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Solitude as an Approach to Affective Self-Regulation
Abstract
In this research we showed that solitude generally has a deactivation effect on people’s affective experiences, decreasing both positive and negative high-arousal affects. In Study 1, we found that the deactivation effect occurred when people were alone, but not when they were with another person. Study 2 showed that this deactivation effect did not depend on whether or not the person was engaged in an activity such as a reading when alone. In Study 3, high-arousal positive affect did not drop in a solitude condition in which participants specifically engaged in positive thinking or when they actively chose what to think about. Finally, in Study 4, we found that solitude could lead to relaxation and reduced stress when individuals actively chose to be alone. This research thus shed light on solitude effects in the past literature, and on people’s experiences when alone and the different factors that moderate these effects.
... Self-determined solitude is associated with higher happiness, desire for autonomy, and fulfillment [6,8,9]. In addition, self-determined solitude may lead to relaxation and stress reduction [10]. Thus, solitude can have different effects depending on whether it is self-determined. ...
... Moreover, as noted above, self-determined solitude may lead to relaxation and stress reduction [10]. However, a study of Japanese subjects by Emura and Miyazaki [9] reported a weak correlation (0.08) between self-determined solitude and loneliness. ...
... However, a study of Japanese subjects by Emura and Miyazaki [9] reported a weak correlation (0.08) between self-determined solitude and loneliness. This may be due to the difference that Nguyen et al. [10] conducted their experiment with participants of diverse ethnicities, while Emura and Miyazaki [9] conducted a cross-sectional study with Japanese subjects. Since the present study is a cross-sectional survey of Japanese subjects, it can be assumed that the negative aspects of self-determined solitude will be shown in the same way as Emura and Miyazaki [9]. ...
This study examined the relationship between not self-determined / self-determined solitude and stress responses, as well as the effect of supporting / thwarting of basic psychological needs. The sample consisted of 606 Japanese people aged 20 years and older. We used a cross-sectional survey to measure their motivations for solitude, supporting / thwarting of basic psychological needs, and stress responses. Not self-determined solitude was negatively correlated with supporting of basic psychological needs and positively correlated with thwarting of basic psychological needs. In addition, a cutoff score of 16 for not self-determined solitude was found to be optimal for identifying individuals with a high stress response. Mediation analysis revealed that supporting / thwarting of basic psychological needs has direct effects on stress responses and indirect effects mediated by not self-determined solitude. These findings suggest that fostering environments that support basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness can alleviate not self-determined solitude and reduce stress responses.
... In past research, studies seeking to understand emotional consequences of relationship patterns have focused on positive and negative affect (e.g., Hicks & Diamond, 2008;Impett et al., 2010;Rafaeli et al., 2008), but more focus is being placed on the distinction between low-arousal, relaxed affect, and high-arousal, activated affect (Harmon-Jones et al., 2009;Jallais & Gilet, 2010). For example, moments characterized by low levels of stimulation, such as when individuals are in solitude or alone, tend to especially elicit low-arousal positive affect (Quietude; Nguyen et al., 2018). The valence X arousal design thus offers a highly sensitive approach to exploring the phenomenon of interpersonal silence. ...
... Analyses showed that silence in current romantic relationships was most likely intrinsically motivated and that it often occurred spontaneously. Furthermore, silence was most likely characterized by positive, and especially low-arousal, positive affect, in line with findings from previous research studying solitude that benefits attained when not actively interacting with others lie in lower arousal affect (Nguyen et al., 2018). Interestingly, when comparing relational experiences within silence to those same relational experiences across the relationship (outside the context of silence), we found higher reporting of both autonomy and relatedness need satisfactions in silence than those same need satisfactions across the relationship. ...
... Across studies, there was also substantial evidence that introjected silence contributed to lower positive and more negative affect. In correlational analyses, introjected silence did not much influence high arousal positive affect, likely because self-inhibition and positive activation are fairly orthogonal experiences when compared to low-arousal affect, more broadly, which tends to be experienced in low-stimulation environments (Nguyen et al., 2018). Introjected silence also related to lower feeling of need satisfaction, and relatedness need satisfaction, in particular: Individuals felt less interpersonal closeness when their silence was self-introjected. ...
Silence shared between partners is a rich and understudied feature of romantic relationships. Within relationships, silence may be experienced in meaningfully different ways as a function of the motivations underlying it. These internally rich experiences may affect partners differently than silence that occurs spontaneously (i.e., without intentional initiation). In four studies, we tested the motives of silence and corresponding affect and relationship quality, operationalized through psychological need satisfactions and inclusion of other into self. Studies relied on complementary methods to explore the phenomenon of silence, namely cross-sectional, daily diary, and experimental designs. Findings across studies showed that intrinsically motivated silence was felt with more positive affect and less negative affect, and that relationships were closer and more need satisfying during intrinsically motivated moments of silence. Introjected and externally motivated silences, on the other hand, were often linked to more negative affect and lower relational outcomes. Spontaneous moments of silence were not consistently linked to affect or need satisfaction.
... Long et al. asserted that solitude could afford individuals more positive experiences, including relaxation, self-reflection, creative pursuits, and emotional regulation [12]. A study found that high-arousal positive affect could persist in a solitude condition, and individuals experienced relaxation and reduced stress when actively choosing solitude [17]. Nicol applied self-determined theory to explain solitude behavior, dividing it into self-determined and non-self-determined solitude [7]. ...
... Hence, it indicates that individuals of this class seek solitude positively. Nguyen et al. also found that positive solitude time could make people relax more and reduce stress [17]. In the moderate-solitude class, individuals scored the lowest in the positive solitude dimension compared to the other two classes, while demonstrating relatively higher scores in social avoidance and loneliness. ...
... Prolonged periods of an alone environment reinforce the negative effects of solitude [72,73]. Hence, organizing some activities can help individuals recognize the value of positive solitude and equip them with coping strategies against negative solitude [4,17,74]. Secondly, females and the first-grade group tend to transform their solitude types. Thus, there should be more attention on them because these transitions are not considered beneficial. ...
Solitude behaviors encompass four types: positive solitude, eccentricity, social avoidance, and loneliness. These four types of solitude behaviors are not entirely independent but can co-occur within individuals. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore latent classes of solitude behaviors, their developmental patterns, and relevant influencing factors among college students. The Solitude Behavior Scale—Short Version was administered to a sample of college students. A total of 417 Chinese students completed a three-time longitudinal paper questionnaire. The data analysis was performed using Mplus 8.0 and SPSS 26.0. Harman’s single-factor test, latent class analysis (LCA), and latent transition analysis (LTA) were employed for subsequent analysis. The results revealed three classes: low solitude, moderate solitude, and high solitude, which exhibited temporal changes. Social avoidance and loneliness could facilitate transitions between high solitude and moderate solitude. Females and first-grade students exhibited higher transition probabilities than males and students not in the first grade. The incidence of moderate solitude in the not-first-grade group was significantly higher than that in the first-grade group. Finally, this study offers new insights into the dynamics of solitude behaviors and their association with gender and age.
... First, all prior studies on age differences in affective well-being in solitude are based on correlational designs. All studies examining causal links between solitude and affective well-being have involved younger adult samples (e.g., Nguyen et al., 2018); no causal evidence of this link has been reported in samples spanning the adult lifespan (young adulthood to old age). Second, the mechanisms underlying how prioritizing emotionally meaningful goals may buffer against the negative effects of solitude are unclear. ...
... Based on the valence X arousal model of affect (Russell & Barrett, 1999), solitude has been consistently found to be associated with greater low arousal affect and lesser high arousal affect (e.g., Jiang et al., 2019;Lay et al., 2020). Specifically, individuals experience lesser high arousal positive (HAP) states (e.g., excited), greater low arousal negative (LAN) states (e.g., sad), and greater low arousal positive (LAP) states (e.g., calm) when in solitude compared to when with others (Nguyen et al., 2018;Pauly et al., 2018). Findings regarding solitude and high arousal negative (HAN) states (e.g., fearful) are mixed. ...
... Findings regarding solitude and high arousal negative (HAN) states (e.g., fearful) are mixed. Nguyen et al. (2018) found a negative association between solitude and HAN in university student samples. Pauly et al. (2018) did not find a significant association in an adult lifespan sample but did find significant associations between solitude and higher levels of salivary cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAs), suggesting that individuals experience more physiological stress in solitude. ...
Older adults report greater affective well-being in solitude than younger adults, but prior findings are based on correlational designs. We aim to examine age differences in affective well-being in solitude using an experimental design and to examine conflict de-escalation as a potential mechanism. In Study 1, 207 participants were randomly assigned to either a solitude or a social interaction condition. In Study 2, 128 participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: solitude-escalation, solitude-de-escalation, interaction-escalation, and interaction de-escalation. After a 15-min solitude or social interaction period, they reported their affective experiences. In Study 1, older (vs. younger) adults reported more positive affect overall. This age-related difference was greater in the solitude (vs. social interaction) condition; older adults reported less negative affect than younger adults in the solitude, but not the social interaction, condition. In Study 2, older (vs. younger) participants reported more high-arousal positive affect in the solitude-escalation condition. This difference was not significant in conflict de-escalation conditions. Our studies provide causal evidence of the relationship between solitude and affective well-being and advance our understanding of motivations that explain why older adults maintain better affective well-being in solitude.
... Hermetic traditions have also prized solitude as key to a life well-lived, holding the view that by spending time alone individuals can gain self-knowledge and self-connection that is difficult or impossible in the company of others 14 . Research studies of daily solitude have explored positive affordances of solitude 9,15 , with mounting evidence for low-arousal positive affect such as feeling less stressed, and more peaceful and relaxed (also termed, deactivation effect 16,17 ). Along with this affective regulatory benefit, solitude may provide other affordances that satisfy needs 9,18,19 , including fostering selfconnection, or feeling autonomy need-satisfied through volitional and self-congruent action and experience 20 . ...
... Alongside the amount of solitude, the motivation for it-those reasons that lead individuals to be spending time alone-may fundamentally shape its shifting impact on wellbeing 33,34 . To characterize motivation and understand its influence on those spending time alone, researchers have identified that two forms of autonomous (i.e., self-driven) motivation play an important role: self-determined motivation (pursuit of solitude because one values and enjoys the experiences) 35 , and choiceful motivation (pursuit of solitude that is freely chosen 17 ). ...
... These autonomous forms of motivation for solitude have been related to well-being generally 37,38 , and in daily diary studies showing that they correlate with everyday well-being 17,39,40 . In cross-sectional research, amount of time spent in solitude has also been linked to reduced life satisfaction linearly (non-linear effects were not tested), but only for those who have less self-determined motivation for solitude 41 . ...
