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The impact of melody on
short term memory
Rentería Santiago, Campero Miguel, Laveaga Alejandra,
Gómez Cristian, Jennifer Anaya
Tecnológico de Monterrey
Correspondence should be addressed to Santiago Rentería
(santiagorenteria25@gmail.com)
Abstract- According to a study made by Verga and Ferreri (2016)
the results on the influence of music in memory are mixed. In one
hand, music was found to work to reinforce long-term memory
retention, but evidence was also found to act as a distracting
stimulus. However, studies in music therapy have a wide
application range in the field of didactic techniques. The present
article is based on the previous premise and displays the results of
two experiments carried out with 66 students (12 - 16 years old,
both genders). The first one consisted in studying the effects of the
melody’s presence in the short term memory by means of sequences
of sung and spoken letters; The second used two groups of sung
melodies (structured and chaotic) to study how melodic and
rhythmic
features
affect
memorization.
Index
of
Terms—
Memory,
music,
melody,
music
therapy,
singing.
I. INTRODUCTION
Music therapy is relatively new as a practice. The
United States was the first country to develop it as a
profession and discipline during the 1950s. Nevertheless, it
has its antecedents in the activities of the group of Santa
Cecilia in 1891, where Canon Frederick played music for the
ill in the hospitals of London. However, it has recently been
increasingly recognized due to the latest interdisciplinary
research and increased music access (Bunt, 2014). Now more
than ever we can witness how music permeates the different
aspects of modern life: Music festivals, marketing, cinema and
of course health combined with personal development.
On the other hand, music is one of the most common
forms of non-verbal communication today. It is also able to
induce emotions, change moods or lead the evocation of
memories in listening. Therefore, it is of high importance to
analyze its effects at a neural level. Music Therapist Leslie
Bunt emphasizes the question about the relationship between
music and ourselves: Why do we listen to music? What
connects us to the musical experience? The answers are
varied, from the pleasure and the feeling of union that the
music provokes us, until the intellectual pleasure and the
physical energy that we release by listening intently.
1
Music therapy is a term that has been redefined just
like musical preferences. This is because music pervades the
entire human existence, from background music in public
transport to new trends in streaming and massive concerts. On
the other hand, it is important to consider that although we live
in a globalized world, the musical experience is not unique,
since it is dictated by the culture that surrounds us and it's
influenced by the capacity of emotional connection with some
specific musical works or genres.
However, describing the objectives of music therapy
depends on the intention and the context (Bunt, 2014), because
for a musician, music therapy will most likely have a different
purpose than the one from a company or health institution. In
general, it is said that music therapy uses the versatility
offered by music (in controlled or suitable spaces) for the
rehabilitation, treatment or education of both children and
adults, where patients may or may not have some emotional,
physical and / or mental disorders.
On the other hand, memory is a fundamental aspect
that is directly linked to music, because it is a complex
stimulus processed at different structural levels (e.g. rhythm,
melody, ringing, sonority). Stockhausen emphasizes this
aspect in his writings and interviews compiled by Robin
Maconie. And even though his idea turned out to be too
simple, he intuited that the different levels of the musical
structure were related to specific abilities of processing from
the nervous system (Snyder, 2001). All these processes are
linked to learning, a subject that will be addressed in this study
through the relationship between memory and music.
It is no coincidence that on many occasions music
helps us to remember experiences, to transport us (in a
figurative sense) to a place or function as a catalyst to evoke
some teaching that we thought we had forgotten. It should be
mentioned that these benefits are debatable, due to the
complexity of our brain and music in question; So if there is
no inquiry about the intentions and justification of the music
as an end, its function may not be appreciated and treated
simply as a distractor. However, music has effects on short
and long-term memory (Ferreri & Verga, 2016).
Now, within the intersection of music and memory,
melody is one of the elements with the greatest impact,
because the human beings’ neurophysiological conditions
make the melody a fundamental component in music. This is
due to the fact that listeners are sensitive to the distribution of
notes in a melody, that is, they encode the relationships of
height between notes. (McDermott and Oxenham, 2008).
The melody is a succession of musical notes in time
that provide a logical-musical sense, and thanks to it can
identify patterns that strengthen learning within a suitable
context. Studies such as one made by Wallace (1994) have
shown that melody plays a decisive role in the learning
2
process, especially in short-term memory, where factors such
as complexity, repetition and duration are found to affect
memory’s performance.
