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Seismic
faults
and
sacred
sanctuaries
in
Aegean
antiquity
Iain
S.
Stewart
a,
*,
Luigi
Piccardi
b,
*
a
School
of
Geography,
Earth,
&
Environmental
Sciences,
University
of
Plymouth,
Plymouth
PL4
8AA,
UK
b
C.N.R.,
Institute
of
Geosciences
and
Earth
Resources,
Via
G.
La
Pira
4,
50121
Firenze,
Italy
A
R
T
I
C
L
E
I
N
F
O
Article
history:
Received
6
November
2016
Received
in
revised
form
27
July
2017
Accepted
28
July
2017
Available
online
9
September
2017
Keywords:
Earthquakes
Archaeology
Tectonics
Greece
Turkey
A
B
S
T
R
A
C
T
The
ancient
destructive
capability
of
earthquake
faults
is
well
chronicled
by
historians
and
their
cultural
impact
widely
uncovered
by
archaeologists.
Archaeological
and
geological
investigations
at
some
of
the
most
renowned
sites
in
the
ancient
Greece
world,
however,
suggest
a
more
nuanced
and
intimate
relationship
between
seismic
faults
and
past
human
settlements.
In
the
Aegean’s
karstic
landscape
earthquake
fault
scarps
act
as
limestone
ramparts
on
which
fortifications,
citadels
and
acropoli
were
constructed,
and
underlying
fault
lines
were
preferred
pathways
for
groundwater
movement
and
egress.
The
vital
purifactory
or
therapeutic
role
of
natural
springs
in
the
ritual
practices
of
early
settlements
implies
that
the
fault
lines
from
which
they
leaked
may
have
helped
position
the
nascent
hubs
of
Greek
cities.
Equally,
the
tendency
for
earthquakes
to
disrupt
groundwater
patterns
and
occasionally
shut
down
persistent
springs
provides
a
hitherto
unrecognized
mechanism
for
the
abrupt
demise
of
those
same
settlements.
Votive
niches,
carvings,
reliefs
and
inscriptions
on
fault
surfaces
suggest
important
sacred
sanctuaries,
particularly
those
with
oracular
functions,
may
have
been
deliberately
built
astride
active
fault
traces
and
venerated
as
direct
connections
to
the
chthonic
realm
(‘the
underworld’).
Regionally,
the
Aegean’s
distributed
network
of
tensional
faulting,
circulating
geothermal
waters
and
deep-seated
de-
gassing
sets
the
tectonic
framework
for
the
springs
and
gases
that
infuse
the
ancient
Greek
netherworld
of
caves,
chasms,
chambers,
and
sacred
grottos.
The
possibility
that
seismic
faults
may
have
constituted
the
fulcrum
of
prominent
sacred
places
means
that,
for
all
their
obvious
destructiveness,
earthquakes
may
have
had
an
unacknowledged
cultural
significance
in
Greek
antiquity.
Crown
Copyright
©
2017
Published
by
Elsevier
Ltd
on
behalf
of
The
Geologists'
Association.
This
is
an
open
access
article
under
the
CC
BY-NC-ND
license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1.
Introduction
Throughout
human
history
in
the
eastern
Mediterranean
region,
urban
settlements
have
co-existed
with
earthquakes
(de
Boer
and
Sanders,
2006).
The
destructive
capability
of
seismic
activity
is
well
chronicled
by
historians
(Ambraseys,
1971 ;
Guidoboni
et
al.,1994),
and
its
cultural
wreckage
widely
uncovered
by
archaeologists
(Karcz
and
Kafri,
1978;
Rapp,
1986;
Nikonov,
1988;
Stiros
and
Jones,
1996;
Sintubin
et
al.,
2010;
Jusseret
and
Sintubin,
2017).
Accounts
and
observations
of
seismic
damage
to
ancient
constructions
and
relics
offer
partial
information
on
the
size,
location
and
date
of
ancient
earthquakes
(Sintubin
and
Stewart,
2008).
Buildings
and
structures
damaged
by
shaking
or
offset
across
faults
provide
archaeological
markers
that
can
shed
light
on
the
slip
history
of
possible
seismogenic
sources
(e.g.
Marco
et
al.,
1997;
Ellenblum
et
al.,
1998;
Galli
and
Galadini,
2003;
Korjenkov
et
al.,
2003;
Sbeinati
et
al.,
2010;
Passchier
et
al.,
2013)
and
can
inform
regional
seismic
hazard
(Sintubin
et
al.,
2008;
Jusseret,
2014;
Jusseret
and
Sintubin,
2012;
Jusseret
et
al.,
2013).
Any
tendency
for
active
faults
to
disrupt
former
urban
settlements
might
seem
to
be
an
unfortunate
situation
that
arose
spuriously
as
a
consequence
of
past
populations,
ignorant
of
seismic
threats,
being
unwarily
drawn
to
these
invisible
axes
of
destruction.
The
lure
of
these
lethal
corridors
of
land
reflected
the
surprising
advantages
that
tectonically
active
belts
offer;
active
faults
can
create
and
sustain
attractive
conditions
for
human
development,
sustaining
dynamic
landscapes
in
which
recent
tectonics
‘frame’
patterns
of
human
land
use
(Bailey
et
al.,
1993;
King
et
al.,
1994;
King
and
Bailey,
2010).
Groundwater
leakage
and
sediment
build
up
along
young
fault
lines
provide
well-watered
corridors
of
land,
leading
some
to
conjecture
that
active
tectonic
zones
seeded
the
earliest
centres
of
Neolithic
agriculture
(Trifonov
and
Karakhanian,
2004)
and
even
of
early
civilisations
(Force,
2008;
Force
and
McFadgen,
2010,
2012).
Moreover,
the
tendency
for
active
fault
lines
to
provide
persistent
groundwater
egress
and
fertile
land
over
millennia
lies
at
the
root
of
the
‘fatal
attraction’
that
today
finds
many
populous
towns
and
cities
across
the
eastern
*
Corresponding
authors.
E-mail
addresses:
istewart@plymouth.ac.uk
(I.S.
Stewart),
luigi.piccardi@cnr.it
(L.
Piccardi).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2017.07.009
0016-7878/Crown
Copyright
©
2017
Published
by
Elsevier
Ltd
on
behalf
of
The
Geologists'
Association.
This
is
an
open
access
article
under
the
CC
BY-NC-ND
license
(http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
128
(2017)
711–721
Contents
lists
available
at
ScienceDirect
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
journa
l
homepage
:
www.e
lsevier.com/loca
te/pgeola
Mediterranean
and
Near
East
lying
directly
above
seismically
dangerous
faults
(Jackson,
2005).