Two literatures argue that time alone is harmful (i.e., isolation) and valuable (i.e., positive solitude). We explored whether people benefit from a balance between their daily solitude and social time, such that having ‘right’ quantities of both maximizes well-being. Participants (n = 178) completed a 21-day diary study, which quantified solitude time in hours through reconstructing daily events. This procedure minimized retrospective bias and tested natural variations across time. There was no evidence for a one-size-fits-all ‘optimal balance’ between solitude and social time. Linear effects suggested that people were lonelier and less satisfied on days in which they spent more hours in solitude. These detrimental relations were nullified or reduced when daily solitude was autonomous (choiceful) and did not accumulate across days; those who were generally alone more were not, on the whole, lonelier. On days in which people spent more time alone they felt less stress and greater autonomy satisfaction (volitional, authentic, and free from pressure). These benefits were cumulative; those who spent more time alone across the span of the study were less stressed and more autonomy satisfied overall. Solitude time risks lowering well-being on some metrics but may hold key advantages to other aspects of well-being.
Protocol registration
The stage 1 protocol for this Registered Report was accepted in principle on June 1, 2022. The protocol, as accepted by the journal, can be found at: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/5KXQ3.
... Yet recent studies have provided initial evidence that for the quantity of social contact, this relationship exists only up to a certain point, beyond which social oversatiation occurs, and further social contact may be detrimental to well-being (Kushlev et al., 2018;Luo, Macdonald, & Hülür, 2022;Ren et al., 2021;. For example, fatigue increases after roughly three hours of extraverted behavior (Leikas & Ilmarinen, 2017; see also Nguyen et al., 2018). In terms of quality, involuntary social contact and low autonomy are associated with worse affective well-being (Tse et al., 2022). ...
... Ambiguous effects of being alone on well-being were referred to in past research as paradoxical (Coplan et al., 2017). Empirical research is only beginning to tease apart the roles of contact status, social desire, volition, types of activities, interaction partners, and contact mode (Kroencke et al., 2023;Nguyen et al., 2018;Tse et al., 2022). The valence or, generally, quality of the interaction might also contribute to how quickly SOS is elicited (see Limitations and Future Directions section). ...
... relationship between (no) social contact and affect (Coplan et al., 2019;Nguyen et al., 2018). The basic effect of longer in-person contact on higher PA and lower NA disappeared in models including desire for social contact or desire to be alone (except for conversations detected through mobile sensing, see below). ...
Social interactions are crucial to affective well-being. Still, people vary interindividually and intraindividually in their social needs. Social need regulation theories state that mismatches between momentary social desire and actual social contact result in lowered affect, yet empirical knowledge about this dynamic regulation is limited. In a gender- and age-heterogenous sample, German-speaking participants (N = 306, 51% women, Mage = 39.41, range 18–80 years) answered up to 20 momentary questionnaires about social interactions and affect while mobile sensing tracked their conversations, calls, and app usage over 2 days. Combining preregistered and exploratory analyses, we investigated how momentary affect relates to social dynamics, focusing on two states of mismatch between social desire and social contact: social deprivation (i.e., being alone but desiring contact) and social oversatiation (i.e., being in contact but desiring to be alone). We used specification curve analyses to scrutinize the operationalization of these constructs. Social oversatiation was associated with decreased positive affect and increased negative affect. Social deprivation, however, was unrelated to affect. Exploratory multilevel models showed that a higher desire to be alone was consistently associated with decreased affective well-being, whereas a higher desire for social contact was related to increased affective well-being. Mobile sensing data revealed differential association patterns between affect and face-to-face versus digital communication. We discuss implications for social need regulation, related studies on voluntary solitude, and advantages of combining experience sampling and mobile sensing assessments.
... When college students do take the opportunity to be alone, such time has been correlated with greater levels of private self-awareness (Franzoi & Brewer, 1984), and affords them the freedom to be themselves (Long et al., 2003), reduce stress (T. T. Nguyen et al., 2018), focus their attention on important tasks (Thomas, 2023b), and engage in personal growth . ...
... Infants (Buchholz & Helbraun, 1999), adolescents (Larson et al., 1982), young adults (T. T. Nguyen et al., 2018), and older adults (Ost Mor et al., 2021) have all been observed to utilize this function of solitude, a process that T. T. Nguyen et al. (2018) described as involving a "de-activating" effect, wherein high arousal states are lowered. Individuals come away from solitude feeling recharged and restored when the self-regulating function is effective. ...
... Infants (Buchholz & Helbraun, 1999), adolescents (Larson et al., 1982), young adults (T. T. Nguyen et al., 2018), and older adults (Ost Mor et al., 2021) have all been observed to utilize this function of solitude, a process that T. T. Nguyen et al. (2018) described as involving a "de-activating" effect, wherein high arousal states are lowered. Individuals come away from solitude feeling recharged and restored when the self-regulating function is effective. ...
To clarify whether, and for whom, solitude is beneficial, this mixed-methods study examined how emerging adults perceive the space of solitude, and whether such perceptions influence utilization of solitude and correspond with psychosocial outcomes. College students (n = 43), balanced in gender and ethnically diverse, completed an online survey followed by a semi-structured interview that explored their attitudes about being alone. Qualitative analysis yielded identification of three types, those who perceived solitude as Empty, Limited, or Full of meaning and activity. Full experienced solitude as enjoyable and multi-dimensional, Empty perceived it as pointless and isolating, and Limited expressed ambivalence or exhibited a one-dimensional capacity for solitude. The Full type was significantly more likely to utilize solitude for self-actualizing purposes such as self-reflection and spiritual connection; however, in terms of adjustment, Full and Empty showed similarly high levels of well-being, though Full was more self-determined in their motivations for solitude. The Limited type showed comparatively modest decreases in well-being. Findings suggest a bifurcation of resources for well-being in emerging adulthood, with solitude serving the Full type and social relationships better serving the Empty type, albeit at the potential cost of self-actualizing experiences. Implications for the Limited type are discussed.
... For example, some are motivated to keep away from others in order to self-reflect and contemplate personal issues or important decisions (Burger, 1995), whereas others are motivated to be alone because of social anxiety and social rejection (Ren et al., 2016). Following Nicol's breakthrough, researchers have re-interpreted solitude from a motivational perspective (Borg & Willoughby, 2022;Chua & Koestner, 2008;Nguyen et al., 2018Nguyen et al., , 2019Thomas & Azmitia, 2019;van Zyl et al., 2018;Yuan & Grühn, 2022). In line with these advances, we approach reasons for solitude from both a general level (assessing a general preference for solitude) and a specific level (distinguishing between self-determined reasons and non-self-determined reasons for it). ...
... Involuntary anxious solitude (i.e., passive anxious withdrawal) in the context of high exclusion is associated with persistent or exacerbated social avoidance (e.g., socially helpless behavior) over the course of a year (Gazelle & Rudolph, 2004). Additionally, when individuals autonomously spend time alone (low avoidance motivation), they report lower loneliness, higher psychological well-being (Chua & Koestner, 2008;Nguyen et al., 2019), increased relaxation, and reduced stress (Nguyen et al., 2018). However, individuals engaging in solitude involuntarily (e.g., anxiety-based avoidance from others-a high avoidance motivation) manifest more loneliness, anxiety, and depression (Thomas & Azmitia, 2019). ...
... 4 It is conventional to record resting-state EEG with both eyes open and eyes closed, because the power of EEG rhythms is different when people open or close their eyes, suggesting varying levels of arousal (Barry et al., 2007;Barry & De Blasio, 2017;Kan et al., 2017;Knyazev et al., 2002;Li, 2010). 5 Although some researchers posit that solitude is associated with self-related topics, such as self-reflection (Burger, 1995), selfrealization (Stern & Wałejko, 2020), and self-regulation (Nguyen et al., 2018), there is no evidence that self-reference/self-evaluation directly affect solitude and motivation. Also, there was an approximately 30-mintue physical cleaning session (i.e., participants cleaned up their hair) before the questionnaire administration. ...
Objective:
What are the motivational underpinnings of solitude? We know from self-report studies that increases in solitude are associated with drops in approach motivation and rises in avoidance motivation, but only when solitude is experienced as non-self-determined (i.e., non-autonomous). However, the extent to which individual differences in solitude relate to neurophysiological markers of approach-avoidance motivation derived from resting-state electroencephalogram (EEG) is unknown. These markers are Frontal Alpha Asymmetry, beta suppression, and midline Posterior versus Frontal EEG Theta Activity.
Method:
We assessed the relation among individual differences in the reasons for solitude (i.e., preference for solitude, motivation for solitude), approach-avoidance motivation, and resting-state EEG markers of approach-avoidance motivation (N = 115).
Results:
General preference for solitude was negatively related to approach motivation, observed in both self-reported measures and EEG markers of approach motivation. Self-determined solitude was positively related to both self-reported approach motivation and avoidance motivation in the social domain (i.e., friendship). Non-self-determined solitude was negatively associated with self-reported avoidance motivation.
Conclusion:
This research was a preliminary attempt to address the neurophysiological underpinnings of solitude in the context of motivation.
... [2,5] In a recent study to focus on this pertinent issue, it has been found that college students who were intrinsically motivated to be in solitude exhibited lower stress levels, experienced more relaxation, and showed higher levels of well-being compared to college students who were alone because of extrinsic reasons (i.e., feeling forced into solitude). [6] Distinguishing between the underlying motivations for solitude is, therefore, important to research younger adults' psychosocial well-being. However, studies that explicitly examined these motivations are limited. ...
... However, studies that explicitly examined these motivations are limited. [6,7] The medical profession, in the Indian society, is one of the highly dreamed career options for the students passing their school board examinations. India is a country with a diverse range of cultures, ethnicities, races, religions, and languages, and these diversities give rise to challenges in the context of managing commonly presenting illnesses. ...
... In general, in comparison to children, adolescents, and emerging adults (like medical students) have increased desires for privacy and they prefer self-selected and constructive solitude (e.g., reading alone). [6,28] Also, from a young age, gendered stereotypes (regarding social roles, traits, and behavior) are typically internalized by, and thereby influential in, the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, of both men and women. [29,30] Specific to social withdrawal, findings show that others (e.g., parents, teachers) respond more negatively to boys who exhibit withdrawn behaviors. ...
Background
Recent reports indicate that self-isolation because of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related lockdowns had significant influence on mental health of medical students.
Aim
To understand the relationship between two different motivations for solitude – self-determined versus non-self-determined with medical students’ COVID-19-related anxiety and psychological resilience during their self-isolation because of COVID-19-related lockdowns.
Materials and Methods
After the approval of the Institutional Ethics Committee, this online survey was done on undergraduate Indian medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Expressing consent at the beginning of the online form, enabled the students to proceed to the next section comprising their sociodemographic details and clinical details. The last section of the form comprised the Motivation for Solitude Scale–Short Form, the COVID-19 Anxiety Scale, and the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-Abbreviated.
Results
282 out of 286 students of either sex gave their consent and completed the given form. Both self-determined and non-self-determined motivations for solitude were higher in female medical students. The self-determined motivation for solitude was directly related to all students’ resilience. A past history of psychiatric illness was directly associated with the non-self-determined motivation for solitude of the students. The non-self-directed motivation for solitude of female students was indirectly related to their resilience. The COVID-19-related anxiety was not related to either type of motivation for solitude as well as the resilience of the medical students.
