Ecotourism, agro-tourism and rural tourism in the European Union

Full text

ECOTOURISM, AGRO-TOURISM AND RURAL TOURISM IN THE
EUROPEAN UNION
Maria-Irina Ana
Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract
Ecotourism, agro-tourism, rural tourism are forms of tourism that emerged in the last
century, becoming increasingly important sectors of the tourism industry worldwide. The
new kinds of life-style, the evolving tourist behaviour and continuously changing
customers’ preferences coupled with the widespread concern about environment, industrial
heritage and sustainable development are all factors that led to the expansion of these niche
market types of tourism. The objectives of this paper are to research important implications
and identify significant trends of ecotourism, agro-tourism and rural tourism in the
European Union, focusing on the New Member States area, as there is a lot of potential for
the expansion of these forms of tourism in the region. The Old Member States earn
significant income from agro-tourism, while in the New Member States this is rather an
unexploited opportunity, despite the fact that the cultural heritage and number of unspoilt
natural areas is much more abundant than in the West. This paper will also look at the
policies in this field, as the European Union is very interested and active in supporting
agro-tourism and sustainable development, and many policies, programmes and initiatives
address the three types of niche tourism. Key features, economic, environmental and socio-
cultural benefits, as well as current and future challenges for ecotourism, agro-tourism and
rural tourism in the entire European Union, but more thoroughly in the New Member States
will also be addressed, with the purpose of creating a comprehensive paper, able to
convince the scholars and practitioners in the field to pay more attention to this rather new
topic, as a proactive approach can enable investments and attract more tourists to the area.
Keywords
Ecotourism, agro-tourism, rural tourism, sustainable development, EU policies, niche
tourism.
JEL Classification
Q01, Q2, Q5, R11, Z32
Introduction
Sustainable development is not only a trend, but rather a necessity, expanding to all the
social and economic fields of our life, including tourism, as this is “an industry of
resources, dependent on the natural and human potential, cultural heritage of a society”
(Dorobantu & Nistoreanu, 2012). According to Nistoreanu (2006), the objectives,
principles and requirements of sustainable tourism development are most common to
ecotourism, rural tourism, agro tourism and cultural tourism, these tourism forms actually

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representing “the desire for tourism to be not only a positive, dynamic development factor,
but also a viable solution to keep the environment untainted” (Idem, p. 21). Besides, they
stimulate the development of other activities, such as crafting, local food production or
agriculture, leading to increased revenue in the corresponding areas.
In this regard, the present paper aims to provide an overview of rural tourism and its most
popular forms, agro-tourism and ecotourism in the European Union, but with a focus on the
thirteen New Member States, trying to identify key countries and destinations. The policies,
programmes and initiatives in the field, as well as the number of nights spent at tourism
accommodation establishments in rural areas were analysed in order to fulfil the desired
outcome.
1. Literature review
Even though everything started like a simple, cheap and not so popular form of tourism,
rural tourism is now considered sophisticated, modern and addresses to highly educated,
well-travelled and from higher socio-economic groups people (Centre for the Promotion of
Imports, 2016). The term “rural tourism” has been defined in a number of ways, it varies
from country to country, and it is rather difficult to find a universal definition, due to its
complex multi-faceted nature, being not only a “farm-based tourism”, as it is often
considered (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1994). European
Commission adopted this collocation for “tourism in areas with a low density of
population” (European Commission, 2000, p.15), rural areas and villages. Rural tourism,
agro-tourism and village tourism are more often than not used as synonyms and, even
though there is no widely applicable and universally accepted definition for this form of
tourism, everyone does agree that it offers “unique and specific experiences […] authentic
ones, in which the promoted lifestyle is primordial” (Sasu & Epuran, 2016). Besides, rural
tourism is considered a stress releaser, an opportunity to take advantage of clean air, raw
environment, a pleasant “back to origins” experience (Nistoreanu, 2006).
Over time, the rural regions have witnessed the development of the so-called “routes”, for
example the silk route, the wine route, or the amber route - some of these are still popular
among specific types of tourists. The Roman or Turkish baths, the journeys to Jerusalem,
Mecca or Mont Saint Michel are also proofs that rural tourism goes back many centuries
ago, being a viable alternative to mass market tourism. Yet, as it “attracts more specialist,
niche market tourists with an interest in culture and the environment, destinations offering
rural tourism holidays are unlikely to suffer from the disadvantages associated with mass
market tourism destinations (World Tourism Organization, 2002, p.4). Besides, it does not
have a “distinct image”, one that would “entice the potential customer to rush out and buy a
holiday” (Keane, 2013, p.120). Ultimately, according to Barbu (2013, p.128), who analysed
various definitions of rural tourism written over the past 25 years, “we can conclude that
rural tourism is the kind of tourist services in rural areas, services involving investors, tour
operators, local and central governments. These services include accommodation, meals
(with a focus on traditional local cuisine) and all leisure activities according to the desires
of tourists”, but does not have the same significance in all the EU countries.