In
this
paper,
an
association
between
active
faults
and
ancient
places
is
examined
in
the
context
of
some
of
the
most
prominent
sites
of
Greek
antiquity.
A
close
correspondence
of
active
faults
and
ancient
cities
here
is
not
unduly
surprising
–
the
Aegean
region
is
riddled
with
seismic
faults
and
littered
with
ruined
settlements,
so
some
casual
correlation
is
to
be
expected.
But
the
correlation
is
more
than
simply
a
contiguous
association
–
across
central
Greece
and
western
Turkey
many
seismic
fault
traces
do
not
simply
disrupt
the
palaeo-urban
fabric
of
buildings
and
streets
but
rather
they
penetrate
into
the
heart
of
ancient
settlements
to
break
or
disrupt
important
sacred
structures
(Piccardi,
2001).
At
Priene
on
the
Menderes
graben
in
western
Turkey,
for
example,
a
narrow
corridor
of
seismic
damage
cuts
the
Hellenistic
city
centre,
rupturing
a
series
of
public
buildings
that
include
the
Sacred
Stoa
(Altunel,
1998;
Altunel,
1999;
Yonlu
et
al.
2010).
Further
south,
the
expansive
Greco-Roman
remains
of
Sagalassos
sprawl
in
front
of
an
active
fault
escarpment,
with
the
most
recent
fault
splay
cutting
the
temple
complex
in
the
centre
of
the
city
(Sintubin
et
al.,
2003;
Similox-Tohon
et
al.,
2006).
In
the
following
sections,
the
key
relations
between
seismic
faults
and
sacred
sanctuaries
in
the
wider
Aegean
region
are
set
out,
and
the
implications
for
earthquakes
as
a
pervasive
cultural
influence
in
antiquity
are
discussed.
2.
Scarps
and
springs:
the
example
of
Mycenae
In
the
Aegean
sector
of
the
Mediterranean,
active
normal
faulting
operates
within
a
largely
carbonate-dominated
karstic
landscape.
Repeated
vertical
fault
movements
form
limestone
scarps,
which
in
the
physical
landscape
separate
the
rocky
karstic
uplands
from
the
soil-rich
plains
(Stewart
and
Hancock,
1988;
Stewart,
1993)
(Fig.
1).
These
abrupt
linear
bluffs
–
metres
to
several
tens
of
metres
high
and
fronted
by
smooth
surfaces
polished
by
repeated
seismic
slip
(Stewart,
1993,
1996a)
–
serve
as
natural
ramparts
on
which
fortifications,
citadels
and
acropoli
were
constructed.
In
addition
to
forming
advantageous
topograph-
ic
positions,
across
the
limestone
terrain
of
Greece
and
western
Turkey,
copious
and
persistent
cold
and
hot
mineral
springs
preferentially
emerge
along
active
faults
(Higgins
and
Higgins
1996).
In
turn,
because
the
waters
harvested
from
them
not
only
supplied
a
range
of
early
water
management
practices
but
were
also
essential
for
purifactory
or
therapeutic
purposes,
it
has
been
argued
that
early
Greek
settlements
were
purposefully
centred
on
natural
fountains
and
springs
(Crouch,
1993).
An
instructive
example
of
the
strategic
benefits
accrued
from
living
on
an
active
fault
is
found
at
Mycenae,
in
the
eastern
Peloponnese
region
of
mainland
Greece
(Zangger,
1993).
The
famed
Mycenean
hillltop
citadel
is
bounded
by
metre-high
limestone
fault
scarps
on
its
southwestern
and
northeastern
sides,
and
its
formidable
‘Cyclopean
Walls’
partly
built
on
top
(Maroukian
et
al.
1996)
(Fig.
2).
The
southwestern
scarp
is
the
more
obvious,
bordering
the
famed
Lion’s
Gate
entrance
(Nur
and
Cline,
2000).
The
longer
and
more
continuous
northeastern
strand,
however,
is
arguably
the
more
significant
structure
because
it
hosts
the
‘Sacred
Spring’
(Maroukian
et
al.,
1993),
one
that
although
located
just
outside
the
citadel
could
be
accessed
from
within
the
city
walls
via
a
subterranean
passageway
that
tapped
the
fault
zone.
Maroukian
et
al.
(1993)
argue
that
it
is
this
fault
that
ruptured
during
Mycenean
times
causing
widespread
destruction
of
the
citadel
(
Kilian,
1996),
a
reminder
that
the
strategic
advantage
of
living
atop
an
active
fault
could
be
negated
by
the
ruinous
effects
of
seismic
reactivation
directly
below.
3.
Earthquake
hydrology
and
the
curious
case
of
Perachora
Heraion
If
natural
springs
are
important
for
the
functioning
of
Greek
settlements
then
the
loss
of
reliable
groundwater
sources
might
equally
be
a
cause
for
the
abandonment
of
those
same
sites
(e.g.
Gorokhovich,
2005).
Large
earthquakes
are
known
to
cause
significant
reorganisation
of
the
pattern
and
rate
of
groundwater
flow
(Muir
Wood
and
King,
1993;
Rojstaczer
et
al.,
1995;
Yechieli
and
Bein,
2002;
Manga
and
Wang,
2015).
In
the
Aegean
region,
for
example,
the
destructive
1894
earthquake
along
the
shores
of
the
Gulf
of
Atalanti
caused
freshwater
springs
to
cease
flowing,
only
to
later
return
with
their
flow
doubled,
whilst
coastal
groundwater
springs
became
muddy
and
brackish
(Cundy
et
al.,
2000).
Such
abrupt
changes
to
groundwater
can
be
transient
and
quickly
recovered,
but
occasionally
earthquakes
cause
the
permanent
termination
of
persistent
springs
and
provoke
new
springs
to
burst
forth
elsewhere
(Muir
Wood
and
King,
1993).
Finding
archaeolog-
ical
evidence
for
settlements
whose
springs
were
lost
to
ancient
earthquakes
is
difficult,
but
a
possible
candidate
lies
at
the
eastern
end
of
the
Gulf
of
Corinth,
at
Perachora
Heraion.
The
ruined
Classical
Greek
sanctuary
of
Perachora
Heraion
occupies
the
westernmost
tip
of
the
Perachora
Peninsula,
a
fault-
bounded
promontory
projecting
into
the
eastern
Gulf
of
Corinth
(Leeder
et
al.,
2005).