Finally, it was found that the conclusions about the
benefits of music in verbal learning point to different
directions. Research in this area has yielded mixed results.
According to the review by Verga and Ferreri (2016), the use
of melodies in the memorization of information harms the
attention, because it implies a double task. Conversely, it was
verified that the melody improves the memorization of
information in the long term. It should be mentioned that these
results depend on the complexity of the stimulus and the
cognitive mechanisms used to codify them (idem).
Due to the above, the primary motivation of this
study is the analysis of relations between memory and music
that contribute to the improvement of learning. To achieve this
purpose, two experiments were carried out with high school
students, in which the impact of the melody and its structure in
short-term memory was measured. In addition, evidence of the
influence of musical structure on the memorization of
information was found. This document reports the
experimental results, as well as the possible lines of
application and study of the next investigations.
II. BACKGROUND
Music has been shown to improve the performance of
cognitive functions, especially its effects on memory and
verbal content learning (Schellenberg & Weiss, 2013). This
premise is reinforced by the beneficial effects observed in
Alzheimer's patients, who have used music to improve verbal
memory (Simmons-Stern, Budson & Ally, 2010). However,
the beneficial effects of music also occurred in conditions
where the patients' memory did not suffer significant
deterioration. For example, in cases such as strokes (Sarkamo
et al., 2008) or multiple sclerosis (Thaut et al., 2009).
Despite of abundant evidence on the positive effect of
music on cognition, there are also studies that support music
negatively affecting memory performance in Alzheimer's
patients (Moussard, Bigand, Belleville, & Peretz, 2012) 23]
and aphasia (Racette & Peretz, 2007). One possible
explanation for these negative effects in memory is that music
can distract patients from relevant information, generating a
double task that affects concentration and attention.
Consequently, the benefits of music to improve the learning
process and short-term memory remain a controversial
subject. (Schellenberg & Weiss, 2013).
Although some sung stimuli present passively
(listening to the stimulus) or actively (sings the stimulus), can
facilitate the learning of words and texts, there is still
controversy regarding its benefits. This has given rise to new
theoretical approaches and experimental designs. It can be
concluded that there is a very thin line between cases where
music facilitates memorization, and those where it interferes
with the process (Kang & Williamson, 2013).
The benefits of music in memory can be extended to
the acquisition of language. According to Saffran's study,
Aslin and Newport (1996), many children who learn their first
language, use the statistical properties of speech to extract
simple words. Music can improve this process by providing
reference signals that are linked to the repetition of certain
speech traits, thus helping to facilitate the identification of
word boundaries.
More conclusive evidence has shown that music has
behavioral effects on late memories, as in a study presented by
Rainey & Larsen (2002) it was revealed that several English
speakers were shown lists both spoken and sung, they didn't
learn the lists faster with either method. However, a week
later, the memory was higher in those who learned the list of
words sung. For this reason, the authors concluded that the
remarkable advantage of over-spoken words for verbal
memory may be a long-term effect.
Conversely, it was found that music teaching
modulates neuronal plasticity. This is manifested in the
behavioral results of Herzholz and Zatorre (2012).
III. MEMORY
The memory, in general terms, is the faculty of mind
that is responsible for encoding, storing and retrieving
information from previous experiences. Major brain structures
involved in this process are the hippocampus and thalamus.
On the other hand it has been found that memory plays an
important role in language and learning (Fine, 2008).
One of the most widely used memory models is
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1977), which consists of dividing
memory into three categories or interrelated components:
●Sensory memory: Stores senses information for a
short time (<1 sec).
●Short-term memory: Also known as working
memory. It receive the selected information from the
sensory memory or short-term memory. It stores the
information for approximately 30 seconds, but
through a control process named rehearsal, the
subject can maintain a limited amount of information
in this kind of memory.
●Long-term memory: It is the information's permanent
repository. It receives short-term memory
information.
However, Craik and Lockhart (1972) developed the
model of levels or stages or levels of processing, to account
for the influence of the various stages of processing involved
in memory, such as pattern recognition and extraction of
meaning. This theory contemplates a continuous scale ranging
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from superficial or perceptual processing to deep or semantic
processing. It should be mentioned that under this model there
is no distinction between long and short term memory.
Previous models along with new techniques of brain
imaging have inspired different classifications of memory that
take into account the types of information representation, the
differences between memory tests and the brain structures that
underlie the memory process in general (eg Voluntary
memory, implicit, declarative, etc.) (Stevens & Pashler, 2002).