On the other hand, agro-tourism is a more recent term that emerged in the late twentieth
century, directly related to agricultural activities. It uses the farm as the main place for
tourism, the tourists “spending the night in the peasants’ households and not in specially
arranged accommodations, such as guesthouses or hotels” (Sasu & Epuran, 2016, p.120).
This form of rural tourism is usually a secondary activity, agriculture remaining farmers’
main source of income and occupation (Darău et al., 2010). Furthermore, research proved
that “agro-tourism appeals to a target group that is eager to have ostensively intimate,
personalized, and ethically correct experiences in their holidays” (Daugstad & Kirchengast,
2013). The meaning of „agro-tourism‟, as the one of rural tourism, also varies among
different geographical regions, but in the EU it is widely defined as “the economic
multidimensional development of agricultural farms and multidimensional development of
rural areas” (Zoto et al., 2013, p.210), and includes agricultural, social and economic
policies in the Union.
Besides, agro-tourism is often considered as part of ecotourism, “for both are related and
subject to natural attractions” (Idem, p.212). Yet, in the case of ecotourism, “the main
motivation of the tourists is the observation and appreciation of nature and local traditions
related to the nature” (Dorobantu & Nistoreanu, 2012, p.4), while raising awareness
towards the conservation of natural and cultural assets, minimizing negative impacts upon
the environment, providing employment and generating economic benefits for local
communities (World Tourism Organization, 2002). Therefore, “ecotourism differs from
other forms of tourism by the closeness to nature, a rational exploitation of tourism
resources” (Nistoreanu, Dorobantu, & Tuclea, 2011, p.34) and has the great potential to
persuade key players in the tourism industry and local communities with the goal to create
support and conserve protected areas, increase standards of living in the region and
encourage economically viable tourism, idea supported by Neil and Wearing (1999).
All things considered, rural tourism, agro-tourism and ecotourism have common points in
what regards the type of tourists that choose this kind of holidays, the quality of time they
aspire to, but also in terms of trends, conditions and principles the bodies and communities
involved tend to be guided by. The main characteristics of each of the three types of
tourism presented above are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Main characteristics of rural tourism, agro-tourism and ecotourism
Rural Tourism
Agro-tourism
Ecotourism
All forms of tourism that
take place in rural areas or
rural communities
Tourism activities directly
related to agriculture
Nature-based form of
tourism, the main
motivation of the tourists
being the observation and
appreciation of nature as
well as the traditional
cultures prevailing in
natural areas