The
sanctuary
–
a
temple
complex
for
the
goddess
Hera
initiated
around
the
9th
century
BC
–
is
an
enigmatic
Classical
site
(Tomlinson,
1976 ).
It
was
largely
unknown
prior
to
its
excavation
in
the
1930s
by
the
British
archaeologist
Humphry
Fig.
1.
Repeated
earthquake
faulting
in
the
limestone
terrain
of
Greece
and
Western
Turkey
form
distinctive
fault
scarps
sllong
the
edges
of
many
alluvial
plains.
These
limstone
fault
scarps
serve
as
natural
ramparts
on
top
of
which
fortifications,
citadels
and
acropoli
were
constructe
and
are
often
lines
of
preferential
spring
egress.
Fig.
2.
The
formidable
‘Cyclopean
Walls’
of
the
hillltop
citadel
of
Mycenae
are
built
atop
metre-high
limestone
fault
scarps,
with
the
southeastern
one
bordering
the
famed
Lion’s
Gate
entrance
(a)
and
the
northeastern
one
that
lies
along
the
line
of
the
sacred
Spring
(b).
712
I.S.
Stewart,
L.
Piccardi
/
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
128
(2017)
711–721
Payne,
yet
surprised
all
with
a
wealth
of
votives
surpassed
only
by
the
famed
Greek
sanctuaries
of
Olympia,
Delphi
and
the
Athenian
Acropolis
(Parke,
1967).
The
site’s
curious
importance
in
antiquity
has
been
attributed
to
its
strategic
position
overlooking
the
dangerous
maritime
waters
of
the
Gulf
(Tomlinson,
1976 ),
although
Strabo
in
the
late
1st
century
BC
reported
that
it
also
had
been
an
oracular
sanctuary
‘in
early
times’.
That
sanctuary
had
been
highly
frequented
by
the
nearby
Corinthians
throughout
the
Archaic
period,
but
subse-
quently
fell
into
disuse
around
300
BC.
Although
votive
relics
excavated
from
the
temple
by
Payne
(1940)
confirmed
its
oracular
status,
it
is
uncertain
how
the
oracle
functioned
(Tomlinson,
1976;
Dunbabin,
1956).
The
most
recent
analysis
(Menadier,
1995)
identified
a
small,
entirely
walled
room
in
the
centre
of
the
northern
wall
of
the
Hera
Akraia
temple
as
the
most
likely
location
of
an
oracular
chamber.
In
that
location,
the
chamber
directly
abuts
a
prominent
active
fault.
The
steep
E–W
striking,
S-dipping
normal
fault
scarp
forms
the
sheer
backwall
of
the
archaeological
sanctuary
(Fig.
3).
The
smooth
limestone
fault
plane
is
etched
by
fine
frictional
striations,
consistent
with
recent
seismic
slip.
The
scarpis
partof
a
network
of
fault
strands
that
coalesce
eastwards
into
the
South
Alkonides
Fault
Zone
(Roberts,1996),
a
structure
that
ruptured
in
the
1981
Gulf
of
Corinth
earthquake
sequence,
when
two
M
6
shocks
produced
metre-scale
surface
breaks
east
of
Perachora
village
and
created
a
corridor
of
ground
fissuring
west
towards
Heraion.
Although
no
discernible
surface
ruptures
occurred
at
the
archaeological
site
(Jackson
et
al.,
1982),
there
is
geological
evidence
that
the
Heraion
fault
scarp
has
ruptured
in
recent
millenia.
The
evidence
comes
from
a
series
of
marine
notches
cut
into
the
limestone
sea
cliffs
at
Heraion,
which
record
episodic
late
Holocene
tectonic
uplift
of
the
headland
(Boulton
and
Stewart,
2015).
The
highest
and
best
defined
notch
level,
dated
at
around
6.4
kyr
BP,
occurs
at
an
elevation
of
+3.2
m
above
sea
level
in
the
sea
cliff
to
the
west
of
the
harbour
(Pirazzoli
et
al.,1994;
Pirazzoli
and
Evelpidou,
2013),
but
occurs
at
+2
m
within
the
harbour
(Kershaw
and
Guo,
2001).
The
Heraion
Fault
separates
the
two,
with
the
higher
notch
level
cut
into
the
uplifted
footwall
of
the
fault,
indicating
a
1.2
m
vertical
offset
of
this
mid-Holocene
marker
and
implying
relative
movement
across
the
fault
during
the
last
few
millenia.
There
is
also
archaeological
evidence
for
recent
movement
on
the
Heraion
fault.
The
original
site
excavation
–
whilst
not
recognising
the
steep
scarp
as
a
fault
plane
–
detected
the
effects
of
seismic
disturbance
in
the
6th
century
BC
temple,
Hera
Akraia
(Fig.
4).
According
to
Payne
(1940),
the
northern
wall
of
the
temple
of
Hera
Akraia
is
dislocated
by
a
few
tens
of
centimetres
.
.
.
“
.
.
.
because
the
western
part
of
the
building
has
slipped
down
to
the
south
in
the
course
of
an
earthquake.
The
easternmost
stones
of
the
western
section
have
been
tilted
up
by
an
earthquake
and
the
whole
eastern
part,
none
of
which
is
bedded
on
rock,
may
well
have
shifted
slightly”.
The
geological
and
archaeological
evidence
suggests
that
the
fault
at
Heraion
experienced
at
least
one
seismic
rupture
in
antiquity,
but
the
extent
to
which
the
functioning
of
the
settlement
was
fault-related
is
uncertain.
There
are
no
active
springs
at
the
site
today
–
the
western
end
of
the
peninsula
is
essentially
waterless
–
though
at
Loutraki
a
few
kilometres
east
the
oldest
Greek
thermal
springs
(Dotsika
et
al.,
2010)
lies
on
the
prominent
Loutraki
Fault
(Roberts
and
Stewart,
1994).
Moreover,
much
of
the
Heraion
temple
complex
is
constructed
on
late
Pleistocene
bioherms
that
attest
to
a
prolific
expulsion
of
carbonate-rich
waters,
indicating
that
the
faulted
headland
is
a
former
site
of
persistent
CO
2
degassing
from
submarine
springs
(Portman
et
al.,
2005).
Although
it
remains
entirely
speculative,
a
viable
alterna-
tive
scenario
for
the
demise
of
Perachora
Heraion
is
of
a
fault-
related
oracular
sanctuary
abandoned
as
a
result
of
a
damaging
seismic
rupture
disrupted
the
site,
but
more
critically,
permanently
closed
the
groundwater
springs
that
had
secured
its
special
status.
