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New Prototype of Photovoltaic Solar Tracker Based on Arduino

Authors:
Carlos Morón at Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
Carlos Morón
Daniel Ferrandez at Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
Daniel Ferrandez
Pablo Saiz at Universidad Europea del Atlántico
Pablo Saiz
Gabriela Vega at Universidad de Guayaquil (UG)
Gabriela Vega
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Abstract and Figures

The global increase in energy demand and exponential exhaustion of fossil recourses has favored the development of new systems of electricity production. Photovoltaic solar energy is undoubtedly one that has the highest application in housings, due to its simplicity and easy implementation. In this work, a new prototype of photovoltaic solar tracker with Arduino platform was developed. Feedback control system that allows carrying out solar tracking with two axes using a stepper motor and linear actuator was established through an electronic circuit based on photodiodes. Moreover, real construction of the prototype was carried out, where the effectiveness of the design and its capacity to draw a maximum benefit of an incident radiation can be observed, placing the panel perpendicularly to the received energy and improving its performance for its application in future installations in housings. Results obtained from the comparison between the developed prototype and a static panel oriented according to the latitude of the area, show about 18% energy gain.
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energies
Article
New Prototype of Photovoltaic Solar Tracker Based
on Arduino
Carlos Morón1, *ID , Daniel Ferrández 1, Pablo Saiz 2, Gabriela Vega 1and Jorge Pablo Díaz 3
1Departamento de Tecnología de la Edificación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
daniel.ferrandez.vega@alumnos.upm.es (D.F.); gaby_veg14@hotmail.com (G.V.)
2Departamento de Construcciones Arquitectónicas y su Control, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
28040 Madrid, Spain; pablo.saiz@upm.es
3Ciclo de Eficiencia Energética y Energía Solar Térmica, Institución Profesional Salesiana,
Salesianos Carabanchel, 28044 Madrid, Spain; jdiaz@salesianoscarabanchel.com
*Correspondence: carlos.moron@upm.es; Tel.: +34-91-336-7583; Fax: +34-91-336-7637
Received: 28 July 2017; Accepted: 25 August 2017; Published: 30 August 2017
Abstract:
The global increase in energy demand and exponential exhaustion of fossil recourses
has favored the development of new systems of electricity production. Photovoltaic solar energy
is undoubtedly one that has the highest application in housings, due to its simplicity and easy
implementation. In this work, a new prototype of photovoltaic solar tracker with Arduino platform
was developed. Feedback control system that allows carrying out solar tracking with two axes
using a stepper motor and linear actuator was established through an electronic circuit based on
photodiodes. Moreover, real construction of the prototype was carried out, where the effectiveness
of the design and its capacity to draw a maximum benefit of an incident radiation can be observed,
placing the panel perpendicularly to the received energy and improving its performance for its
application in future installations in housings. Results obtained from the comparison between the
developed prototype and a static panel oriented according to the latitude of the area, show about 18%
energy gain.
Keywords: solar tracker; Arduino; photovoltaic solar energy; photodiodes
1. Introduction
Economic development of industrialized countries and exponential growth of population
remarkably increased energy consumption in recent years [
1
]. This is why more and more regulations
appear both at the national and international levels that strive to decrease energy consumption in
order to avoid damaging and irreversible effects on the planet such as exhaustion of fossil fuel and
global warming [
2
,
3
]. One of the sectors that was the most affected in the last years by the arrival of
these new legislations is the building sector that is increasingly using renewable energy sources for
the production of heating and electricity [
4
]. Solar energy is an undoubtedly inexhaustible source of
energy that is most commonly used nowadays due to its abundance and its scarce pollutant emissions
generated during its production [5].
Photovoltaic solar energy is the most commonly used in housings due to its simple installation
and good quality-to-price ratio compared to other technological applications (parabolic cylinder
collectors, Stirling dish parabolic collectors, etc.), that even though reach higher levels of electric energy
production, present practically insurmountable difficulties for its architectural integration [
6
,
7
]. There
is a great amount of research that tries to improve the performance of this type of installations using
double-sided panels [
8
], concentration lenses [
9
], geometrically integrated into buildings panels [
10
],
development of new solar cells [11], improvement in stages of conversion [12], etc.