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Practiced in small family-
owned establishments
Practiced in a farm or
household as a secondary
source of income
Service providers tend to be
small, locally owned
businesses
Highlights natural areas,
local practices, culture and
gastronomy
Educational activities are
undertaken, aiming at
highlighting and explaining
aspects of agricultural
lifestyle
Has educational and
interpretation features,
increasing awareness
towards the conservation of
natural and cultural assets
Often reffered to as “agro-
tourism”, “nature-based
tourism”, “farm-based
tourism” and “village
tourism”
Often referred to as “farm-
based tourism”, “rural
tourism” and “village
tourism”
Oftern referred to as
“sustainable tourism”,
“responsible tourism” and
“green tourism”
Independent activity
integrated in the tertiary
sector of the economy,
alternative/complementary
form of mass-tourism
Entirely integrate within
rural tourism
Perfectly described as
“niche tourism”, differs
from rural tourism by the
closeness to nature and the
more rational exploitation
of tourism resources.
Potential customers are
nature-lovers
Potential customers are
interested in farming,
crafting, folklore, natural
agricultural products and
gastronomy
Potential customers are
interested in meaningful
community participation,
slow travel, high-quality
experiences, picturesque,
nature-made elements,
gastronomy, traditions and
routes that allow them to
feel as if they were locals
Source: author’s conception
2. Research methodology
As per the latest statistics released by Eurostat (2017), 3.4% less nights were spent in
tourism accommodation establishment in the EU-28 in March 2017 compared to March
2016, 10 of the 28 Member States reporting decreases, most of them being Old Member
States with well established tourism industries, such as Spain (-9.6%), Austria (-9.4%) or
Denmark (-9.1%). However, the most severe drop was reported by Croatia, down 11.1%.
On the other end, Cyprus was the Member State with the highest increase in the number of
nights spent at accommodation establishments in March 2017 compared to March 2016,
+12.4%.

However, when we compare the number of nights spent in tourism accommodation across
the EU in 2016 with the data from the previous year, an increase of +2.4% was reported,
only 4 out of the 28 Member States recording negative values, this being Old Member
States, namely United Kingdom, Belgium, France and Luxembourg, while in Bulgaria,
Cyprus and Slovakia statistics were positive, +17.7%, +14.8%, +14.7 in this specific order.
Yet, Europe is still the most visited continent and, in term of international tourism receipts,
Europe saw the largest increase in absolute terms, accounting for 41% of the total number
(the indicator refers to expenditures undertaken by international inbound visitors, including
payments for international transport). Chinese and Americans are the top spenders in
international tourism and more likely to take into consideration visiting Europe, while
Europeans have been less interested in leaving the continent. Of the whole Europe, roughly
80% of the total arrivals in 2015 were reported within the EU-28, approximately 15% of
these can be attributed to the New Member States of the European Union (NMS-13), which
are, in chronological order, the following: Malta, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary (2004), Bulgaria, Romania (2007)
and Croatia (2013).
The main source of data for the present study was Eurostat database. In order to identify
significant trends of ecotourism, agro-tourism and rural tourism in the European Union,
focusing on the New Member States, given the available statistics, the number of “Nights
spent at tourist accommodation establishments by degree of urbanization” was considered
to be the most relevant.
“Nights spent at tourist accommodation establishments by degree of urbanization” refers to
the number of nights a guest/tourist (resident or non-resident) actually spends (sleeps or
stays) or is registered (his/her physical presence there being unnecessary) in a tourist
accommodation establishment by the degree of urbanization of the area where the
accommodation establishment is actually located in. Data comprises the overnights spent in
hotels, holiday and other short-stay accommodation, camping grounds, recreational vehicle
parks and trailer parks (World Tourism Organization, 2017).
The selection of this indicator has been made after reviewing already available literature
related to this topic and based on availability of data, given that statistical databases for the
New Member States are not always up-to-date or complete, and that hard data on the size
and growth of markets for rural tourism are still difficult to find. The number of overnight
stays is considered to be a good reflection of a destination popularity, of tourism
performance and impacts, and clearly reflects changing trends in destination preferences,
being “a direct and objective means of assessing success in tourism, with the difference
between one year’s figure and the next being a transparent and easily conveyed way of
showing growth or decline” (Dupeyras & MacCallum, 2013, p.22).
The identification of general trends will be sketched analyzing data longitudinally and a
comparison between Old Member States (OMS) of the European Union and New Member
States of the European Union will be conducted using statistical analysis as the main
quantitative research method. Qualitative review of the statistics gathered, case studies,