Since this study focuses on the influence of melody on
shortterm memory, we will deal only with the description of
this kind of memory.
For this study’s purpose, it is of great interest to
review Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) theory, which replaces the
old conception of short-term memory with the working
memory model. They proposed that working memory is
composed of three basic elements:
●Phonological loop: Responsible for maintaining
verbal and auditory information.
●Visual-Spatial Buffer: Responsible for maintaining
visual and spatial information.
●Central Executive: Coordinates the two previous
components (slaves) and allocates resources to them
accordingly to the environment demands.
Diagram 1: Baddeley and Hitch Model.
This model continues to be developed, and its most
studied component has been the phonological link, since the
following experimental evidence was found about its
existence:
The errors that people make when remembering
words, suggest that working memory has a phonological
component. Baddeley (1966) found that remembering word
lists was difficult when some of their elements sounded
similar. Similarly, a list of short words was found more easily
than one with long words (Baddeley, Thomson & Buchanan,
1975). Unexpectedly the variable involved in the previous
effect (word length) is not the number of syllables, but the
duration of spoken words. It was found that the average
memory range for the case of spoken words is 2 seconds
(Schweickert & Boruff, 1986).
Another finding that supports the idea of the
phonological link is the interference effect. This occurs when
people try to memorize digits or words, while a conversation
occurs in the background. Interestingly this effect occurs even
when the background conversation is in a foreign language.
However, it does not occur with non-verbal elements such as
music, although there is a system related to the phonological
loop for memorizing non-verbal content.
By last, it was found that the effectiveness of the
short-term memorization, demerit when there are conditions
that prevent the access of information to the phonological
loop. This phenomenon is known as articulatory suppression
(Baddeley, Lewis & Valar, 1984), and occurs when subjects
attempt to memorize visually presented information while
repeating a sentence or word.
IV. MUSICAL EXPECTATION
To investigate the relationships between the rhythmic
and melodic structure of music and short-term memory, it is
necessary to review the nature of the expectation. That is,
using a model that explains the psychological expectation of
future events.
According to a study by Sinke et. al. (2016), the
expectation affects the performance of cognitive functions. In
his experiment it was corroborated that the performance of the
short term memory is related to the expectation. One group of
participants was informed that the pain improved memory
performance and visual processing, while the other was led to
believe otherwise. It was obtained that the group with positive
expectations presented a greater neuronal response in the right
inferior parietal cortex, during the painful stimulus. However,
although the experiment included a short-term visual memory
(RSVP) test, the results associated with the expectation may
be transferable to the phonological loop functioning (shortterm
auditory memory).
From an evolutionary perspective, the ability to
formulate accurate expectations about future events provides
significant biological advantages. Those who can predict the
future are better prepared to face the dangers and seize the
opportunities. In the specific case of music, expectation has
emotional consequences related to the brain structures
involved in the reward system, such as the lateral cortical
areas, the anterior cingular cortex and the ventral tegmental
area. On the other hand we have that emotional valence
functions as a system of reinforcement to adjust predictions,
that is, that positive emotions before an expectation, can
indicate that this was successful, and must be done in the same
way in the future. However, according to Huron's theory
(2008) (ITPRA: Imagination, Tension, Prediction, Reaction
and Appraisal), there are 5 response systems with different
criteria to determine what should occur before and after the
expectation. This implies that the evoked emotions and their
valence are different for each system. Response systems are
4
classified according to their temporal proximity to the result,
in the pre-result, if they occur before and after the result, if
they occur later. They are shown below.
Imagination response: It is pre-result and oriented to
the future, sets expectations of what can happen and evokes
emotions related to what is expected. In other words, we not
only think about future possibilities, but we also feel them. In
this way the individual can postpone immediate pleasure for a
greater one in the future.
Tension response: It is a pre-result, it occurs when we
mentally and corporately prepare for an event. It is done to
adapt the organism to the expected event. According to the
above, the most stressful situations will have the greatest
response to stress, because the energy involved in the
preparation will be greater.
Prediction response: It is post-result, it originates as a
reinforcement of the prediction before an event, such that the
correct predictions are rewarded and the incorrect predictions
punished with negative emotional valences.
Reaction Response: This is a post-result response,
and is related to the rapid evaluation of results. An example of
this type of response is the reflex.