Energies 2017,10, 1298; doi:10.3390/en10091298 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2017,10, 1298 2 of 13
In order to obtain maximum output power of a photovoltaic module or a set of modules, it is
necessary to have an automated system able to orient the surface of the panel in a way that the highest
possible amount of solar radiation reaches its surface perpendicularly to generate the highest peaks
of energy production. For that purpose, numerous authors developed diverse prototypes of solar
photovoltaic trackers in order to improve the performance of this technology [
13
,
14
]. In general, all
of them have a fixed part of structure and moving part composed of tracking equipment and energy
production equipment [15].
Out of all solar trackers existing in the market, the most effective are those that move in two
axes, azimuthal and zenithal [
16
,
17
]. Compared to a properly inclined fixed solar panel, energy gain
can be considerably increased using this type of solar tracking systems. These systems of tracking
with two axes have been developed using two types of the most commonly used automatic control
systems, with open loop and closed loop [
18
,
19
]. Tracking in closed loop is more effective as it uses
various active sensors responsible for receiving signals of solar radiation, such as light-dependent
resistance (LDR) or charge-coupled device (CCD), and moreover, it has a feedback to the controller
that allows constantly orienting the panel making the most of its effectiveness [
20
,
21
]. At the moment,
when an error signal previously calibrated coming from the control system is produced, the motors are
activated and the surface of the panel is redirected [22,23].
On the other hand, in the market there is a great variety of controllers capable to interpret the
signal of automated regulation systems. Referring to the solar tracking equipment, generally complex
strategies of tracking with chips of microprocessors as control platforms are used [
24
]. Arduino
platform that functions using free software has experienced a considerable rise since it appeared
over a decade ago. For this reason, more and more researchers use this technology to program
their equipment [
25
,
26
]. In the field of solar energy, Arduino sensors are also used to improve the
performance of this type of installations through the implementation of solar trackers. They are
also used to measure one of the most common parameters in these systems of energy production,
giving really satisfying results and considerable economic saving compared to other commercial
controllers [27–30].
This paper proposes a new prototype of photovoltaic solar tracker with two axes based on
Arduino technology. A block of four high-sensitivity photodiodes able to emit an electric response
that is interpreted by the Arduino UNO controller was used to capture radiation levels. A stepper
motor was used to provide azimuthal movement and a linear actuator was used to obtain an optimal
inclination. This system is completely autonomous and can improve the levels of energy production of
photovoltaic solar panels. In order to calculate energy gain obtained using developed solar tracker, the
levels of energy produced by the prototype and by a static panel oriented according to the latitude
of the area were compared. Developed prototype is competitive for its installation on a flat roof and
other exterior horizontal building elements to improve the performance of photovoltaic installations at
a reduced cost.
2. Methodology
This section describes the design and fabrication of the prototype of photovoltaic solar tracker.
2.1. 3D Prototype Design
To carry out 3D design of solar tracker drawing tool FreeCAD 0.15 (London, UK) [
31
] was used.
This tool allows to represent all the elements of the prototype and to visualize its final result before the
fabrication, being compatible with other formats of graphic design. Figure 1shows the design of the
solar tracker.
Energies 2017,10, 1298 3 of 13
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 3 of 12
(a) (b)
Figure 1. 3D design of photovoltaic solar tracker: (a) Perspective of the prototype; and (b) front view.
Table 1 shows the description of the components of the prototype classified according to their
functions.
Table 1. Short description of prototype’s components.
Component * Description
Metal structure Aluminium structure of 27 kN/m
3
according to CTE DB SE-AE [3]
Solar panel Photovoltaic solar panel ISOFOTON of monocrystalline silicon 25 Wp
Arduino UNO R3 Programmable electronic controller for tracking operations ATmega328, 14 digital
inputs and 6 analogue inputs, clock of 16 MHz
NEMA-23HS9430 Stepper motor for azimuthal movement
LA-10 Linear actuator for elevation movement
Driver DM542a Controller responsible for the transmission of turning movements to the stepper
motor with 0.9 degree/step precision
Double relay
bridge
Component responsible for activation and moving back the linear actuator, controlled
integrally by Arduino sheet
BPW34 Light semiconductors photodiodes responsible for sending the signal to Arduino to
activate the movement
Victron Energy
Battery
Batteries 12 V and 2.1 Ah to provide the tracker and prototype alimentation with the
autonomy
* Moreover, other components such as wiring, protoboards, mortises, etc. were used.