Conclusion
Indian female medical students are more motivated for solitude, be it self-determined or non-self-determined, than their male counterparts. The student’s resilience has a direct relationship with students’ self-determined motivation. The COVID-19-related anxiety among the medical students is not related to their motivations for solitude or resilience.
... In fact, being alone could be experienced as a moment of recharging from (Larson et al., 1982) and preparing for social interaction (Ross et al., 2023;Turkle, 2016), which could decrease positive and negative affects of high arousal (e.g., excitation and anxiety) and increase the positive affects of low arousal (e.g., relax; Rodriguez et al., 2023). Indeed, when an individual experiences PS rather than loneliness, they could feel various benefits, such as contemplation and self-reflection (Bowker et al., 2021), lower depressive and posttraumatic symptoms (Ost-Mor et al., 2023;Palgi et al., 2021a) as well as self-regulation and mindfulness (Bachman et al., 2022;Nguyen et al., 2018) and restoration , a sense of personal freedom, higher creativity and spirituality, and increased feelings of intimacy . Moreover, a recent study (Thomas, 2023a), through the analysis of participant's narratives, explored the opportunities that being alone could offer, identifying certain properties and benefits of the PS (i.e., focused attention, restoration, reflection, freedom, transcendence), supporting Ost Mor et al. (2021) definition. ...
... In addition, the experience of PS increases over time and is associated with greater benefits, as individuals develop (Weinstein et al., 2021); specifically, PS is related to greater positive outcomes during late adolescence compared to early adolescence (Corsano et al., 2006), as well as in old age compared to adulthood (Weinstein et al., 2021). Hence, the presence of PS experiences could be a sign of regulatory maturity (Nguyen et al., 2018) reflecting an important developmental achievement, described by Winnicott (1958) as in the capacity to be alone. ...
Positive Solitude (PS) is the decision to use one’s time for a meaningful
activity, with a choice made by and for oneself. The purpose of this
study is to validate the Italian version of the Positive Solitude Scale
(PSS) developed by Palgi et al. (2021a). Data were collected through
the administration of a questionnaire to 1,120 Italian adults.
Confirmatory factor analyses showed a bi-factor structure, indicating
that the scale can be considered as unidimensional. Moreover, the
Italian PSS demonstrated good internal consistency, supporting the
scale’s good reliability. Then, PS was associated with improved psychological
well-being, increased mindfulness, higher levels of positive
effects and lower loneliness. However, we found no association
between PS and depressive symptomatology. These results support
a good convergent, discriminant, and divergent validity of the scale.
Finally, this study enhances the understanding of PS in the Italian
context providing a valuable tool for future research.
... heightened vigilance to social evaluations by others (Nguyen et al., 2018;Somerville, 2013). The experience of solitude may also be beneficial for adolescents to pursue personal interest (e.g., reading books, playing instruments) and engage in self-reflection (Bowker et al., 2016). ...
... Those who display affinity for solitude may be perceived as competent in adapting to the changing environment and receive social recognition. The reduced social stigmatization and increased appreciation of enjoyment of being alone may also allow adolescents to concentrate on schoolwork and academic performance, which are more important in higher grades, with relatively little interference from others in social activities (Fu et al., 2016;Larson, 1997;Nguyen et al., 2018). Affinity for solitude was negatively associated with psychological adjustment, indexed by perceived self-worth and depressed feelings, in all three grades. ...
This study examined relations of affinity for solitude with social–behavioral, academic, and psychological adjustment in Chinese children and adolescents. The participants included 3,417 students (1,714 boys) in fourth, sixth, and eighth grades (Mages = 10, 12, and 14 years, respectively) in China. Data on affinity for solitude were collected from students’ self-reports and data on adjustment were collected from multiple sources. The results showed that whereas affinity for solitude was negatively associated with social competence and academic achievement and positively associated with behavioral problems in Grade 4, the associations were weaker or nonsignificant in Grade 6. Moreover, affinity for solitude was positively associated with academic achievement and negatively associated with behavioral problems in Grade 8. Affinity for solitude was negatively associated with psychological adjustment in general, but the associations were weaker in higher grades. The results indicate that the functional meaning of affinity for solitude may differ across developmental periods. Parents, teachers, and professionals should be aware of the different implications of affinity for solitude in childhood and adolescence and use different strategies to support children and adolescents who display affinity for solitude.
... academic outcomes; Eccles et al., 2020) and society in general (Meisters et al., 2021). In contrast to loneliness, solitude in its positive form has a 'de-activation effect' (Nguyen et al., 2018), which describes time alone that reduces the intensity of higharousal emotions, such as anger or excitement, while increasing low-arousal emotions. As a result, solitude can lead to a sense of relaxation, increasing calm or peaceful emotions Toyoshima & Kusumi, 2022;Weinstein et al., 2021), although in some situations when not desired or controlled has also been found to create higher cortisol levels in younger adults (Pauly et al., 2016). ...
... The distinction of different types of motivation for solitude highlights the importance of choice in solitary experiences. While solitude has been shown to dampen strong emotions and allows opportunities for rest and recovery, this effect is only apparent for those who have more choice in how they spend time alone (Nguyen et al., 2018 Weinstein et al., 2023). People also described positive experiences in solitude as the freedom to spend the time in whatever way they wished and the ability to be comfortable with their own company without having to make compromises . ...
The aim of this white paper is to contribute to a wider
understanding of, and stimulate conversations about,
what it means to be alone. We provide a review
of the multi-dimensional experiences of aloneness,
which include (1) the challenges of loneliness, and (2)
the benefits of solitude. It is designed to guide policy
through examining the convergence and divergence
points between enjoyable and distressing moments of
aloneness. The mapping of these broader concepts of
aloneness highlights how solitude interventions might
be relevant for the many people who are isolated, feel
lonely, and have poor psychological health.
The paper discusses what is already known and
understood within both loneliness and solitude
research, taking note of the current policy direction
for alleviating loneliness. We encourage anyone who is
involved in research, delivery, or policy on loneliness
and mental health to read and consider the findings
from this paper. The literature on solitude benefits
contributes more nuanced and balanced understanding
and insights to the existing work on loneliness,
supporting community mental health across the UK.
The findings highlight the importance of positive and
meaningful connections. This means social, community,
environment, and self-connection. For instance, it
is important that we have authentic and enjoyable
relationships and interactions with others, both close
and loose ties, and to feel safe where we live, and to
enjoy the natural environment and community we live
in. Significantly, research also indicates that we need to
enjoy our own company and be able to spend some
time alone. There is a higher likelihood of helplessness,
alienation, distrust, loneliness, and isolation when
such positive and meaningful connections with others
and ourselves are not of good quality or are missing
altogether. A key message from this paper is to value
both alone time and social interactions, both of which
need to be self-determined and embedded in safe and
healthy communities.
https://pospsychbucks.files.wordpress.com/2023/08/alonenesswhitepaperjonesetal.2023.pdf
... There has been growing interest in the implications of unsociability [36], which is generally linked to a lower risk of social maladjustment [37,38]. As aforementioned, unsociability represents a non-fearful preference for solitude rather than a negative attitude determined by emotional or social concerns. ...
... This internal motivation to approach others could serve to at least partially reduce the development of the most pervasive effects of social anxiety. Also, in line with previous studies [37,38], unsociability was the most benign form of social withdrawal, with the lowest means of social anxiety compared to the shy and socially avoidant subgroups. This result was likely due to the nature of this socially withdrawn motivation, representing a preference for solitude free of those fearful tendencies and social concerns that generally result in more severe socio-emotional difficulties [12]. ...
Emerging adults seek solitude because of different underlying motivational and emotional processes. The current short-term longitudinal study aimed to: (1) identify subgroups of socially withdrawn emerging adults characterized by different motivations for solitude (shyness, unsociability, social avoidance) and affect (positive, negative); and (2) compare these subgroups in terms of indices of internalizing difficulties and life-satisfaction. Participants were N = 348 university students (Mage = 21.85 years, SD = 3.84) from Italy, who completed online questionnaires at two-time points separated by three months. Results from a latent profile analysis (LPA) suggested three distinct subgroups characterized by different social withdrawal motivations (i.e., shy, unsociable, and socially avoidant), as well as a non-withdrawn subgroup (characterized by low social withdrawal motivations, low negative affect, and high positive affect). Among the results, the socially avoidant subgroup reported the highest levels of social anxiety, whereas the avoidant and shy subgroups reported the highest loneliness and lowest life satisfaction. The unsociable subgroup appeared to be the most well-adjusted subgroup of socially withdrawn emerging adults and reported similar levels of life satisfaction as the non-withdrawn subgroup. Our findings confirmed the heterogeneity of emerging adults’ experiences of solitude, with different motivations for social withdrawal appearing to confer a differential risk for maladjustment.
... Although less studied empirically, there are also historical writings pertaining to the unique benefits of solitude in adulthood (for a review, see . For example, researchers have emphasized the restorative function of time spent alone (Korpela & Staats, 2021), particularly in terms of emotion regulation (Nguyen et al., 2018), as well as the role of solitude as a context for creative endeavors (Strom, 1976). From a developmental perspective, playing alone in childhood is believed to promote skill development (e.g., self-regulation, Katz & Buchholz, 2006), creativity (Strom, 1976), and autonomy (Winnicott, 1958). ...
... In support of these notions, Abbott-Chapman and Robertson (2009) found that adolescents often sought solitude (in 'favorite places') when they felt the need to take time away from people and things that bothered them. Relatedly, Nguyen et al. (2018) reported that time spent alone among emerging adults had a deactivating effect, reducing both negative and positive higharousal affects. Thus, as was the case in terms of perceived costs, mothers in the current sample tended to describe benefits of solitude that appear to reflect contemporary theory and research in this area. ...
Experiences of solitude are ubiquitous in childhood and adolescence, but there remains considerable debate as to the potential positive versus negative implications of spending time alone across these developmental periods. The goal of this study was to examine maternal beliefs about the costs and benefits of solitude in childhood and adolescence. Participants were 500 mothers aged 23–67 years (M = 41.54, SD = 7.12) of children (n = 246 girls, n = 254 boys) aged of 4–18 years (M = 10.10, SD = 4.58). Mothers rated how ‘beneficial’ and ‘problematic’ it was, overall, for their child/adolescent to spend time alone, and then described up to three specific costs and benefits of solitude at this age. Open-ended responses were categorized into codes reflecting a wide range of costs and benefits. Among the results, mothers most often described potential costs of solitude related to the mental health concerns and problems with peers, and potential benefits of solitude pertaining to promoting autonomy and restoration. Several significant differences in maternal beliefs were also found between mothers of younger children, older children, and adolescents, as well as a function of child gender and experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic. Results are discussed in terms of the complex links between solitude and well-being in childhood and adolescence.
... Consistent with diverging conceptualizations of solitude, psychological research indicates that solitude can be both an asset and a liability to our health and well-being. For instance, solitude can increase life satisfaction (Long et al., 2003), promote emotion regulation (Nguyen et al., 2018;Rodriguez et al., 2020), and reduce stress (Larson & Lee, 1996). However, solitude may also lead to negative affect (Lay et al., 2019), boredom (Wilson et al., 2014), anxiety (Rubin et al., 2002), and loneliness (Williams & Nida, 2011). ...