Appraisal Response: This is a post-result response,
and is related to the complex evaluation of the result. It evokes
positive and negative emotions as reinforcement of behavior
versus adaptability. According to the above, evaluations of
results that do not favor adaptability result in negative valence
emotions.
Taking as assumptions the theory of expectation
(ITPRA) of Huron (2008) and the experiment of Sinke et. al.
(2016), we can infer that the emotional response could be
related to the musical structure, as well as short-term memory
performance. For this reason, in the experimental design, the
variation of the structure of the melody was taken into
account, since a chaotic and atonal melody is less predictable
than the western tonal language, to which the groups studied
are culturally conditioned. This is reflected in the interrelation
between the biological basis of the expectation and the Huron
culture (2008).
Finally, Huron (2008) describes how listeners are
sensitive to the frequency of occurrence of different auditory
events. The results are based on Jenny Saffran's experiments,
and indicate that the statistical properties of music influence
musical expectation.
V. OBJECTIVE
To measure the melody's presence impact, and its
rhythmic and tonal distribution, on the efficacy of short-term
memory in students aged 12 to 16 years.
VI. METHOD
Two experiments were carried out to study respectively the
influence of the melody and its structure on the effectiveness
of memory. The variables measured were the following:
●Dependent variable: Result of the short-term memory
test (Annex 2).
●Independent variables:
○Rhythmic and tonal structure of the melody
○Presence of the melody
●Strange variables:
○Emotional state of the participants
○Influence of environmental sounds
Duration of the experiment: 25 min.
●Presentation and questionnaire: 10 min.
●Memory tests 15 min.
The memory tests consisted of 5 different sequences
of 10 letters. The way they were reproduced varies according
to the group of experiments. The recordings used are listed in
Annex 1. It was evaluated according to two criteria:
Presence: It was only taken into account that the correct letters
were present, regardless of the order.
Presence and sequence: We took into account both presence
and order of appearance of the letters.
Experiment 1: On the overall effect of the melody
A short term memory test (Annex 2) was applied to
two different groups of participants. Both had to memorize
five sequences of ten letters reproduced as follows:
●Control Group: The sequence was reproduced in
spoken form, without following a melody.
●Experimental Group: The sequence was sung
following an structured melody according to tonal
system (Western).
5
Table1:Experiment 1 stimuli distribution
Experiment 2: On the Structure of melody
The same memory test as in Experiment 1 was used here, but
the experiment conditions changed as follows, in order to
study the influence of the structure of the melody on the
effectiveness of memory.
●Group A: The information was sung following the
rules of tonal Western music, and using simple and
repetitive rhythmic patterns.
●Group B: The information was sung following a
chaotic and complex melody ( i.e. unpredictable &
irregular rhythms).
Table 2: Experiment 2 stimuli distribution
VII. HYPOTHESIS
Experiment 1: On the overall effect of the melody
●h0: Using melodies has no significant benefits on the
performance of the memory.
●H1: Using melodies has significant benefits on the
performance of the memory.
Experiment 2: On the structure of melody
●h0: The structure (rhythm and pitch distribution) of
melody does not significantly affect the performance
of the memory.
●h1: The structure of melody significantly affects the
effectiveness of memory.
VIII. PARTICIPANTS
30 participants per group (four in total, one per experimental
group) we reused. The tests were performed the same day, and
each group was exposed to different stimuli.
The characteristics of the participants the following:
●9 to 13 years old
●Both sexes
●Without disabilities
●Live in Mexico City
●Students
IX. INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS
●Computer
●Headphones
●Recordings of sequences of spoken and sung
sequences (Annex 1)
●Short term memory test (Annex 2)
●Consent letter (Annex 3)
●General Questionnaire (Annex 4)
X. EXPERIMENTAL ENVIRONMENT
A conventional classroom was used with low noise
level and mild temperature. Participants performed the test
from a computer that sends the results to a server. They were
also asked to deactivate their alarms.
●Host School: Quetzalli: Centro de Educación,
formación y desarrollo. Located on Street Niños
Heroes # 232, Santa María Magdalena Ocotitlán,
52161 Metepec, Mex.
●Schedule: 12:00 - 15:00 hrs.
XI. STIMULI
Melodies were created by team members to avoid
associations with familiar music. Furthermore, this provided
greater control over the structure during results analysis.