2.2. Simulation of the Prototype
Before the construction of the prototype, a model was developed to validate the performance of
the equipment with regard to the variations of an incident solar radiation on the photodiodes (North
= PDN, South = PDS, East = PDE, West = PDW), validating the proposed scheme and the response of
the block of sensors towards the variations of radiation in both movements, azimuthal (checking the
response of stepper motor) and zenithal (checking the response of linear actuator). The model was
implemented through the electric scheme of the tracker at functional level using PSIM© software
Figure 1. 3D design of photovoltaic solar tracker: (a) Perspective of the prototype; and (b) front view.
Table 1shows the description of the components of the prototype classified according to
their functions.
Table 1. Short description of prototype’s components.
Component * Description
Metal structure Aluminium structure of 27 kN/m3according to CTE DB SE-AE [3]
Solar panel Photovoltaic solar panel ISOFOTON of monocrystalline silicon 25 Wp
Arduino UNO R3
Programmable electronic controller for tracking operations ATmega328,
14 digital inputs and 6 analogue inputs, clock of 16 MHz
NEMA-23HS9430 Stepper motor for azimuthal movement
LA-10 Linear actuator for elevation movement
Driver DM542a
Controller responsible for the transmission of turning movements to the
stepper motor with 0.9 degree/step precision
Double relay bridge Component responsible for activation and moving back the linear
actuator, controlled integrally by Arduino sheet
BPW34
Light semiconductors photodiodes responsible for sending the signal to
Arduino to activate the movement
Victron Energy Battery Batteries 12 V and 2.1 Ah to provide the tracker and prototype
alimentation with the autonomy
* Moreover, other components such as wiring, protoboards, mortises, etc. were used.
2.2. Simulation of the Prototype
Before the construction of the prototype, a model was developed to validate the performance
of the equipment with regard to the variations of an incident solar radiation on the photodiodes
Energies 2017,10, 1298 4 of 13
(North = PDN, South = PDS, East = PDE, West = PDW), validating the proposed scheme and the
response of the block of sensors towards the variations of radiation in both movements, azimuthal
(checking the response of stepper motor) and zenithal (checking the response of linear actuator). The
model was implemented through the electric scheme of the tracker at functional level using PSIM
©
software (version 10.0.4, Powersim Inc., Rockville, MD, USA) [
32
]. Electric scheme of the simulation
can be observed in Figure 2.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 4 of 12
(version 10.0.4, Powersim Inc., Rockville, MD, USA) [32]. Electric scheme of the simulation can be
observed in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Scheme of simulated prototype.
As it can be seen in Figure 2, the photodiodes were modeled with the help of nonlinear resistance
that gives intensity response according to the voltage and incident radiation. Relay module that
controls the functioning of linear actuator was built with the help of two contacts (NO and NC) in a
way that if the incident radiation in North photodiode exceeds the radiation in South photodiode,
North relay activates with +12 V voltage in terminals of linear actuator, acting towards elongation;
otherwise South relay activates moving back the rod of the motor. NEMA 23HS9430 stepper was
modeled according to the parameters that define two phases of the motor, an inductance per phase
of 6 Ω and 6.8 mH respectively. The activation of each step of the motor and the direction of rotation
require logic of control that assumes the driver DM542a that is also responsible for providing
sufficient power for the requirements of the motor through the batteries. This stepper is responsible
for azimuthal movement after having been compared to the levels of radiation in the photodiodes
West and East.
The results of the simulation are shown in Figures 3 and 4. In case of Figure 3, South radiation
is fixed in 10 W/m
2
and solar radiation varies towards North direction between 0 and 30 W/m
2
, which
are small values to be able to check in the same graphic the functionality of comparison stages at the
beginning of the linear actuator functioning (voltages of ±5 V in Arduino controller and ±12 V in
linear actuator). It can be observed that when North radiation exceeds South one, output voltage of
Arduino is +5 V activating the rod of linear actuator that is placed at +12 V, and conversely when
Figure 2. Scheme of simulated prototype.
As it can be seen in Figure 2, the photodiodes were modeled with the help of nonlinear resistance
that gives intensity response according to the voltage and incident radiation. Relay module that
controls the functioning of linear actuator was built with the help of two contacts (NO and NC) in
a way that if the incident radiation in North photodiode exceeds the radiation in South photodiode,
North relay activates with +12 V voltage in terminals of linear actuator, acting towards elongation;
otherwise South relay activates moving back the rod of the motor. NEMA 23HS9430 stepper was
modeled according to the parameters that define two phases of the motor, an inductance per phase of
6
Ω
and 6.8 mH respectively. The activation of each step of the motor and the direction of rotation
require logic of control that assumes the driver DM542a that is also responsible for providing sufficient
power for the requirements of the motor through the batteries. This stepper is responsible for azimuthal
movement after having been compared to the levels of radiation in the photodiodes West and East.