... Participants across conditions experienced substantial reductions in high-arousal positive affect (e.g., excitement) and high-arousal negative affect (e.g., anger) after only 10 min of solitude. This finding is consistent with research suggesting that solitude serves as an arousal "deactivator" by reducing the intensity of high-arousal positive and negative emotions (Nguyen et al., 2018). Our findings are notable for two reasons. ...
Objective: Solitude is a common experience that can elicit both positive (e.g., relaxation) and negative (e.g., loneliness) emotions. But can changing the way we think about solitude improve its emotional effects? In a previous study, our team found that positively reframing solitude buffers against a reduction in positive affect when alone. Yet, it is unknown whether people who are lonely—and thus more likely to experience solitude negatively—benefit from modifying their beliefs about being alone. Method: Here, we test whether reframing solitude as a beneficial experience or de-stigmatizing loneliness helps people experiencing moderate-to-severe loneliness (N = 224) feel more positive emotion and less negative emotion during solitude. We randomly assigned participants to read about either the benefits of solitude, the high prevalence of loneliness, or a control topic. Then, participants spent 10 min alone in the laboratory. State affect was assessed before and after the solitude period. Results: Across conditions, the solitude period reduced high-arousal positive (e.g., excited) and high-arousal negative (e.g., anxious) affect, and increased lowarousal positive affect (e.g., relaxed). Notably, people who read about the benefits of solitude experienced a significantly larger increase in low-arousal positive affect compared with the control condition.
Conclusion: Our findings indicate that lonely individuals can more readily reap the emotional benefits of solitude when they reframe solitude as an experience that can enhance their well-being.
... Positive freedom of choice and autonomy, coupled with negative freedom from the typical obligations of everyday life, are a combination that has been found to reduce stress and facilitate psychological well-being through elevating feelings of authenticity and of a greater life purpose. Succinctly, these two core elements are what define experiences of distinctly "positive" solitude (Lay et al., 2019;Mor et al., 2020;Nguyen et al., 2018). Taking this understanding further, the self-transformational qualities of positive solitude may be uncovered. ...
... Now unbeholden to the social demands of contextual connection, participants were able to indulge in playful and creative activities. Through gaining the opportunity to engage in desirable behaviors and activities, under their own volition, they were able to reclaim a feeling of autonomy: imperative for positive affective experiences of solitude (Nguyen et al., 2018). The cumulative experiences from all participants regarding their enjoyment of both positive and negative freedoms is indicative of the alignment between outward behaviors and inward cognitive schemas. ...
The Coronavirus (COVID-19) national lockdowns profoundly affected the lives of many, as significant portions of the U.K. population were involuntarily sequestered away from their usual social landscapes into newfound states of solitude. Many millennials (those between the ages of 25 and 40 at the point of study), having lived in an age of constant connection, found themselves in an extended period of solitude for the first time. The current qualitative study explores through Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) how some UK millennials were able to harness the unique self-transformative properties of positive solitude during the COVID-19 national lockdowns. Analysis revealed a narrative of self-discovery, as domains of positive solitude granted the participants freedom from the demands of performative social burdens and encouraged opportunities to engage with mindfulness and meaningful introspection. These activities, within the experience of solitude, encouraged an alignment of inward beliefs and outward behaviors for the participants, thus helping them to cultivate a more congruent self-concept and subsequently a heightened sense of authenticity and enhanced psychological well-being. Clinical implications leading on from the current study highlight the importance of mindfulness and other solitude-promoting interventions as a method to ameliorate depressive symptoms and improve psychological well-being.
... Unsociability refers to the social disinterest and non-fearful preference for solitary activities, being indicative of a motivation to be alone that reflects the positive appeal that solitude and solitary activities hold for individuals [13]. It underscores the important notion that unsociable individuals have an intrinsic motivation for spending alone [16]. Specifically, unsociable children perform withdrawn behaviors due to their preference and enjoyment of solitary activities [13,17]. ...
Research has shown that unsociability, reflecting as a personal choice, is not necessarily associated with socio-emotional problems in Western countries, and the associations between unsociability and peer problems are consistently evident in Chinese culture. Yet the strength and direction of the associations were mixed. The present study aimed to examine whether unsociability is associated with peer problems and explored the potential moderators among the associations. A meta-analysis was conducted using publications that measured unsociability and peer problems. A total of 21 articles involving 43 effect sizes from 12,696 Chinese children and adolescents were included. The results revealed that (1) unsociability was positively associated with peer problems (r = .32, p < .001) among children and adolescents. (2) informants (i.e., self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, parent ratings) and living areas (i.e., urban, suburban, and rural areas) significantly moderated the associations between unsociability and peer problems. Specifically, the associations were stronger for peer-nominated unsociability, self-reported peer problems, and samples in suburban areas. These findings shed light on unsociability linked to higher levels of peer problems among Chinese children and adolescents. Still, the influences are unique to peer problems and moderated by both data sources and environmental factors.
... In particular, loneliness is differentiated from a preference for solitude. Solitude, especially when motivated intrinsically, is often considered more enjoyable and likely beneficial (Chua & Koestner, 2008;Nguyen et al., 2018). Contrary to the negative emotions of loneliness experienced during passive solitude, some individuals typically exhibit a preference for solitude (Burger, 1995) and unsociability (Nelson, 2013). ...
Loneliness is becoming an increasingly prevalent emotional experience in workplaces. While there is a growing body of research concentrating on the adverse effects of workplace loneliness on both individuals and organizations, strategies for effective intervention remain largely unexplored. Through the lens of Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, this study examines how employees’ encounters with workplace loneliness as resource depletion can lead to a decrease in work productivity. It also assesses whether and how workplace mindfulness and job autonomy may buffer this harmful dynamic. A thorough three-wave survey involving 443 IT professionals was conducted to evaluate our theoretical model. The findings reveal that (1) workplace loneliness significantly erodes work productivity and (2) workplace mindfulness and job autonomy act as buffers, and in tandem, they synergistically transform the negative impact of workplace loneliness into a catalyst for enhancing work productivity. This is likely because, in contexts of high workplace mindfulness and autonomy, employees are able to effectively transform the negative emotions associated with involuntary solitude, capitalizing on the benefits of solitude. This research introduces an innovative framework for interventions to address the widespread problem of workplace loneliness and offers valuable practical implications for managing employees’ loneliness.
... Nevertheless, many theorists have also espoused the potential advantages of spending time alone [4], particularly during adolescence [5]. Indeed, there is growing recent empirical support for these postulations, suggesting that solitude is an important context for emotional regulation [6], creativity [7], and self-renewal [8]. ...
Introduction
The goals of this study were to: (1) adapt and validate a measure of aloneliness (Solitude and Aloneliness Scale; SolAS) for use among Indonesian adolescents; (2) examine the associations between aloneliness and indices of well-being in this unique developmental and cultural context; and (3) explore possible grade and gender effects.
Methods
Participants were Indonesian adolescents aged 11–18 years (M = 14.13 years, SD = 1.62; 58.51% girls) who completed self-report assessments of the adapted SolAS (newly created Indonesian translation), as well as indices of adjustment (e.g., well-being, basic psychological need satisfaction).
Results
Among the results, the Indonesian version of the SolAS demonstrated good psychometric properties (e.g., factor structure, good internal reliability) and initial evidence of validity (e.g., significant negative correlations with measures of psychological well-being and basic psychological needs satisfaction). Girls reported higher levels of aloneliness than boys, but no significant grade differences emerged.
Conclusions
The SolAS evidenced good psychometric properties and evidence of validity in a sample of Indonesian adolescents, suggesting it is desirable for cross-cultural research.
... This included finding cathartic or distracting activities, or safe spaces to be alone. The importance of solitude for wellbeing, including self-regulation, self-attunement and self-acceptance are just beginning to be researched (e.g., Nguyen et al., 2018;Sofija et al., 2022). Our participants conveyed how they knew what they needed in order to navigate risks stemming from life pressures and were able to secure these. ...
Youth substance abuse is widespread in India. Data is needed to inform the focus of prevention approaches. Our aim was to understand the perspectives of Indian young people about what protects them from substance (ab)use, and our study followed protocols approved by UK and Indian university research ethics committees. We recruited 15 Indian adolescents from Assam (seven males, eight females) aged 15 to 18 years at elevated risk because they had family/friends who were substance addicts. Participants took part in a photo-led interview in which they represented visually and narratively their experience of resisting substances (ab)use. Data were analyzed by a UK-India team using reflexive thematic analysis. Seven dominant protective factors were expressed by young people, including nurturing and communicative relationships with parents; up close and personal observations around addiction which left participants fearful of substances; protective mindsets and resolutions emerging from participants’ reflection on drug culture; staying away from “bad” company; being repulsed by substances; having healthy ways to cope at difficult times; and having something that mattered more than using substances. Findings show the resilience of Indian adolescents and suggest that prevention approaches in India should focus on augmenting individual, school and family mechanisms which appear dynamic and cumulative.
... Positive solitude, a state that arises when an individual consciously chooses to spend time alone (Ost Mor et al., 2021), allows regulating social distance not only from individuals one does not want to affiliate with, but also from familiar and close others, when needed. This form of voluntary isolation is deemed beneficial for mental well-being as it grants freedom from societal pressures (Lay et al., 2019), encourages self-exploration (Long and Averill, 2003) and facilitates emotional self-regulation (Nguyen et al., 2018). Accordingly, recent studies focused on 'aloneliness', defined as the negative psychological state that arises from a dissatisfaction from one's lack of solitude (Swets and Cox, 2022), further emphasizing the need to be alone at times (positive solitude) (Leary et al., 2003). ...
The tendency of all humans to experience loneliness at some point in their lives implies that it serves an adaptive function. Building on biological theories of herding in animals, according to which collective movement emerges from local interactions that are based on principles of attraction, repulsion, and alignment, we propose an approach that synthesizes these principles with theories of loneliness in humans. We present here the herding model of loneliness, that extends these principles into the psychological domain. We hold that these principles serve as basic building blocks of human interactions and propose that distorted attraction and repulsion tendencies may lead to inability to align properly with others, which may be a core component in loneliness emergence and perpetuation. We describe a neural model of herding in humans and suggest that loneliness may be associated with altered interactions between the gap/error detection, reward signaling, threat, and observation-execution systems. The proposed model offers a framework to predict the behavior of lonely individuals, and thus may inform intervention designs for reducing loneliness intensity.
... Positive solitude refers to being alone without feeling lonely, in a content and happy mental state. Existing research suggests that quality alone time can enhance creativity, productivity, and overall well-being [20] . Positive and healthy solitude helps individuals adjust emotionally and prepares them for more effective social interaction. ...