The melodies used are categorized as follows:
●Chaotic Melody: According to statistics reviewed in
the background of musical expectation, we consider
chaotic melody one whose distribution of notes and
rhythmic values does not follow an esasily
recognizable pattern. Also, this type of melody does
not follow the rules of the Western tonal system.
●Structured Melody: A melody that follows the rules
of Western tonal system, and has a repetitive
rhythmic and melodic structure.
XII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The mean score of the groups from both experiments is shown
in the following graph.
6
Figure 1: Mean scores using two criteria evaluation.
The mean age of the groups was:
●Control:11
●Experimental: 11 years
●Group A: 11 years
●Group B: 10 years
Number of participants completing the memory test (cases not
answered were omitted).
●Control: 4 women; 11 men;
●Experimental: 11 women; 13 men;
●Group A: 7 women; 6 men;
●Group B: 7 women; 7 men;
Total women: 29
Total men: 37
None of the participant had hearing disability.
The average participant emotional state was "Fair" on a scale
including the following categories:. Good, Fair and Poor.x
A T Student test was performed for experiment 1 and 2 with
the following features:
●Two tailed
●Paired test (Type 1)
●Assuming equal Variance (Type 2)
●Assuming unequal variance (Type 3)
●Using two evaluation criteria
Type
Presence
Presence and Sequence
1
0.458
0.314
2
0.512
0.220
3
0.520
0.243
Table 3: Experiment 1 p-values
Type
Presence
Presence and Sequence
1
0475
0135
2
0654
0147
3
0654
0143
Table 4: Experiment 2 p-values
XIII. DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The p-value of both experiments experiments under the three
types of T-student tests fail to reject the null hypothesis. We
considered as significant p-values <0.05. This means that
given the results, the use of the melody or their structural
properties have no significant effects on memory.
Figure 1 shows that the mean score of the groups from both
experiments does not change significantly.
The average age of the participants is homogeneous.
P-values do not allow to reject the null hypothesis. In this case
the probability of finding the observed values is high assuming
that the null hypothesis is true. Otherwise for rejecting it, it
would be necessary to find low probabilities, because the
probability of finding such observations would be so low for
assuming the null hypothesis is true.
XIV. CONCLUSIONS AND WORK FUTURE
●The statistical test on the results did not allow to
reject the null hypothesis in both experiments. This
situation is attributed to unbalanced or confounding
variables during experimentation: ambiguous
instructions, visual and auditory distractions,
promising children a playing time after the test.
●It’s important to note that participants had trouble
following instructions on the memory test. This could
have altered the performance difference between
groups. Some participants described the timbral
characteristics of what they heard instead of verbal
information encoded in sequences.
●The theoretical framework suggests aspects to inquire
further, for example the structure of melody and its
relation to the musical expectation.
●Repeating the experiment with a new methodology
and controlled variables may help revealing the
effects of the melody in short term memory.
7
●The complexity of the musical experience is a factor
that must be considered in the experimentation with
music in learning and memory tasks. This is present
in studies Moussard et al. (2012) and Raccete and
Perez (2007).
●The phonological component of memory suggests
various applications of music in learning and memory
tasks. This is proof of the importance of music
therapy in educational applications.
●We consider that confounding variables, as
background noise and very striking visual stimuli,
may generate an interference effect on the
phonological loop, impairing the memory task.
●The experiment did not consider emotional traits.
This is an area of opportunity for future studies,
because as we saw in Huron (2008) and Sinke et al.
(2016), evoked emotions are related to musical
structure and affect the performance of short term
memory.
●Experiment 2 failed to support a correlation between
the structure of melody and memory performance.
●Although the results of the experimental phase were
not satisfactory, they reveal the difficulty of isolating
factors that make the music a valuable resource for
improving short term memory.
●While controversy still exists regarding the benefits
of music in learning and memory, interdisciplinary
research is encouraged to explore in more detail the
dividing line between cases where music facilitates
memorization, and those in which it interferes with
the process.
●Finally, given the aforementioned problem, we
consider repeating the experimental phase with a
different methodology, maintaining both hypothesis.
●There is ambiguity in the phonetic letters using a
memory test with auditory verbal information. This
causes the sung version to be more difficult to
memorize than its verbal analogue.
XV. APPENDIX
[1] Recordings
https://tinyurl.com/ldqls3f
[2] Short term memory test
https://tinyurl.com/ljg3kjt
[3] Consent letter - Pending
[4] General Questionnaire
https: // tinyurl.com/kjaqwkx
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