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historical research, observations, as well as European laws and regulations analysis were
considered suitable complements to our purpose.
3. Results and discussion
In this section we will analyse the tourism statistical indicator previously mentioned, with
the purpose of identifying general and specific trends in rural tourism in the EU-28, but also
the countries with the biggest number of overnight stays in the two well-known groups of
states in the Union, the Old Member States – OMS15- and the New Member States – NMS-
13-. Comparisons and parallels between these two will be conducted and key countries and
regions for the rural tourism in the New Europe will be determined and briefly
characterized.
According to Eurostat (2017), the number of nights spent in tourism accommodation
establishments in the EU-28 in the period 2012-2015 increased by 12% in 2015 compared
to 2012, from 1.13 billion nights to 1.26 billion nights, both groups of countries following
similar trends, OMS-15 reporting a 11% increase and NMS-13 a 12% increase in 2015
compared to 2012. These evolutions are represented in Figure 1. Apparently, roughly 15%
of the total accommodation capacity of Europe is represented by rural tourism
establishments.
Figure 1 – Evolution of number of nights spent in tourism accommodation
establishments in the rural areas 2012-105
Source: author’s conception, based on data from Eurostat
Figure 2 illustrates year-by-year the evolution of the number of nights spent in tourism
accommodation establishments the OMS-15 from 2012 to 2015. All of the countries except
for Finland saw their numbers increasing in terms of nights spent at rural tourism
accommodation establishments, indicating an ascendant trend and growing interest for this
form of tourism. The most impressive rise was reported by Portugal, +34% in 2015

compared to 2012, but Spain is definitely the leader of rural tourism in the EU-28 in the
period 2012-2015, reporting two times more nights spent in tourism accommodation
establishments in the rural areas than the next one in top, Italy, closely followed by France.
Illes Baleares in Spain, southern Belgian region of the Province Luxembourg, the western
part of Zeeland Dutch area, Burgenland in eastern Austria, Cumbria in north-west England
and the Highlands and Islands region of Scotland are the rural localities that recorded the
highest number of overnight stays spent in rural tourism accommodation establishments.
Figure 2 – Number of nights spent in tourism accommodation establishments in the
rural areas in the OMS-15 2012-2015
Source: author’s conception, based on data from Eurostat
The number of nights spent in tourism accommodation establishments in the rural areas in
the other group of countries, the New Member States of the EU is represented in Figure 3.
In absolute terms, Croatia is by far the leader, followed by Czech Republic (three times less
overnights reported in the period 2012-2015), Bulgaria, Cyprus and Hungary with
approximately the same figures recorded for the same time period. Jadranska Hrvatska in
Croatia is the region with the highest number of overnight stays spent in rural localities in
the whole Europe in the period analyzed, not only among the New Member States. This
area was actually the 6th most visited place in EU-28.
Jadranska Hrvatska is often called “Dalmatia” and attracts many nature lovers, providing
them with various active recreation opportunities, natural diversity, numerous national
parks, traditional food, fine wines, and UNESCO-protected areas. Croatia’s outstanding
performance can be partially attributed to the fact that here, “rural area occupies 91,6% of
total territory” (Tubic et al., 2014), but also to the country’s current tourism strategy,
whose main objectives are to diversify touristic offerings, so to decrease seasonality,
increase tourism expenditure, create new jobs, decrease turnover rate and improve quality