The Department of Education (DepEd) remains unwavering in its commitment to guiding and nurturing Filipinos who hold a deep love for their country and actively participate in nation-building. It steadfastly pursues a learner-centered approach, instilling values that inspire youth to be God-fearing, humane, environmentally conscious, and patriotic. In line with its mission, DepEd CALABARZON aligns with this vision and emphasizes the importance of values education in the Philippine Curriculum. Recognizing the significance of values, DepEd consistently integrates core values – MakaDiyos, Makatao, Makakalikasan, and Makabansa – into its educational framework. These values are assessed quarterly alongside academic achievements, shaping learners into well-rounded individuals. Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao and the Homeroom Guidance Program further foster commendable values and attitudes, motivating students to excel in both education and employment. However, the current assessment and recognition system fails to emphasize the importance of value formation, leading students to undervalue these essential qualities as they complete basic education. A cultural shift is necessary to promote positive values that foster a highly innovative and trust-based society. DepEd CALABARZON conducts a qualitative-quantitative study to identify factors contributing to learners’ values, characters, and attitudes and the challenges they face in evolving these traits. The study aims to propose an innovative character education program rooted in DepEd’s core values, Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao, and Homeroom Guidance competencies. This program seeks to recognize excellence in shaping fully developed CALABARZON learners, thereby strengthening DepEd’s core values and producing notable graduates in the future.
... As in qualitative interviews, there is a strong connection between solitude and peace of mind. According to the participants and some other researchers, organizing the mind's thoughts by temporarily leaving the mainstream of life in the house is an opportunity to temporarily release the mind from daily affairs (Nguyen et al., 2018). This possibility of interruption is an opportunity to address oneself. ...
Although many studies have defined the concept of “sense of place” (SOP), only a few have investigated the impact of different behavioral types on the degree of autonomy. Based on the existing literature, behaviors have been categorized along a spectrum ranging from spontaneous to controlled forms. This study aims to examine the effect of three behavioral types, namely autonomous, normative, and controlled, on the SOP in the front yards of homes in Ahwaz city, Iran, using a mixed-method approach. To begin with, the researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with sixteen residents to identify and understand various behavioral types. Subsequently, a survey was administered to 248 participants who owned homes with front yards oriented in the north–south direction. The validation and predictive capability of the structural model were assessed through the R-squares coefficient (0.564), indicating an acceptable fit for the endogenous structures in the model. The findings of this study reveal that autonomous behavior had the most significant impact on shaping the SOP. In contrast, control behaviors, which stem from external or forced stimuli, showed only a marginal effect on the sense of place. Normative behaviors, with a moderate level of control, had a more considerable impact on the SOP, second only to autonomous behavior. Consequently, the results emphasize that factors such as the flexibility and adaptability of individuals in response to situational changes, stemming from voluntary behaviors, significantly contribute to the development of a SOP.
... The present findings indicate that many seek solitude and quiet in procrastinating their bedtime. Given that research shows spending time alone can help regulate emotions and have a calming effect (Nguyen et al., 2018), it is not surprising that solitude is sought after work when winding down before bed. Thus, bedtime procrastination can be beneficial -used to fulfil unmet psychological needs, or as a coping mechanism for negative feelings. ...
Background
Bedtime procrastination, the volitional delay of going to bed without any external circumstances causing the delay, is linked to multiple indicators of inadequate sleep. Intervening to reduce bedtime procrastination may be an important avenue to improve sleep outcomes, yet the phenomenon remains poorly understood in populations at risk for bedtime procrastination. New career starters, those who have graduated from tertiary education and started a new full‐time job within the past 12 months, may be susceptible to problematic bedtime procrastination and are at an opportune time for a ‘fresh start’ to change behaviour.
Aims
The objectives of this study were to understand how bedtime procrastination is experienced and perceived by new career starters, to identify the enablers and barriers to behaviour change in new career starters and to explore themes for future interventions.
Materials & Methods
Data were collected through in‐depth semi‐structured interviews with 28 participants.
Results
Inductive thematic analysis was used to find seven themes: (1) negative feelings before and during bedtime procrastination; (2) wanting to versus knowing I shouldn't; (3) difficulty falling asleep; (4) influence of automatic processes; (5) consequences of bedtime procrastination; (6) lack of self‐control and (7) technology captures late‐night attention. Participants emphasised the need for me‐time, self‐negotiation to continue procrastinating and knowledge of the value of sleep.
Discussion & Conclusion
Findings suggest that bedtime procrastination involves both reflective and automatic cognitive processes. Future interventions would benefit from a dual‐process approach, using cognitive and behavioural techniques to reduce bedtime procrastination.
... This finding may be explained by the paradoxical nature of solitude, such that spending time alone during adolescence may be uncomfortable but also constructive (Larson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1978). Given that both of these groups also reported spending time alone for positive reasons, it may be that solitude provides adolescents in these groups with the ability to self-regulate and self-reflect on their thoughts and feelings, which serves as an overall beneficial function (Borg & Willoughby, 2022a;Nguyen et al., 2018;Thomas & Azmitia, 2019). ...
Research examining the link between solitude and psychosocial adjustment among adolescents has lacked a comprehensive, person-centered examination of differential patterns of both solitude and sociability. The current study surveyed 1071 adolescents (Mage = 12.48, SD = 1.71, 49.86% female, age range = 10–16 years). Using latent-profile analysis, four groups were identified with differential patterns of characteristics of solitude (i.e., enjoyment, motivations, preference, frequency) and sociability. Results indicated that worse psychosocial adjustment across time points was associated with membership in the PFS-NonSociable group (characterized by high enjoyment, preference, and frequency of solitude; low sociability) compared to all other groups. Findings suggest that solitude for adolescents appears to be linked to worse psychosocial adjustment only if accompanied by a lack of sociability.
... For instance, it is conceivable that individuals with positive attitudes toward being alone (Campbell & Ross, 2022), higher preference for solitude (e. g., "I enjoy being by myself; Burger, 1995), or an inclination for experiencing "joy of missing out" (JOMO; Brinkmann, 2019) self-exclude more often than individuals without these traits. In the short term, the intrinsic motivation to spend time alone has been linked to increased relaxation and reduced stress (Nguyen et al., 2018). Coplan et al. (2019) even found that, for some individuals, the perception of not spending enough time alone is negatively associated with well-being (i.e., increased negative affect). ...
The present paper investigates the psychological and behavioral responses postulated within the Temporal Need-Threat Model of a specific form of social exclusion: Not being included in other users’ social media posts. Across two experiments (N Total = 563), we distinguished two reasons for this aversive experience: (a) Voluntarily choosing not to engage in the activity being displayed in the post (i.e. self-exclusion); (b) not being invited to this activity (i.e. other-exclusion). Compared to the inclusion condition, being excluded was – for both reasons – associated with threatened needs and impaired emotional responses. As hypothesized, these detrimental effects were more pronounced for other- than for self-exclusion. Concerning coping behavior, we found that self-excluded users more frequently behaved in a prosocial way, whereas those who were excluded by others performed more withdrawal behavior. Depending on self- versus other-exclusion, different coping behaviors were more versus less effective in restoring needs and regulating emotions.
... While there is a wealth of evidence on the benefits of social connection, solitude as a construct appears to be understudied in positive education research. Given that solitude can reduce stress, anxiety, and anger as well as increase relaxation and calmness [46], our results not only contribute to the literature, but also provide further credence to the effectiveness of positive education in ameliorating SWB. ...
The profile of subjective well-being (SWB) in university students is perturbing in many respects. Indeed, university students are in need of tools to combat stress and promote SWB now more than ever given the adverse repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Positive education could serve as a SWB tool to help university students deal with academic, personal, and global stressors. While a number of studies have quantitatively reported the impact of positive education on student SWB, few have considered students’ experiences and perceptions of changes in their SWB as a result of taking a positive education course. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore university students’ experiences in a positive education course and their perceptions of its influence on their SWB immediately after taking the course. Undergraduate students ( n = 17) who had taken a positive education course during the Winter term of 2020 (January–April) were recruited via volunteer sampling. Data were collected by means of semi-structured interviews and analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Analyses revealed that the course improved the students’ SWB, self-compassion, mindfulness, and optimism. Mechanisms such as greater self-reflection, implementation of intentional positive activities, and big picture thinking underlie these reported improvements. Our findings support positive education’s effectiveness in enhancing student SWB and expand on the current literature by proposing novel mechanisms linking positive education to enhanced student SWB, self-compassion, mindfulness, and optimism.
... In addition, this study suggested that when the time spent alone become an overall response tendency, it could evolve into a "misanthropy effect" that was detrimental to adolescents' mental health (3). In line with such idea, one study showed that the longer time spent alone per day would predict lower levels of adolescents' positive affect and satisfaction with life (34). However, it was also proposed that perceptions of not spending enough time alone could also be linked to adolescents' negative feelings (26). ...
Objectives
From the perspective of person-centered research, the present study aimed to identify the potential profiles of solitude among late adolescents based on their solitary behavior, motivation, attitude, and time alone. In addition, to echo the paradox of solitude, we further explored the links between solitude profiles and adjustment outcomes.
Methods
The participants of the study were 355 late adolescents (56.34% female, M age = 19.71 years old) at three universities in Shanghai, China. Measures of solitary behavior, autonomous motivation for solitude, attitude toward being alone, and time spent alone were collected using adolescents' self-report assessments. The UCLA Loneliness Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Basic Psychological Needs Scales were measured as indices of adjustment.
Results
Latent profile analysis revealed four distinct groups: absence of the aloneness group (21.13%), the positive motivational solitude group (29.01%), the negative motivational solitude group (38.03%), and the activity-oriented solitude group (11.83%). Differences emerged among these four groups in terms of loneliness, depressive symptoms, and basic needs satisfaction, with adolescents in the negative motivational solitude group facing the most risk of psychological maladjustment.
Conclusion
Findings revealed the possible heterogeneous nature of solitude among Chinese late adolescents and provided a theoretical basis for further understanding of adolescents' solitary state.
Daily need satisfaction for relatedness (social connection), autonomy (volitional self‐congruent action), and competence (self‐efficacy) fosters well‐being, but those findings primarily reflect experiences during social interactions. A three‐week daily diary study ( N = 178) explored psychological need satisfaction in two key everyday contexts: solitude and social. Holding constant the benefits of need‐satisfying social contexts, autonomy satisfaction during solitude was key to peaceful affect, whereas competence satisfaction during solitude contributed to lower loneliness; both psychological needs in solitude contributed to evaluating the day as more satisfying. Relatedness‐deficiency in solitude did not contribute to loneliness; instead, those who were relatedness‐deficient in social interactions felt lonely. Further, need satisfaction in solitude compensated for deficient needs in social contexts, reducing loneliness (autonomy and relatedness) and increasing day satisfaction (all needs) when social contexts failed to satisfy needs. Findings suggest daily solitude can shape daily well‐being and further attention is needed to understand and ultimately improve everyday solitude.
Objective
This research explored arousal levels as a motivating factor for solitude‐seeking. We hypothesized that solitude becomes more desirable when high‐arousal emotions were heightened and individual differences in extraversion and neuroticism would moderate this pattern.