4.
The
sacred
status
of
seismic
faults:
Ephesus
and
Cnidus
The
rich
mythology
of
water
management
practices
in
the
Aegean
karstlands
supports
the
view
that
groundwater
patterns
may
have
influenced
the
founding
and
functioning
of
Greek
cities
in
antiquity
(Crouch,
1993;
Clendenon,
2009;
Robinson,
2017).
Ephesus
in
western
Turkey,
for
example,
is
widely
held
to
have
been
established
on
the
site
of
the
famed
Hypelaeus
spring
(Robinson,
2017),
which
Scherrer
(2000)
identifies
with
a
source
rising
from
a
crevice
in
a
limestone
knoll
located
in
the
8th
century
BC
Ionian
enclave
to
the
north
of
the
more
extensive
Roman
city.
Used
as
a
sacred
well
from
the
Archaic
period,
the
source
was
covered
with
a
small
shrine
called
the
‘Crevice
Temple’,
possibly
a
Temple
of
Athena,
in
the
late
Classical
or
early
Hellenistic
period.
One
of
the
earliest
buildings
in
the
original
Greek
settlement,
it
is
believed
to
have
served
as
an
Apolline
oracular
sanctuary
(Scherrer,
2000).
Certainly
the
deep
cleft
is
central
to
the
temple
Fig.
3.
The
steep
E–W
striking,
S-dipping
normal
fault
scarp
forms
the
sheer
backwall
of
the
sanctuary
of
Perachora
Heraion,
eastern
Gulf
of
Corinth.
Fig.
4.
Evidence
of
seismic
disturbance
at
Perachora
Heraion
comes
from
the
observation
by
Payne
(1940)
that
the
northern
wall
of
the
temple
of
Hera
Akraia
is
dislocated
by
a
few
tens
of
centimetres
‘
.
.
.
because
the
western
part
of
the
building
has
slipped
down
to
the
south
in
the
course
of
an
earthquake.
I.S.
Stewart,
L.
Piccardi
/
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
128
(2017)
711–721
713
plan—the
crevice
fissure
does
not
offset
the
temple
walls
or
floor,
indicating
that
that
the
fissure
was
already
there
when
the
temple
was
hewn
out
of
the
bedrock
(Fig.
5a).
Although
no
faults
displace
the
Crevice
Temple,
the
northern
edge
of
the
sacred
enclosure
is
bounded
by
a
prominent
limestone
fault
scarp
(Fig.
5b).
To
the
east,
a
similar
scarp
displays
numerous
upright,
rectangular
flat
niches
chiselled
into
the
smooth
rock
face
(Scherrer,
2000)
(Fig.
6).
These
niches
housed
votive
reliefs
–
the
oldest
of
which
date
back
to
the
5th
century
BC
–
that
reflect
an
important
sanctuary,
one
which
was
at
the
peak
of
its
renown
in
the
late
Classical-early
Hellenistic
period.
Votive
niches,
carvings,
reliefs
and
inscriptions
are
known
to
adorn
other
fault
scarps
elsewhere
in
the
Aegean
region
(e.g.
Hancock
and
Altunel,
1997),
implying
that
they
may
have
been
a
venerated
part
of
the
ritual
landscape.
In
the
former
Greco-Roman
city
of
Cnidus,
south-west
Turkey,
where
a
spectacular
near-vertical
fault
surface
forms
the
dramatic
backwall
to
a
sacred
enclosure,
rock-cut
votive
niches
carved
into
the
exhumed
fault
plane
were
interpreted
by
the
archaeologist
Charles
Newton
as
signposts
for
a
buried
mid-4th
century
BC
temple
complex
below
(Altunel
et
al.,
2003)
(Fig.
7).
Only
sections
of
the
enclosure’s
massive
masonry
retaining
walls
remained.
Close
to
the
fault
scarp
these
walls
are
strongly
tilted
and
bent.
and
excavation
revealed
that
“
.
.
.
in
one
place
near
the
centre
of
the
escarp
the
strata
of
soil
were
curiously
contorted,
and
among
them
was
a
layer
of
ashes,
lamps
and
other
human
remains”
(Newton,
1863),
consistent
with
the
description
of
a
palaeoseismic
ground
rupture.
The
lamps
and
votive
reliefs
were
dedicated
to
the
underworld
cult
of
Demeter
and
Kore
(James,
1958),
implying
that
the
fault
itself
may
have
been
considered
a
pathway
to
the
underworld.
5.
Faults
as
connections
to
the
underworld:
Delphi
and
Hierapolis
It
is
an
intriguing
possibility
that
as
physical
conduits
to
the
subsurface,
faults
themselves
may
have
been
regarded
as
direct
connections
to
underworld—the
chthonic
realm.
The
geological
aspects
of
the
various
gateways
to
the
mythical
underworld
are
reviewed
elsewhere
(Pfanz
et
al.,
2014;
Etiope,
2015)
but
here
the
key
attributes
of
the
two
most
prominent
chthonic
sanctuaries
of
Fig.
5.
(a)
The
Crevice
Temple,
at
Ephesus
straddles
a
deep
natural
fissure
in
the
limestone
bedrock.
The
fissure
does
not
offset
the
temple
walls
or
floor,
indicating
that
it
was
already
there
when
the
5th
century
BC
Apolline
sanctuary
was
hewn
out
of
the
bedrock.
(b)
The
northern
flank
of
the
sanctuary
is
bounded
by
a
prominent
limestone
fault
scarp.
Fig.
6.
At
Ephesus
in
western
Turkey,
a
limestone
fault
scarp
displays
numerous
upright,
rectangular
flat
niches
chiselled
into
the
smooth
rock
face.
Fig.
7.
The
spectacular
rock
face
that
forms
the
backwall
of
the
Temple
of
Demeter
at
Cnidus
in
south-west
Turkey
is
a
polished
limestone
fault
plane
decorated
with
rock-cut
niches.
714
I.S.
Stewart,
L.
Piccardi
/
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
128
(2017)
711–721
Greek
antiquity
are
summarized.
Those
sites
are
Delphi
and
Hierapolis.
5.1.
Delphi
For
almost
two
thousand
years
Delphi
was
venerated
as
the
principal
oracular
centre
in
the
Aegean
world.
Here,
ecstatic
prophesy
was
achieved
by
a
priestess
who
first
purified
herself
by
bathing
in
a
sacred
spring
and
then
inhaled
intoxicating
vapours
rising
from
groundwater
issuing
out
of
a
natural
chasm
in
the
rock
(Parke
and
Wormell,
1956;
Parke,
1985).