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by organizing cultural, sport and gastronomic events, as well as setting up and promoting
thematic parks and cycling routes.
In what regards the rural tourism in the Czech Republic, this sector seems to enjoy
unprecedented prosperity and to become a popular trend, as the current marketing
campaign focuses on rebranding the country and increasing its competitiveness by focusing
on journeys of discovery the country through unique cultural elements, gastronomy,
traditions and customs (Czech Tourism Office, 2017). Horse farming is the most common
form of rural tourism in Czech Republic.
Figure 3 – Number of nights spent in tourism accommodation establishments in the
rural areas in the NMS-13 2012-2015
Source: author’s conception, based on data from Eurostat
European Union policies, programmes and initiatives for rural, agricultural
and ecotourism
Up to the Lisbon Treaty that entered into force on the 1st of December 2009, the European
Communities did not have specific attributions in the tourism field, and there was rather a
set of actions and initiatives developed at European level, but with voluntary
implementation. The European bodies were rather helping the tourism stakeholders
undertake responsibilities for sustainable tourism development by creating useful
instruments, the main aim being the exchange of best practices, information dissimination,
co-operation and networking between stakeholders across the Union (Cismaru et al., 2015).
One of the central pieces developed by the European bodies in the sustainable tourism field,
often called the second pillar of the Common Agricultural Policy, is the “Rural
development 2014-2020” Policy, worth 100 billion EUR and funded through the European

Agricultural Fund for Rural Development - EAFRD (European Commission, 2017).
EAFRD is complemented by the European Regional Development Fund – ERDF – and the
European Social Fund – ESF -, their focus being agricultural sector competitiveness,
sustainable management of natural resources and climate action, but also a balanced
territorial development of the European rural areas. All these objectives are also shared by
the EU cohesion policy, but tourism is of direct interest for ERDF. As per European
Commission (2014), the fund “supports the competitiveness, sustainability and quality of
tourism at regional and local levels”, this sector’s allocation being about 8 billion EUR. On
the other hand, through EAFRD, the Commission can support, among other things, the
establishment of businesses active within rural tourism, the development and promotion of
agri-tourism and capitalisation on the cultural and natural heritage of rural regions,
including mountain areas” (European Commission, 2010). For the promotion of tourism,
Article 52 and Article 55 from the 3rd axis of the EAFRD might also be of interest, as
“encouragement of tourism activities” was listed as one of the measures that can diversify
the rural economy, through: “a. small-scale infrastructure such as information centres and
the signposting of tourist sites; b. recreational infrastructure such as offering access to
natural areas, and small-capacity accommodation; c. the development and/or marketing of
tourism services relating to rural tourism” (The Council of the European Union, 2005,
p.24). The Ammendment of this Regulation, Regulation 1305/2013 of 17 December 2013 is
the policy currently in force and indicates that “projects that bring together agriculture and,
rural tourism through the promotion of sustainable and responsible tourism in rural areas,
and natural and cultural heritage should be encouraged” (European Parliament, Council of
the European Union, 2012). Last, but not least, “LEADER” programme was launched in
1991 and ever since, it has provided EU rural communities “with the necessary resources to
enable local partners to actively engage and direct the local development of their area,
through a community-led local development” (Pobal, 2017), proving itself to be of
significant importance of rural tourism. A great range of projects and activities can be
undertaken and funded via LEADER, the implemention of rural tourism being among the
most popular (Lehmeier, 2010).
Being classified as a “cross-section issue” (Lehmeier, 2010, p.123), tourism sector is
influenced and supported by various sectoral policies, but the EU’s goals in the tourism
field seem to be addressed by the Direction General “Enterprise and Industry” – DG ENTR.
One of the main initiatives initiated by DG ENTR is the “European Destinations of
Excellence” – EDEN – award, which finances distinguished tourist destination in Europe.
EDEN was launched in 2007 and ever since, 140 “EDEN” destinations have been elected,
based on given themes and aiming at promoting sustainable tourism, “drawing attention to
the values, diversity and common features of European tourist destinations” (European
Commission, 2010b). The themes put forward so far have suitted best rural types of
tourism. The project started with “Best emerging rural destination of excellence” (2007),
followed by “Tourism and local intangible heritage” (2008), “Tourism and protected areas”
(2009), “Aquatic tourism” (2010), “Tourism and regeneration of physical sites” (2011),
“Accessible tourism” (2013), “Tourism and local gastronomy” (2015). The chosen
destinations are promoted as an European Brand and enables them to establish the EDEN
Network. Due to the promotional and networking activities that have taken place once the
award was granted, multiple benefits have been witnessed by local economy, stakeholders
and visitors of the EDEN destinations. It is not necessarily a matter of greatly higher profits