Method
We tracked individuals' hourly experiences throughout a day. We assessed their high‐arousal positive (e.g., excitement) and negative emotions (e.g., tension), whether they were alone or with others, and their preferred situation at the time of the signal. We gathered 4338 surveys from 362 participants, with 103 participants completing all hourly surveys.
Results
Preference for and incidence of solitude changed throughout the day. Contrary to our hypotheses, lagged analyses did not indicate high‐arousal emotions predicting reports of being alone an hour later. However, individuals were more likely to express a preference for solitude while experiencing high‐arousal negative emotions, and less so while experiencing positive emotions. Younger individuals display stronger preference for solitude during experiences of high‐arousal negative emotions. Extraversion and neuroticism did not moderate these patterns.
Conclusions
The results highlight the distinctive appeal of solitude as a space for young adults to deal with negative emotions. We discussed how these findings are connected to existing literature and implications for future research.
Objective/Background
Flow, a psychological state of intense engagement in and enjoyment of an activity, can arise during both solitary and socially interactive experiences. In the literature, whereas people high in extraversion have difficulty achieving flow in solitude, those with an autotelic personality—a combination of traits that make people prone to flow—readily experience flow in both solitary and interactive conditions. In this pre‐registered experiment, we investigated whether autotelic personality mitigates the negative association between solitary flow and extraversion.
Method
Participants and their romantic partners (final N = 368) played the game Perfection™ in three conditions (order was counterbalanced): alone ( solitary condition ), in the presence of their partner without interaction ( mere‐presence condition ), and collaboratively ( interactive condition ).
Results
There were independent, positive main effects of extraversion and autotelic personality on flow experience in mere‐presence and interactive conditions. However, the positive effect of extraversion on solitary flow was only significant among participants with high (vs. low) autotelic personality. In all conditions, flow experience was associated with greater low‐arousal positive affect and lesser high‐arousal negative affect.
Conclusions
The findings shed light on the role of personality in promoting solitary flow experiences, and particularly how traits might interact to determine optimal and non‐optimal conditions for achieving flow.
Anna-Liisa Haakana is a Finnish novelist best known for her realistic stories set in Sápmi (better known in English by its colonial name “Lapland”) during the 1980s. Haakana’s teenage protagonists, Ykä in Ykä Yksinäinen (Ykä the Lonely, 1980) and Anitra in Ykköstyttö (Number One Girl, 1981), feel lonely and isolated despite being surrounded by their families. Loneliness, as Fay Alberti reminds us, is a social and cultural phenomenon which has its own history. In Haakana’s pre-internet novels, loneliness is mapped onto the northern landscape such that the protagonists’ perceptions of their homes are tinged with feelings of isolation. In this article, I investigate the links between the feelings of loneliness and landscape by drawing on Sara Ahmed’s work on queer orientations to examine the geo-spatial dimensions of loneliness. Although neither of the novels by Haakana examined here are romances per se, desire acts as a form of way-finding for both Ykä and Anitra. For both teens, feelings of love combined with the desire to care for someone vulnerable orient them towards their homes. To do so, they must move: stillness leads to feelings of loneliness and topophobia, but movement leads to feelings of purpose and topophilia.
Most past research on positive affect and emotion has focused exclusively on high-arousal positive affect (HAPA: e.g., excited), however, low-arousal positive affect (LAPA: e.g., calm) increasingly is included in emotion research. As such, there is a need to synthesize knowledge about the similarities and differences between LAPA and HAPA, the operationalization of LAPA and HAPA, and the distinct characteristics and importance of LAPA within emotional life. A systematic search identified 226 research papers comparing LAPA with HAPA from a broad spectrum of research topics; this review provides a narrative summary of their findings. Indications of differences between LAPA and HAPA were found in 89% of comparisons, with LAPA having a consistently distinguishable relationship to variables such as brain activity, cardiovascular health, decision-making, memory, mindfulness, personality, and solitude, among others. Other notable aspects of LAPA were found, including its role in stress, work, positive sociality, and well-being, as well as its importance in older adults and women. An analysis of items used to measure LAPA and HAPA revealed nuanced differences in conceptualizations, as well as emerging consensus around specific item usage. While considering item use in light of approach-avoidance motivation, we identified three possible LAPA subtypes: calm (a steady state of neither approach nor avoidance), satisfaction (having successfully approached), and relief (having successfully avoided). This review clarifies LAPA’s role in affective life, underscoring that LAPA’s differences from HAPA should be considered in research involving positive affect.
The aim of this study is to develop a valid and reliable scale to determine the reclusion tendency levels in adults. The sample group is consistent with adults between the ages of 18-60 (Mage=26.2 years; age range: 18-33 years). A literature review was performed and existing scales were examined prior to this study. Potential items were formed. Then the data collection using the template scale began. The collected data was used for exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and for the purpose of testing the structural validity of the scale. As a result of the exploratory factor analysis, a measuring tool of 22 items consisting of four sub-dimensions of internal observation, spirituality, productivity, and autonomy sub-dimensions that explain the 58,51% of the total variations was formed. There is a meaningful positive correlation identified between the Reclusion Tendency Scale and the Preference For Solitude scale (r=.49; p <.001). The total reliability coefficient is calculated .92; .88 for “internal observation”, .88 for “spirituality”, .66 for “autonomy”, and .75 for “productivity” sub-dimensions. The findings from this study suggest that the reclusion tendency scale is a valid and reliable scale when tested in a sample of young adults.
The present study aims to differentiate groups of children and early adolescents characterized by their motivations for social withdrawal and personal experiences with solitude. Participants were N = 561 (307 girls) children and early adolescents, aged 8–14 years ( M = 11.32, SD = 1.63), who completed self‐report assessments of motivations for social withdrawal (i.e., shyness, unsociability), social/asocial dissatisfaction (i.e., loneliness, aloneliness), time alone, affect during solitude, personality traits (i.e., Big Five), and indices of internalizing difficulties (i.e., social anxiety, depression). Results from a Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) provided evidence of three distinct groups characterized by different motivations for social withdrawal and experiences with solitude: (1) the shy group, characterized by higher levels of loneliness, social anxiety, depression, and emotional instability; (2) the unsociable group, who reported higher levels of aloneliness and average scores of extraversion and internalizing difficulties; and (3) the sociable group, characterized by lower levels of both loneliness and aloneliness, and higher levels of extraversion. Overall, findings confirmed the heterogeneity in how children and early adolescents experience solitude, their motivations, and individual dispositions.
Objective
People value solitude in varying degrees. Theories and studies suggest that people's appreciation of solitude varies considerably across persons (e.g., an introverted person may value solitude more than an extraverted person), and solitude experiences (i.e., on average, people may value some functions of solitude, e.g., privacy, more than other functions, e.g., self‐discovery). What are the unique contributions of these two sources?
Method
We surveyed a quota‐based sample of 501 US residents about their perceived importance of a diverse set of 22 solitude functions.
Results
Variance component analysis reveals that both sources contributed to the variability of perceived importance of solitude (person: 22%; solitude function: 15%). Crucially, individual idiosyncratic preferences (person–by‐solitude function interaction) had a substantial impact (46%). Further analyses explored the role of personality traits, showing that different functions of solitude hold varying importance for different people. For example, neurotic individuals prioritize emotion regulation, introverted individuals value relaxation, and conscientious individuals find solitude important for productivity.
Conclusions
People value solitude for idiosyncratic reasons. Scientific inquiries on solitude must consider the fit between a person's characteristics and the specific functions a solitary experience affords. This research suggests that crafting or enhancing positive solitude experiences requires a personalized approach.
Introduction
Solitude represents an important context for emerging adults' well‐being; but to date, little is known about how emerging adults spend their time alone. The goals of this study were to: (1) describe and characterize solitary activities among emerging adults attending university; (2) examine links between solitary activities and indices of adjustment; and (3) explore the moderating role of affinity for solitude in these associations.
Methods
Participants were N = 1798 university students aged 18–25 years ( M age = 19.73, SD = 1.46; 59.7% female) who completed assessments of how/why they spend time alone and indices of psychosocial adjustment (e.g., well‐being, psychological distress, loneliness, and aloneliness).
Results
Emerging adults who spent time alone predominantly thinking reported poor adjustment outcomes (i.e., higher loneliness and psychological distress, and lower well‐being) and dissatisfaction with solitude, whereas those who engaged in active leisure activities or passive technology use while alone reported lower psychological distress and higher satisfaction with solitude. The negative implications of doing nothing were not attenuated at higher levels of affinity for solitude.
Discussion
These findings suggest that some solitary activities are more beneficial than others.
Objective
To examine the associations that narcissistic personality traits had with the preference for solitude.
Background
Preference for solitude may be impacted by various characteristics. Narcissism may be one such characteristic given its association with specific motivations for engagement with other individuals (e.g., status attainment).
Method
We examined whether the associations that narcissism had with the preference for solitude were moderated by perceived attainment of status or instability of status.
Results
Across three studies ( N = 627/479/675), extraverted narcissism had the expected aversion to solitude. Antagonistic narcissism and neurotic narcissism did not have consistent associations with the preference for solitude across these studies, nor did the perceived attainment of status consistently moderate the links between narcissistic personality features and the preference for solitude. However, perceived instability of status moderated the associations that extraverted narcissism and antagonistic narcissism had with the preference for solitude. More specifically, the more stable status was perceived to be, the greater the aversion to solitude for those high in extraverted narcissism and the greater the preference for solitude for those high in antagonistic narcissism.
Conclusions
This pattern of results suggests that the motivations underlying preferences for solitude differ depending on particular narcissistic traits that predict whether one is more concerned with maintaining, gaining, or losing status. These results build upon what is known about the connections that narcissism has with the preference for solitude.
Older adults spend significant time by themselves, especially since COVID‐19. Solitude has been associated with positive and negative outcomes. Partners need to balance social connectedness with time for one's own needs. This project examines how individual and partner solitude are associated with daily affect and relationship quality in dyads of older adults and a close other. One‐hundred thirty‐six older adults plus a close other rated their relationship quality and reported affect, solitude, and its characteristics (desired and bothersome) every evening for 10 days. Over and above overall associations, individual and partner effects emerged; when individual desired solitude was up, participants reported more positive affect and their partners less negative affect. When bothersome solitude was up, participants and their partners alike reported more negative affect and less positive affect. Desired solitude was associated with more support, whereas bothersome solitude was associated with less partner support. Findings provide further evidence on the potential benefits of solitude, highlighting the importance of considering the social context of what is often believed to be an individual‐level phenomenon.
What leads to peaceful and enjoyable solitude? Little is known about which personality and mindset qualities benefit individuals during time spent alone. The current study was designed to build a foundation for future quantitative and qualitative research making a priori predictions about well‐being (e.g., relaxation) or ill‐being (e.g., loneliness) when individuals are in solitude. Semi‐structured interviews of n = 60 participants, aged 19–80, were analyzed into themes. Exposure to the benefits of solitude early in life and personality characteristics that cross life's domains (capacity for introspection and self‐reflection and optimism) were associated with enjoying solitude. Mindsets recognizing that solitude benefits self‐connection, as well as in situ factors of creativity and curiosity, appeared to play important roles. In a final theme, self‐compassion, a present focus and perspective taking helped to alleviate discomfort during difficult moments of solitude. These findings deepen our understanding of which qualities individuals bring forward to enhance their moments of solitude.
