:73–79).
HP thanks the Department of Science & Technology (DST),
New Delhi, for their support through INSPIRE Fellowship (IF
130480).
KAUSHAL PATEL, 07, Shiv Shakti Society, Deshra-Bhatha road, Bilimora
396321, Gujarat, India (e-mail: kaushalgpatel4@gmail.com); KETAN PATEL
(e-mail: ketannpatel1705@gmail.com) and HARSHIL PATEL, Department
of Biosciences, Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, Surat 395007, India
(e-mail: harshilpatel121@gmail.com).
Fig. 1. A dead sub-adult Xenochrophis piscator, with an Anabas tertu-
dineus in its mouth.