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0
or tourist flows, but ratter a matter of development and increased activity directly motivated
by the award.
The Preparatory Action launched in 2009 called „Sustainable Tourism” is another
programme that contributed to the development of rural forms of tourism, promoting
routes, itineraries and trails throughout Europe, such as the Iron Curtain Cycling Trail
which led to the creation of 15 cross-border cycling routes, the entire network completion
date being approximated to be 2020 and will total over 70,000 km.
To sum up, tourism is for sure an important economic activity in the European Union, but
there is still plenty of room for improvement in the field, especially in the case of the New
Member States. These might have the necessary natural resources to develop and take
advantage of rural tourism forms, but the lack of awareness, poor infrastructure, the rather
absent cooperation among governments, local authorities, regional offices, accommodation
and transport industries, tour operators and tourists greatly impede sustainable development
in the sector.
Conclusions
All things considered, it can be stated that EU policies, programmes and initiatives follow
two directions. On one hand, tourism is seen as an economic sector that requires
regulations, so to be sustainable, profitable, qualitative and accessible by all social
categories, and, on the other hand, tourism is perceived as a support-activity, as a mean to
achieve other complementary objectives. For example, when it comes to the European
Structural and Agricultural Policies, tourism and its economic effects are one of the main
points of interest. Tourism can enable higher employment rate, increasing income, diminish
spatial disparities, basically economic development. This also suits EU’s Cohesion Policy’s
goals. Plus, some forms of tourism, such as ecotourism contributes to the preservation of
nature and addresses sustainable tourism concerns EU has been so focused on. Lastly,
tourism is not only a useful means for integration, stability and unity in Europe, but also a
key instrument for the development of a European Identity, as also noticed by Diaconescu
et al. (2007).
Sustainable, responsible rural tourism is hard to achieve without applying “green thinking”,
ecotourism principles. Moreover, agro-tourism provides great support and naturally helps
the tourism in rural areas. These three types of tourism are more connected and dependable
than forms of mass-tourism, that can survive on their own. The need to conserve natural
resources, to maintain a social equilibrium and to pass along cultural heritage, customs and
traditions seems to have been well-understood by everyone worldwide, and has been
addressed by the European Institutions on various occasions, but adopting an appropriate
behaviour and applying the corresponding measures is still a sensitive issue, mainly in
developing countries.

The number of tourists seeking relaxation in the middle of the nature, in rural, unspoilt
areas is on the rise and a shift from mass-tourism to alternative, special interest forms of
tourism has been observed, mainly in Western and Northern Europe. Niche tourism and
buying “emotional” holidays in less known, unique destinations has become a lifestyle
among highly educated, well-travelled tourists.
Croatia and Czech Republic have high chances to compete with the key players, well-
consecrated EU-28 rural touristic destinations. Bulgaria, Cyprus, Hungary, as well as
Romania have interesting rural areas, unique traditions and attractive cultures, providing
potential tourism providers great opportunities to generate profits. Nevertheless, a clear
focus and strategic vision for the implementation of the necessary measures in the sector, a
sufficient educational level for the population, appropriate infrastructure, ability to absorb
necessary funding, as well as to accurately report rural tourism data remain important
challenges in the rural, agricultural and ecotourism field in the New Member States.
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