In this article, I draw upon a participatory research project to explore how solitude enhanced a sense of place-attachment and wellbeing for former refugees in Aotearoa New Zealand. Solitude is overlooked in refugee resettlement research, which instead prioritizes theories of social participation and integration. However, positive experiences of aloneness enabled participants to freely regulate their emotions, express their identities, restructure their surroundings, and build meaningful place-attachments. Such emotionally transformative experiences are central to feeling well in new places, and I therefore argue that solitude requires researchers and policymakers’ attention as part of a more balanced resettlement approach; where the stressful work of social participation and integration are tempered with the necessary time and space for individuals to rest, reflect, and rejuvenate. In particular, resettling refugees could benefit from more research on the intersectional nuances of solitude and enhanced access to local knowledge, space, and resources to pursue meaningful solitary activities.
Thinking about the universe also includes thinking about hypothetical extraterrestrial intelligence. Two key questions
arise: Why are we thinking about them in the first place? And why are we anthropomorphizing them? One possible
explanation may be that the belief in extraterrestrials results from a subjective feeling of loneliness or the need for
closure. Results of an online questionnaire (N = 130) did not reveal a confident and consistent correlation between personal
feelings of aloneness or need for closure and belief in extraterrestrial life or intelligence. The same was true for the
anthropomorphic representation of extraterrestrial intelligence. The belief in extraterrestrial life was negatively linked
to frequent religious activity, and to a lesser and more uncertain extent, to the belief in extraterrestrial intelligence. As
evidenced by their parameter estimates, participants demonstrated an intuitive grasp of the probabilities inherent in the
Drake equation. However, there was significant variability in the solutions provided. When asked to describe hypothetical
extraterrestrials, participants mainly assessed them in terms connoted with physical appearance, neutral to humans,
and partially influenced by anthropomorphism. Given the severe limitations, we conservatively conclude that individual
loneliness is indeed individual and does not break the final frontier, that is, space.
Self-determination theory proposes a multidimensional representation of motivation comprised of several factors said to fall along a continuum of relative autonomy. The current meta-analysis examined the relationships between these motivation factors in order to demonstrate how reliably they conformed to a predictable continuum-like pattern. Based on data from 486 samples representing over 205,000 participants who completed 1 of 13 validated motivation scales, the results largely supported a continuum-like structure of motivation and indicate that self-determination is central in explaining human motivation. Further examination of heterogeneity indicated that while regulations were predictably ordered across domains and scales, the exact distance between subscales varied across samples in a way that was not explainable by a set of moderators. Results did not support the inclusion of integrated regulation or the 3 subscales of intrinsic motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation to know, to experience stimulation, and to achieve) due to excessively high interfactor correlations and overlapping confidence intervals. Recommendations for scale refinements and the scoring of motivation are provided.
Can people enjoy thinking if they set their mind to it? Previous work suggests that many people do not enjoy the deliberate attempt to have pleasurable thoughts. We suggest that deliberately thinking for pleasure requires mental resources that people are either unwilling or unable to devote to the task. If so, then people should enjoy pleasant thoughts that occur unintentionally more than pleasant thoughts that occur intentionally. This hypothesis was confirmed in an experience sampling study (Study 1) in which participants were contacted 4 times a day for 7 days and asked to rate what they had been thinking about. In Studies 2-5 we experimentally manipulated how easy it was for people to engage in pleasurable thought when given the goal of doing so. All participants listed topics they would enjoy thinking about; then some were given a simple "thinking aid" that was designed to make this experience easier. Participants who received the aid found the experience easier and enjoyed it more. The findings suggest that thinking for pleasure is cognitively demanding, but that a simple thinking aid makes it easier and more enjoyable. (PsycINFO Database Record
Don't leave me alone with my thoughts
Nowadays, we enjoy any number of inexpensive and readily accessible stimuli, be they books, videos, or social media. We need never be alone, with no one to talk to and nothing to do. Wilson et al. explored the state of being alone with one's thoughts and found that it appears to be an unpleasant experience. In fact, many of the people studied, particularly the men, chose to give themselves a mild electric shock rather than be deprived of external sensory stimuli.
Science , this issue p. 75
A model that integrates and builds on the job demands-resources model and selfdetermination
theory is proposed to better understand the role of work motivation in relation
to job resources, occupational commitment and emotional exhaustion. Two forms of
motivation were studied: autonomous motivation, in which employees act with volition,;
and controlled motivation, in which they act under internal or external pressure. Data were
collected at two time points nine months apart from a sample of 586 school principals in
Quebec, Canada. SEM analysis results support the hypothesized model. Specifically, job
resources had a positive effect on autonomous motivation but a negative effect on controlled
motivation. In addition, taking into account the cross-lagged effects of job resources on
commitment and exhaustion, autonomous motivation had a negative effect on exhaustion but
a positive effect on commitment whereas controlled motivation had a positive effect on
exhaustion. These results advance the understanding of why work motivation acts on
employee functioning and how it can play an active role in both the motivational and
energetic processes of the job demands-resources model. Practical implications and further
theoretical implications are discussed.
Social withdrawal has been associated with adjustment difficulties across development. Although much is known about shyness, little is known about preference-for-solitude; even less is known about its relations with adjustment across different periods of adolescence. We examined whether preference-for-solitude might be differentially associated with adjustment difficulties in early and late adolescence. Self- and parent-reports of withdrawal motivations and adjustment were collected from 234 eighth graders (113 boys; M age = 13.43) and 204 twelfth graders (91 boys; M age = 17.25). Results from structural equation modeling demonstrated that above and beyond the effects of shyness, preference-for-solitude was more strongly associated with adjustment difficulties in 8th grade than in 12th grade. Preference-for-solitude was associated with greater anxiety/depression, emotion dysregulation, and lower self-esteem in 8th grade; these relations were not found in 12th grade. Although preference-for-solitude was associated with lower social competence in both 8th and 12th grades, this relation was significantly stronger in 8th grade than in 12th grade. Findings suggest preference-for-solitude has closer ties to maladjustment in early adolescence than in late adolescence. Interventions targeting preferred-solitary youth in early adolescence may be particularly fruitful.
In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
A meta-analysis, a review, and an experiment investigated the effect of arousal on attraction. The meta-analysis examined experiments that manipulated arousal level. Results indicated that arousal affects attraction even when the arousal source is relatively unambiguous. In contrast, a review of experiments that manipulated arousal source ambiguity suggested that arousal exerts a stronger influence on attraction when arousal sources are greater in ambiguity. The authors proposed a judgment and adjustment model that states that arousal automatically affects judgments of attraction but that individuals can correct (i.e., adjust) for this automatic effect when the arousal source is unambiguous. Consistent with this model, an experiment provided evidence that cognitive busyness interferes with the adjustment process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The independence of positive and negative affect has been heralded as a major and counterintuitive finding in the psychology of mood and emotion. Still, other findings support the older view that positive and negative fall at opposite ends of a single bipolar continuum. Independence versus bipolarity can be reconciled by considering (a) the activation dimension of affect, (b) random and systematic measurement error, and (c) how items are selected to achieve an appropriate test of bipolarity. In 3 studies of self-reported current affect, random and systematic error were controlled through multiformat measurement and confirmatory factor analysis. Valence was found to be independent of activation, positive affect the bipolar opposite of negative affect, and deactivation the bipolar opposite of activation. The dimensions underlying D. Watson, L. A. Clark, and A. Tellegen's (1988) Positive and Negative Affect schedule were accounted for by the valence and activation dimensions.
The primary goals of this study were to test a conceptual model linking social approach and avoidance motivations, socially withdrawn behaviors, and peer difficulties in later childhood and to compare the socioemotional functioning of different subtypes of withdrawn children (shy, unsociable, avoidant). Participants were 367 children, aged 9-12 years. Measures included assessments of social motivations (i.e., self-reported shyness and preference for solitude) and social withdrawal (observations of solitary behaviors in the schoolyard and self-reports of solitary activities outside of school), as well as self- and parent-reported peer difficulties and internalizing problems. Among the results, both shyness and preference for solitude were associated with socially withdrawn behaviors, which in turn predicted peer difficulties. However, only shyness (but not preference for solitude) also displayed a direct path to peer difficulties. As well, results from person-oriented analyses indicated that different subtypes of socially withdrawn children displayed decidedly different profiles with regard to indices of internalizing problems. For example, whereas unsociable children did not differ from their nonwithdrawn peers on indices of internalizing problems, socially avoidant (i.e., high in both shyness and unsociability) children reported the most pervasive socioemotional difficulties. Findings are discussed in terms of the implications of different forms of social withdrawal for socioemotional functioning in later childhood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
In Western, postindustrial societies, the timing of home leaving is increasingly delayed. The diversity of home-leaving patterns, resulting from this evolution, has not yet been systematically studied from a psychological perspective. In this study, the authors aimed to examine how emerging adults' living arrangements-and the motives underlying those arrangements, as conceptualized in self-determination theory-relate to subjective well-being. A Belgian sample of 224 emerging adults and their parents completed self-report questionnaires. Analyses that used structural equation modeling showed that autonomous motivation for one's living arrangement is more strongly related to emerging adults' well-being than the living arrangement per se. Further, autonomy-supportive parenting was found to relate positively to an autonomously regulated residential status. Implications for the meaning and development of autonomy during emerging adulthood are discussed.
As a prototypic negative emotion, anger would seem to have little in common with positive activation, as measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; D. Watson, L. A. Clark, & A. Tellegen, 1988). However, growing evidence suggests that both anger and positive affect are associated with approach motivation. This suggests the counterintuitive hypotheses that positive affect should be increased by anger-evoking situations, and that positive affect and anger should be directly correlated in such situations. Four studies tested and supported these hypotheses. Discussion focuses on the implications of these results.
People are often seen as social creatures and, consequently, solitary behaviors are often cast in a negative light. However, the authors hypothesized that the act of spending time alone is not necessarily related to negative outcomes; rather, individuals' motivation for doing so plays a key role. On the basis of self-determination theory (E. L Deci & R. M. Ryan, 2000; R. M. Ryan & E. L. Deci, 2000), the authors predicted and found that when individuals spend time alone in a volitional and autonomous manner, they counterintuitively report lower levels of loneliness and higher levels of well-being.
Theories of internalization typically suggest that self-perceptions of the "causes" of (i.e. reasons for) behavior are differentiated along a continuum of autonomy that contains identifiable gradations. A model of perceived locus of causality (PLOC) is developed, using children's self-reported reasons for acting. In Project 1, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic types of reasons for achievement-related behaviors are shown to conform to a simplex-like (ordered correlation) structure in four samples. These reason categories are then related to existing measures of PLOC and to motivation. A second project examines 3 reason categories (external, introject, and identification) within the domain of prosocial behavior. Relations with measures of empathy, moral judgement and positive interpersonal relatedness are presented. Finally, the proposed model and conceptualization of PLOC are discussed with regard to intrapersonal versus interpersonal perception, internalization, cause-reason distinctions, and the significance of perceived autonomy in human behavior.