De
Boer
et
al.
(2001)
proposed
that
the
inhalation
of
the
sweet-smelling
ethylene,
a
mild
narcotic,
could
be
the
reason
for
the
mantic
trance
of
the
Pythia,
while
Etiope
et
al.
(2006)
speculated
that
if
any
gas-linked
neurotoxic
effect
of
the
Pythia
existed
it
could
be
related
to
oxygen
depletion
due
to
CO
2
-CH
4
exhalation
in
the
non-aerated
inner
sanctum
(“adyton”).
Geochemical
studies
disagree
about
the
leakage
of
intoxicating
gases
from
natural
springs
at
Delphi
(cf.
de
Boer
et
al.,
2001;
Spiller
et
al.,
2002;
Etiope
et
al.,
2006),
but
Piccardi
et
al.
(2008)
contend
that
‘
.
.
.
the
mythological
gas-
exhaling
chasm
can
plausibly
be
related
to
episodic
seismic
ruptures
in
the
ancient
past,
which
affected
for
a
limited
time
gas
pockets
fed
by
a
relatively
deep
confined
hydrothermal
system.’
Certainly
the
environs
of
Delphi
are
fault-controlled.
The
site
occupies
a
distinct
step-over
in
the
trace
of
a
major
E–W
trending
active
normal
fault
zone
(de
Boer
et
al.,
2001),
which
forms
a
spectacular
limestone
fault
escarpment
at
the
foot
of
which
are
bedrock
fault
scarps
and
polished
slip
planes
(Fig.
8a).
In
places,
these
fault
surfaces
exhibit
rock-cut
niches,
although
the
function
and
significance
of
these
is
unclear
(Fig.
8b
and
c).
Within
the
site
itself,
two
separate
areas
are
considered
to
be
affected
by
faults.
The
first
is
on
a
lower
terrace
where
the
original
(Mycenean:
14th
century
BC)
sanctuary
was
dedicated
first
to
Ge,
the
female
deity
of
Earth,
and
subsequently
converted
to
Athena.
The
second
is
on
an
upper
terrace
where
the
more
extensive
sanctuary
of
Apollo
was
founded
in
the
8th
century
BC.
In
the
lower
sanctuary,
a
recent
splay
from
the
main
bedrock
fault
scarp
cuts
through
the
oldest
temples
and
altars
inside
the
shrine
of
Athena,
faulting
the
archaeological
relics
therein
(Piccardi,
2000).
It
is
likely
that
much
of
this
damage
occurred
Fig.
8.
(a)
View
looking
west
toward
the
the
principal
fault
plane
(F)
at
Delphi.
(b)
A
close
of
up
of
the
fault
plane
(F)
showing
the
polished
and
grooved
surface,
adorned
enigmatic
rock-cut
niches
(c).
I.S.
Stewart,
L.
Piccardi
/
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
128
(2017)
711–721
715
in
the
earthquake
of
373
BC,
which
caused
widespread
destruction
at
Delphi
and
which
necessitated
the
reconstruction
of
the
sanctuary;
the
new
temple
of
Athena
was
relocated
a
few
tens
of
metres
further
west
but
still
directly
straddling
the
fault
trace
(Fig.
9).
Piccardi
(2000)
argues
that
because
Mycenean
remains
are
found
at
this
site,
it
is
this
sanctuary
that
constitutes
the
original
site
and
consequently
is
where
the
roots
of
the
oracular
activity
ought
to
be
found.
However,
for
most
workers
the
main
functioning
oracular
site
throughout
the
lifetime
of
the
site
was
on
the
upper
sanctuary.
Conventionally,
archaeological
sources
place
Delphi’s
oracular
centrepiece
–
the
site
of
the
basement
chamber
(adyton)
and
the
natural
chasm
–
beneath
the
Temple
of
Apollo
on
the
upper
terrace
(Parke
and
Wornell,
1956;
Flaceliere,1967;
Parke,1967).
The
higher
sanctuary
itself
is
cut
by
several
NW–SE
trending
subsidiary
faults,
inferred
mainly
from
spring
lines,
and
one
of
these
is
taken
to
pass
Fig.10.
(a)
General
view
of
the
Temple
of
Apollo
at
Delphi,
and
(b)
a
close-up
showing
its
inner
walls
markedly
bent
at
its
intersection
with
the
trace
of
the
inferred
cross-fault.
The
implication
is
that
the
oracular
chamber
below
the
temple
complex
lies
on
a
line
of
minor
fault
movement.
Fig.
9.
Map
of
the
lower
sanctuary
of
Delphi,
central
Greece,
where
a
recent
fault
break
cuts
through
the
oldest
temples
and
altars
inside
the
shrine
of
Athena.
Much
of
this
damage
occurred
in
the
earthquake
of
373
BC,
which
caused
widespread
destruction
at
Delphi
and
which
necessitated
the
reconstruction
of
the
sanctuary.
The
new
temple
of
Athena
was
relocated
a
few
tens
of
metres
further
west
along
the
fault
trace.
Redrawn
from
Piccardi
(2000,Fig.
4).
716
I.S.
Stewart,
L.
Piccardi
/
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
128
(2017)
711–721
through
the
Temple
of
Apollo
(de
Boer
and
Hale,
2000;
de
Boer
et
al.,
2001).
Signs
of
this
can
be
seen
in
the
warping
of
its
inner
walls,
which
are
markedly
bent
at
its
intersection
with
the
proposed
trace
of
the
cross-fault
(Fig.
10).
This
deformation
is
consistent
with
a
minor
(tens
of
cm)
lateral
shift
on
an
underlying
fault
–
either
by
gravitational
slippage
of
the
steep
fractured
terrain
on
which
the
sanctuary
rests
or
by
minor
faulting
–
supporting
the
view
of
de
Boer
and
colleagues
that
the
adyton
in
which
the
oracular
divination
took
place
was
above
a
discrete
slip
surface,
directly
below
the
temple.
5.2.
Hierapolis
Ancient
Hierapolis
in
the
Denizli
region
of
western
Turkey
was
founded
as
a
Greek
colony
at
the
end
of
the
3rd
century
BC
on
the
site
of
the
Charonion—a
natural
source
of
toxic
vapour
famed
for
prophetic
qualities
(Kreitzer,
1998;
Piccardi,
2007).
Carbonate-rich
thermal
waters
cascading
out
from
the
Hierapolis
Fault
form
travertine
plateau
that
is
today
the
famed
world-heritage
site
of
Pamukkale
(Moller
et
al.,
2004).
The
Greek
city
was
destroyed
and
rebuilt
after
the
‘Neronian’
earthquake
in
60
AD,
and
subsequently
levelled
again
after
an
earthquake
in
Byzantine
times,
the
line
of
which
can
be
traced
along
the
main
street
of
the
Roman
city
as
a
corridor
of
offset
buildings
and
toppled
walls
(Hancock
and
Altunel,
1997;
Kumsar
et
al.,
2016).
Along
this
seismic
trace
are
a
chain
of
hot
mineral
springs,
and
the
opening
of
a
hot
spring
in
a
fresh
ground
fissure
formed
during
an
earthquake
in
1965
high-
lights
how
the
springs
are
directly
fed
from
the
fault
zone
(Piccardi,
2007).
Built
directly
upon
a
strand
of
the
Hierapolis
Fault
is
the
Temple
of
Apollo,
the
sanctuary
of
the
Gods
of
the
underworld,
Hades
and
Kore.
Historical
sources
recount
how
temple
priests
demonstrated
their
supernatural
power
and
their
equality
to
the
gods
by
ushering
animals
into
a
basement
chamber
(Plutonium)
where,
after
a
few
minutes,
the
creatures
asphyxiated
(Pfanz
et
al.,
2014
and
references
therein).
In
1963,
Italian
archaeological
excavations
beneath
the
Apollo
temple
found
an
inner
chamber
with
a
natural
chasm
in
the
limestone
floor
(Bean,
1971 ),
as
well
as
inscriptions
confirming
it
was
a
seat
of
oracular
activity
(Parke,1967).
Very
high
levels
of
CO
2
concentrations
in
the
chamber
meant
that
for
safety
Fig.
12.
(a)
The
famed
hot
mineral
pools
of
modern
Pamukkale
(ancient
Hierapolis)
cascade
from
an
active
fault,
the
Hierapolis
Fault.
(b)
Archaeological
excavations
in
recent
years
at
Hierapolis
have
revealed
the
Plutonium,
a
subterranean
grotto
characterized
by
high
CO2
concentrations.
(c)
The
Temple
of
Apollo
at
Hierapolis,
which
was
originally
thought
to
been
the
location
of
the
Plutonium.
Fig.11.
Map
of
Hierapolis
showing
the
trace
of
the
active
fault
strands
cutting
through
the
heart
of
the
Greco-Roman
city.
Active
thermal
springs
at
the
site
are
coincident
with
prominent
fault
strands,
one
of
which
intersects
the
Temple
of
Apollo—long
considered
the
location
of
the
famed
plutonium
(P).
The
real
Plutonium
has
been
discovered
to
the
south,
and
lies
along
the
line
of
the
same
fault
trace.
Redrawn
from
(Piccardi
2007)
and
D’Andria
(2016).
I.S.
Stewart,
L.
Piccardi
/
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
128
(2017)
711–721
717
reasons
it
became
almost
completely
sealed.
That
both
the
temple
and
the
associated
chamber
are
cut
by
multiple
strands
of
the
Hierapolis
fault
is
clear
from
topographic
profiles
(Piccardi,
2007)
(Fig.
11),
and
geophysical
imaging
confirms
that
one
of
these
fault
splays
passes
directly
beneath
the
chamber
itself
(Negri
and
Leucci,
2006).
From
these
observations
Piccardi
(2007,
p.103)
concluded
that,
as
at
Delphi,
the
main
cult-site
at
Hierapolis
was
deliberately
directly
above
the
active
fault,
making
it
‘
.
.
.
likely
that,
together
with
the
natural
gas
emission
from
the
fault
inside
the
Plutonium,
the
fault
itself
was
venerated
and
regarded
as
a
material
opening
to
the
underworld.’
Unsurprisingly,
this
toxic
chamber
was
widely
interpreted
as
the
famed
Plutonium
(e.g.
Piccardi,
2007)
and
it
is
marked
as
such
in
touristic
guides
(D’Andria,
2003).
However,
recent
excavations
(2011–2015)
have
uncovered
the
real
Plutonium
immediately
south
of
the
Apollo
Sanctuary,
in
the
form
of
a
hidden
grotto
dedicated
to
Pluto
and
Kore
(D’Andria,
2013,
2016)
(Fig.
12).
‘Gas
measurements
inside
the
closed
subterranean
chamber
revealed
CO
2
concentrations
of
up
to
91%.
The
entire
basement
of
the
grotto
was
totally
dark
but
seemed
to
be
highly
humid,
due
to
a
warm,
carbonate-rich
creek
flowing
below
it.
Deadly
CO
2
gas
also
exists
in
front
of
the
actual
grotto.
Flooding
out
of
the
grotto’s
mouth,
the
escaping
CO
2
forms
a
gas
lake
on
the
floor.
The
corpses
of
animals
hint
at
the
absence
of
oxygen
and
the
presence
of
high
CO
2
that
builds
up
during
the
night.’
(Pfanz
et
al.,
2014,
p.
111 ).
D’Andria
(2016)
reports
that
in
the
grotto
there
is
a
large
crack
caused
by
the
seismic
fault,
which
is
filled
with
votive
offerings
to
a
female
divinity
linked
to
the
natural
world
and
powerful
subsurface
forces
(Cybele
and
later
Persephone).
The
new
excavations
strengthen
the
fault-related
nature
of
the
oracular
sanctuary
and
its
chthonic
character,
meaning
that
at
Hierapolis
two
separate
constructions
appear
to
have
been
positioned
purposefully
on
the
same
active
fault
trace.
6.
The
seismo-tectonic
landscape
of
the
Aegean
Delphi
and
Hierapolis
not
only
lie
at
opposite
ends
of
the
Classical
Greek
world,
but
they
also
lie
at
the
outer
edges
of
the
Aegean
extensional
province,
a
distributed
belt
of
rapid
N–S
crustal
tension
that
swings
from
the
rifted
marine
gulfs
of
central
Greece
to
link
with
E–W
trending
alluvial
grabens
in
western
Turkey
(Jackson,
1994;
Jolivet
et
al.,
2013;
Jolivet
and
Brun,
2010).