Attachment research has traditionally focused on individual differences in global patterns of attachment to important others. The current research instead focuses primarily on within-person variability in attachments across relational partners. It was predicted that within-person variability would be substantial, even among primary attachment figures of mother, father, romantic partner, and best friend. The prediction was supported in three studies. Furthermore, in line with self-determination theory, multilevel modeling and regression analyses showed that, at the relationship level, individuals' experience of fulfillment of the basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness positively predicted overall attachment security, model of self, and model of other. Relations of both attachment and need satisfaction to well-being were also explored.
Age differences in emotional experience over the adult life span were explored, focusing on the frequency, intensity, complexity, and consistency of emotional experience in everyday life. One hundred eighty-four people, age 18 to 94 years, participated in an experience-sampling procedure in which emotions were recorded across a 1-week period. Age was unrelated to frequency of positive emotional experience. A curvilinear relationship best characterized negative emotional experience. Negative emotions declined in frequency until approximately age 60, at which point the decline ceased. Individual factor analyses computed for each participant revealed that age was associated with more differentiated emotional experience. In addition, periods of highly positive emotional experience were more likely to endure among older people and periods of highly negative emotional experience were less stable. Findings are interpreted within the theoretical framework of socioemotional selectivity theory.
Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness--which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy.
This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is Suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.
This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.
A practical methodology is presented for creating closeness in an experimental context. Whether or not an individual is in a relationship, particular pairings of individuals in the relationship, and circumstances of relationship development become manipulated variables. Over a 45-min period subject pairs carry out self-disclosure and relationship-building tasks that gradually escalate in intensity. Study 1 found greater postinteraction closeness with these tasks versus comparable small-talk tasks. Studies 2 and 3 found no significant closeness effects, inspite of adequate power, for (a) whether pairs were matched for nondisagreement on important attitudes, (b) whether pairs were led to expect mutual liking, or (c) whether getting close was made an explicit goal. These studies also illustrated applications for addressing theoretical issues, yielding provocative tentative findings relating to attachment style and introversion/extraversion.
Seven hundred and fifty-three observations were collected on 25 adolescents at random times during an average week. The observations consisted of self-reports completed in response to an electronic pager. The study was aimed at the question: What is the experience of time alone like for adolescents? The results suggest a complex but consistent relationship: while aloneness is generally a negative experience, those adolescents who spend a moderate amount of time alone (about 30 percent of their waking time) tend to show better overall adjustment than adolescents who are either never alone or spend more than the optimal proportion of time alone. Alienation and average moods showed inverse linear or quadratic relationships with amount of time alone. These results are discussed in terms of the possible psycho-social functions of aloneness at the adolescent stage of the life cycle.
A 4-week experimental study (N = 67) examined the motivational predictors and positive emotion outcomes of regularly practicing two mental exercises: counting one's blessings (“gratitude”) and visualizing best possible selves (“BPS”). In a control exercise, participants attended to the details of their day. Undergraduates performed one of the three exercises during Session I and were asked to continue performing it at home until Session II (in 2 weeks) and again until Session III (in a further 2 weeks). Following previous theory and research, the practices of gratitude and BPS were expected to boost immediate positive affect, relative to the control condition. In addition, we hypothesized that continuing effortful performance of these exercises would be necessary to maintain the boosts (Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005a22.
Lyubomirsky , S ,
Sheldon , KM and
Schkade , D . 2005a. Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9: 111–131. [CrossRef], [Web of Science ®]View all references). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111–131). Finally, initial self-concordant motivation to perform the exercise was expected to predict actual performance and to moderate the effects of performance on increased mood. Results generally supported these hypotheses, and suggested that the BPS exercise may be most beneficial for raising and maintaining positive mood. Implications of the results for understanding the critical factors involved in increasing and sustaining positive affect are discussed.
a b s t r a c t The present study tested a four-factor model of adolescent loneliness and solitude that comprises peer-related loneliness, family loneliness, negative attitude toward solitude, and positive attitude toward sol-itude. Nine different instruments for a total of 14 scales and derivative subscales were completed by a sample of mid-adolescents (N = 534) from Grades 10 through 12 (aged 15–18 years) in the Dutch-speak-ing part of Belgium. As expected, the four-factor solution provided a better fit to the data than did alter-native models that comprised just a single factor, or two and three factors. Use of the Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents (LACA) is recommended, because the instrument measures all four aspects of the model. Implications for current theories on adolescent loneliness and associated phenomena, such as adolescents' attitude toward being on their own, are briefly discussed.
Christopher R. Long and James R. Averill, Solitude: An Exploration of Benefits of Being Alone, pp. 21–44.
Historically, philosophers, artists, and spiritual leaders have extolled the benefits of solitude; currently, advice on how to achieve solitude is the subject of many popular books and articles. Seldom, however, has solitude been studied by psychologists, who have focused instead on the negative experiences associated with being alone, particularly loneliness. Solitude, in contrast to loneliness, is often a positive state—one that may be sought rather than avoided. In this article, we examine some of the benefits that have been attributed to solitude—namely, freedom, creativity, intimacy, and spirituality. In subsequent sections, we consider the environmental settings and personality characteristics conducive to solitude, how time spent alone is experienced differently across the life span, and the potential dangers related to the attractiveness of solitude. We conclude with a brief discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of solitude.
From childhood to old age people spend increasing amounts of their waking hours alone. This paper examines this enlarging solitary part of daily life as a distinct “experiential niche” having unique potentials and liabilities. The paper synthesizes a program of research in which people of different ages have provided reports on their experiences at random times during the day, including times when they are alone. Findings show that the immediate experience of daily solitude is usually one of loneliness and passivity. This is particularly true in adolescence; for older samples aloneness becomes both more common and less emotionally negative. At the same time, adolescents who spend at least some portion of their time alone appear to be better adjusted, perhaps because solitude facilitates the adolescent developmental tasks of individuation and identity formation, while in adulthood and old age, spending large amounts of time alone is more likely to be correlated with poor adjustment.
Typescript. Thesis (M.S.)--University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2006. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 76-77).
This research investigates the quantity and quality of time alone or "solitude" in the daily lives of older adults. A sample of 92 retired adults carried electronic pagers for 1 week and filled out self-reports on their companionship and internal states in response to signals received at random times. Analysis of the 3,412 reports indicates that those who were unmarried and living alone spent a majority of their waking hours alone and experienced low affect and arousal when in this dominant part of their lives. For the married, solitude was also a major part of daily life, filling 40% of their time, but, although it was related with somewhat lower affect, it was also related with higher arousal. These results suggest that being alone is not a wholley negative experience for this age group, especially for those who have the regular companionship of a spouse.
This paper presents evidence from three samples, two of college students and one of participants in a community smoking-cessation program, for the reliability and validity of a 14-item instrument, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), designed to measure the degree to which situations in one's life are appraised as stressful. The PSS showed adequate reliability and, as predicted, was correlated with life-event scores, depressive and physical symptomatology, utilization of health services, social anxiety, and smoking-reduction maintenance. In all comparisons, the PSS was a better predictor of the outcome in question than were life-event scores. When compared to a depressive symptomatology scale, the PSS was found to measure a different and independently predictive construct. Additional data indicate adequate reliability and validity of a four-item version of the PSS for telephone interviews. The PSS is suggested for examining the role of nonspecific appraised stress in the etiology of disease and behavioral disorders and as an outcome measure of experienced levels of stress.
Adolescents spend one-quarter of their waking hours alone, yet the significance of this time is little understood. This study evaluates developmental changes in the experience of solitude between late childhood and early adolescence. Four hundred eighty-three European American fifth through ninth graders provided experience-sampling reports on their companionship and subjective states at random times over a week. The findings show, first, that time alone becomes more voluntary across this age period. Second, time-series analysis shows that for seventh through ninth graders, but not fifth and sixth graders, solitude had a positive after effect on emotional state. Third, adolescents, but not preadolescents, who spent an intermediate amount of their time alone were better adjusted than those who spent little or a great deal of time alone. As a whole, the findings suggest that, while continuing to be a lonely time, in early adolescence solitude comes to have a more constructive role in daily life as a strategic retreat that complements social experience.
In this article, we examine subjective vitality, a positive feeling of aliveness and energy, in six studies. Subjective vitality is hypothesized to reflect organismic well-being and thus should covary with both psychological and somatic factors that impact the energy available to the self. Associations are shown between subjective vitality and several indexes of psychological well-being; somatic factors such as physical symptoms and perceived body functioning; and basic personality traits and affective dispositions. Subsequently, vitality is shown to be lower in people with chronic pain compared to matched controls, especially those who perceive their pain to be disabling or frightening. Subjective vitality is further associated with self-motivation and maintained weight loss among patients treated for obesity. Finally, subjective vitality is assessed in a diary study for its covariation with physical symptoms. Discussion focuses on the phenomenological salience of personal energy and its relations to physical and psychological well-being.
Solitude may be positive or negative, depending on situational and personal factors. From prior research, nine types of solitude were identified. Based on data from a questionnaire study of undergraduate participants, factor analysis suggests that these nine types can be reduced to three dimensions, two positive and one negative. These are, respectively, Inner-Directed Solitude (characterized by self-discovery and inner peace), Outer-Directed Solitude (characterized by intimacy and spirituality), and Loneliness. Personality and value correlates, as well as situational correlates, of the various types of solitude also were explored.
The affective explosion in psychology has led to tremendous advances in mood measurement. Mood ratings reflect a hierarchical structure consisting of two broad dimensions-Positive Affect and Negative Affect-and multiple specific states. Brief scales have been developed that reliably assess Positive and Negative Affect across different populations and time frames, in both between- and within-subject data. We examine controversies related to (a) the content of these higher order scales and (b) the independence of Positive and Negative Affect. Regarding the latter, we show that Positive and Negative Affect scales remain largely independent across a wide range of conditions, even after controlling for random and systematic error. Finally, there remains little consensus regarding the lower order structure of affect. This lack of a compelling taxonomy has substantially slowed progress in assessing mood at the specific affect level.
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The subjective experience of solitude
- C R Long
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- J R Averill
Long, C. R., More, T. A., & Averill, J. R. (2007). The subjective
experience of solitude. In R. Burns & K. Robinson (Chair),
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The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone
- J R Averill
- L Sundararajan
Averill, J. R., & Sundararajan, L. (2014). Experiences of solitude:
Issues of assessment, theory, and culture. In R. J. Coplan &
J. C. Bowker (Eds.), The handbook of solitude: Psychological
perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being
alone (pp. 90-108). Malden, MA: John Wiley.
Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness
- R M Ryan
- E L Deci
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic
psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness.
New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
- Ryan R. M.