Frequent
moderate
to
strong
seismicity
along
both
the
Greek
and
Turkish
seaboards
becomes
more
subdued
into
the
Aegean
Sea,
where
high
heat
flow
and
young
magmatism
feeds
the
volcanic
islands
of
Santorini,
Milos
and
Nisyros;
landward
these
volcanic
centres
change
to
centres
of
hydrothermal
and
fumarolic
activity
and
then
to
onshore
geothermal
fields
(Ten
Dam
and
Khrebtov,
1970;
Ilkisik,
1995;
Moller
et
al.,
2004;
Dotsika
et
al.,
2009).
Structural
control
on
eruptive
centres
and
hydrothermal
activity
in
the
southern
Aegean
indicates
the
significant
role
of
active
faults
in
directing
fluid
and
magma
pathways
in
the
upper
crust
(Kokkalas
and
Aydin,
2013),
and
faults
are
the
principal
pathway
by
which
CO
2
originating
from
deep
thermo-metamorphism
of
carbonate
rocks
or
mantle
degassing
reach
the
surface
(Chiodini
et
al.,
1999;
Mörner
and
Etiope,
2002).
An
overview
of
how
the
current
geodynamics
of
the
Aegean
region
controls
contemporary
gas
manifestations
is
covered
in
D’Alessandro
and
Kyriakopoulos
(2013),
but
in
this
section
the
relationship
to
specific
ancient
Greek
sites
is
briefly
summarised.
In
the
Turkish
sector
–
the
Western
Anatolian
Extensional
Province
–
the
main
bounding
tensional
(normal)
faults
of
the
Menderes
and
Gediz
grabens
act
as
priority
pathways
for
carbonate-rich
thermal
waters
to
ascend
slowly
along
the
faults,
emerging
along
the
graben
margins
as
hot
CO
2
-charged
travertine
springs
(Hancock,
1999;
Çakir,
1999;
Kocyigit
et
al.,
1999)
or
tapped
near-surface
by
commercial
geothermal
plants
(Karakuş
and
Şimşek,
2013).
Many
of
the
most
active
thermal
waters
emerge
along
the
northern
margin
of
the
Buyuk
Menderes
graben,
with
low
temperature
springs
associated
with
a
low-angle
detachment
fault
and
high-temperature
fields
developed
along
higher
angle
border
faults
(Karakuş
and
Şimşek,
2013).
At
the
eastern
end
of
this
seismically
active
geothermal
corridor
lies
Hierapolis
and
its
Plutonium
but
two
other
‘entrances
to
hell’
(Charonion)
are
found
along
the
trace
of
this
major
graben-bounding
fault.
One
occured
near
Magnesia,
where
a
cave
sacred
to
Apollo
exuded
mildly
euphoric
vapours,
whilst
a
second
was
a
cave
at
Acharaca,
where
poisonous
gases
induced
hallucinogenic
experiences
that
were
regarded
as
divinely
inspired
revelations
(Ustinova,
2002,
2009a,
2009b).
At
Acharaca,
the
former
road
to
the
temple
is
vertically
offset
by
about
1.5
m
across
a
surface
rupture
that
most
likely
slipped
during
an
earthquake
in
the
2nd–3rd
century
AD
(Altunel
et
al.,
2008).
The
opposing
central
Greek
seaboard
is
similarly
a
complex
multi-fractured
domain
of
active
normal
faulting
and
geothermal
activity
(Goldsworthy
et
al.,
2002).
The
principal
hot
springs
discharge
along
the
Gulf
of
Evia
fault
system,
where
young
volcanic-charged
waters,
exploiting
fault
intersections,
feed
commercial
geothermal
fields
(Sfetsos,
1988).
Here,
thermal
and
mineral
springs
derive
from
a
mixing
of
shallow
seawater
influx
and
deeper
mantle-sourced
CO
2
rising
up
through
deep-seated
normal
faults.
Mariolakos
et
al.
(2010)
directly
links
the
seismically
active
and
heavily
fractured
terrain
and
copious
thermal
spring
activity
here
with
the
proliferation
of
ancient
oracular
sites
in
this
region.
Most
of
these
sites
are
only
loosely
located,
forming
part
of
the
Homeric
‘Hymn
to
Apollo’
which
charts
the
journey
of
Apollo
from
Mt
Olympus
founding
a
series
of
oracular
places
before
ending
up
in
Delphi.
But
some
sites,
however,
are
more
confidently
determined,
such
as
the
‘lost’
Apolline
oracle
of
Orovai
which
Mariolakos
et
al.
(2010)
locates
on
an
active
normal
fault
bounding
the
northern
side
of
the
Gulf
of
Evia.
To
the
south
lies
the
Gulf
of
Corinth,
stretching
from
Perachora
Herion
in
the
east
to
Delphi
in
the
west.
The
former
lies
close
to
the
thermal
waters
of
Loutraki,
a
waning
geothermal
system
that
contrasts
with
volcanic
fumarolic
fields
at
Sousaki
and
Methana
further
south,
which
source
from
an
active
deep-seated
geother-
mal
reservoir
below
(Dotsika
et
al.,
2009,
2010).
At
Sousaki,
Pfanz
et
al.
(2014)
report
a
CO
2
gas
creek
that
continually
flows
out
of
a
cave
mouth
and
pools
downslope,
killing
small
animals.
In
the
west,
at
Delphi,
the
373
BC
earthquake
that
destroyed
the
city
also
destroyed
the
cities
of
Helike
and
Bura
on
the
opposing
southern
shore
(Mouyaris
et
al.,
1992).
Bura
was
the
site
of
cave
where
a
famed
oracle
of
Heracles
was
located,
and
a
few
kilometres
west,
at
Aegeira,
was
a
famed
oracle
where
a
priestess
descended
into
cave
to
utter
prophesy.
According
to
Parke
and
Wormell
(1956)
‘
.
.
.
by
entering
a
cavern
the
servant
of
the
goddess
came
into
closer
contact
with
the
divine’.
Both
sites
lie
along
the
main
Gulf
of
Corinth
fault
system
(Soter
and
Katsounopoulou,
1993;
Stewart,
1996b;
Stewart
and
Vita-Finzi,
1996),
occupying
prominent
step-
over
zones
where
CO
2
-rich
gases
emerge
from
unusually
deep
(Pizzino
et
al.,
2004;
Pik
and
Marty,
2009).
Gas
expulsion
was
observed
nearby
during
the
1995
Aegion
earthquake
(Soter,
1999),
and
offshore
surveys
reveal
active
natural
gas
seepage
along
the
gulf
coast
(Christodoulou
et
al.,
2003).
Overall,
the
volcano-tectonic
framework
of
the
central
Aegean
region
is
dominated
by
distributed
seismic
faulting
accompanied
by
a
pervasive
expulsion
of
thermal
waters
and
leakage
of
deep-seated
volatiles.
It
is
this
geological
framework
that
arguably
sets
the
scene
718
I.S.
Stewart,
L.
Piccardi
/
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists’
Association
128
(2017)
711–721
for
the
springs
and
gases
that
infuse
the
ancient
Greek
netherworld
of
caves,
chasms,
chambers,
and
sacred
grottos
(Pfanz
et
al.,
2014).
7.
Concluding
remarks
and
wider
cultural
implications
Earthquake
faulting
is
endemic
to
the
Aegean
world,
present
and
past.
The
physical
expressions
of
seismogenic
faults
are
a
prominent
and
distinctive
part
of
the
physical
landscape,
providing
the
bluffs
for
citadels
and
fortifications
and
the
egress
for
subterranean
springs.
The
tendency
for
deep-seated
fault
zones
to
be
conduits
for
gas-infused
groundwaters
to
move
up
from
mantle
depths
provides
a
viable
geological
basis
for
the
sacred
landscape
of
Greek
antiquity.
Water
was
at
the
heart
of
many
ritual
practices
and
some
persistent
spring
sources
were
the
hubs
of
enduring
settlements
(Crouch,
1993),
with
the
most
revered
being
those
whose
mineral
waters
released
euphoric,
hallucinigenic
or
lethal
vapours.
In
places,
such
fumes
pooled
in
clefts
and
chasms
along
the
fault
lines
or
in
natural
caverns
and
grottoes,
and
artificial
chambers
were
constructed
in
temple
basements
to
concentrate
their
effects.
The
flow
of
prophetic
vapours
fluctuated
with
time,
and
Ustinova
(2009a,
2009b)
has
proposed
that
at
Delphi
‘earthquakes
could
have
been
responsible
for
periods
of
renewed
release
of
hydrocarbon
gases’,
as
well
as
for
‘silencing
springs’
and
closing
fissures’.
In
such
circumstances,
it
might
be
expected
that
sanctuaries
that
relied
on
sacred
springs
for
rituals
and
prophetic
activities
might
cease
to
be
revered
when
disrupting
earthquakes
struck.
The
contention
that
notable
temple
complexes
appear
to
have
been
purposefully
positioned
astride
active
fault
traces
(e.g.
Piccardi,
2001)
raises
the
question
about
whether
the
faults
themselves
were
venerated
as
natural
passageways
between
the
‘Upper’
and
‘Lower’
worlds.
Certainly
the
seismic
terrain
of
Aegean
antiquity
is
the
backdrop
to
ancient
tales
of
individuals
who
attained
oracular
status
by
descending
into
the
subsurface
or
who
dwelled
in
subterranean
abodes.
Trophonius,
for
example,
vanished
beneath
a
hill
in
Lebaeia
(Boeotia)
and
subsequently
lived
in
a
cave,
being
widely
consulted
as
an
oracular
god;
those
seeking
divine
consultation
descended
into
a
grotto
and
drank
from
natural
springs.
Another
famous
seer,
Amphiaraus,
was
believed
to
have
been
swallowed
up
by
a
natural
chasm
as
he
fled
from
Thebes
(modern
Thiva),
the
fissure
being
opened
by
Zeus,
who
saved
him
from
the
imminent
death
in
the
hands
of
his
foes
and
made
him
immorta1
(Ustinova,
2002).
It
has
been
suggested
(Sineux,
2007,
cited
in
Ustinova,
2002)
that
in
the
myth
Amphiaraus
disappeared
at
Thebes
and
emerged
from
the
depths
of
the
earth
at
Oropus,
and
that
his
cult
moved
to
Oropus
in
the
5th
century
BC,
which
is
where
his
oracular
cult
place
resided;
regardless
of
the
detail,
both
Thebes
and
Oropus
lie
on
prominent
active
faults
(Mariolakos
et
al.,
2010).
Ustinova
(2002,
p.108)
argues
that
a
common
thread
in
these
tales
is
that
vanishing
into
a
chasm
was
a
divine
blessing,
implying
that
‘these
tales
look
like
explanations
invented
to
account
for
the
daemon’s
life
in
the
depths
of
the
earth:
myths
that
give
reasons
for
an
ancient
cult
type’
(Ustinova
(2009,
p.108).
The
association
of
many
prominent
Apolline
cult
centres
with
caves
and
subterra-
nean
grottoes
–
environments
in
which
prophetic
pronounce-
ments
were
stimulated
by
isolation
and
sensory
deprivation
–
means
that
these
underground
spaces
may
have
exerted
a
formative
influence
across
the
ancient
Greek
world
(Ustinova,
2009a,
2009b).
In
geological
terms,
it
is
tempting
to
see
in
the
stories
of
individuals
achieving
divinity
through
being
swallowed
up
by
the
earth
as
literary
metaphors
for
ground
ruptures
in
large
earth-
quakes.
Over
the
last
two
centuries,
the
Aegean
region
has
experienced
earthquakes
large
enough
to
rupture
the
ground
every
few
decades
(Ambraseys
and
Jackson,
1990)
and
historical
records
indicate
a
comparable
frequency
and
distribution
of
destructive
earthquakes
over
recent
millenia,
many
with
contemporary
or
near-contemporary
literary
accounts
of
dramatic
surface
effects
(
Ambraseys,
1996;
Ambraseys
and
White,
1996).
Experiencing
the
sudden
and
dramatic
renting
of
the
ground
during
calamitous
quakes
would
have
been
fairly
commonplace
in
Greek
antiquity
and
would
have
surely
demanded
enquiry
and
explanation
from
those
affected.
For
all
their
obvious
destructiveness,
the
possibility
that
seismic
faults
may
have
constituted
the
fulcrum
of
major
sacred
sanctuaries
suggests
that
classical
scholars
ought
to
devote
more
consideration
to
social
representation
and
cultural
signifi-
cance
of
earthquakes
in
Greek
antiquity
(Polimenakos,
1996).
After
all,
even
modern-day
earthquakes
‘
.
.
.
do
strange
things
to
our
psyches,
by
shattering
what
may
be
our
most
widely
held
illusion,
the
inviolability
of
solid
ground’
(Ulin,
2004,
p.
9).
References
Altunel,
E.,
1998.
Evidence
for
damaging
earthquakes
at
Priene:
western
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Journal
of
Earth
Sciences
7,
25–35.
Altunel,
E.,
1999.
Geological
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geomorphological
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relation
to
the
20
September
1899
Menderes
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N.N.,
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