The results of the simulation are shown in Figures 3and 4. In case of Figure 3, South radiation is
fixed in 10 W/m
2
and solar radiation varies towards North direction between 0 and 30 W/m
2
, which
Energies 2017,10, 1298 5 of 13
are small values to be able to check in the same graphic the functionality of comparison stages at the
beginning of the linear actuator functioning (voltages of
±
5 V in Arduino controller and
±
12 V in
linear actuator). It can be observed that when North radiation exceeds South one, output voltage of
Arduino is +5 V activating the rod of linear actuator that is placed at +12 V, and conversely when
South radiation exceeds North one. In case of stepper motor shown in Figure 4, the logic is the same,
keeping in this case East radiation fixed and West radiation variable. In this case stepper motor
always consumes 3 A in each movement. For both movements the time of 25 s was established for
the simulation, with a radiation variation frequency between the photodiodes of 0.2 Hz, being this a
repetition of one complete wave every 5 s.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 5 of 12
South radiation exceeds North one. In case of stepper motor shown in Figure 4, the logic is the same,
keeping in this case East radiation fixed and West radiation variable. In this case stepper motor
always consumes 3 A in each movement. For both movements the time of 25 s was established for
the simulation, with a radiation variation frequency between the photodiodes of 0.2 Hz, being this a
repetition of one complete wave every 5 s.
Figure 3. Response of the simulation of linear actuator performance.
Figure 4. Response of the simulation of stepper motor performance.
To obtain these appreciable variations of radiation, a block of sensors with four photodiodes was
designed in a way that with the help of a structure in form of a cross the levels of radiation are more
sensitive to the variations of the position of the sun thanks to its own shade. Additionally, this block
of photodiodes is situated on the same plan as a photovoltaic panel, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 3. Response of the simulation of linear actuator performance.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 5 of 12
South radiation exceeds North one. In case of stepper motor shown in Figure 4, the logic is the same,
keeping in this case East radiation fixed and West radiation variable. In this case stepper motor
always consumes 3 A in each movement. For both movements the time of 25 s was established for
the simulation, with a radiation variation frequency between the photodiodes of 0.2 Hz, being this a
repetition of one complete wave every 5 s.
Figure 3. Response of the simulation of linear actuator performance.
Figure 4. Response of the simulation of stepper motor performance.
To obtain these appreciable variations of radiation, a block of sensors with four photodiodes was
designed in a way that with the help of a structure in form of a cross the levels of radiation are more
sensitive to the variations of the position of the sun thanks to its own shade. Additionally, this block
of photodiodes is situated on the same plan as a photovoltaic panel, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 4. Response of the simulation of stepper motor performance.
Energies 2017,10, 1298 6 of 13
To obtain these appreciable variations of radiation, a block of sensors with four photodiodes was
designed in a way that with the help of a structure in form of a cross the levels of radiation are more
sensitive to the variations of the position of the sun thanks to its own shade. Additionally, this block of
photodiodes is situated on the same plan as a photovoltaic panel, as shown in Figure 5.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 6 of 12
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Sensors block scheme. (a) Design phase; and (b) built prototype.
As it can be seen in the final state in Figure 5b, the cross to differentiate cardinal points was
custom made with the help of a 3D printer with polyethylene of dark color.
2.3. Solar Tracker Algorithm Definition
The descriptive diagram of blocks of solar tracker in closed developed loop is shown in Figure 6.
Its objective is to obtain the maximum perpendicularity between the incident rays of sun and the
surface of photovoltaic panel. Feedback controller is based on the Arduino platform and the block of
sensors is based on the photodiodes and operation amplifier of type 741. The input to the comparator
is the intensity of output received from the block of photodiodes, which is amplified and generates
error voltage of feedback, being the variance between the responses of the sensors North-South and
West-East the cause of this imbalance. At this moment the comparator sensitive to these variations of
radiation two by two activates a linear actuator being the rod extended or moved back to obtain the
maximum performance in elevation movement, or activates the driver that allows turning by means
of stepper motor improving the effectiveness in azimuthal movement. Consequently, the controller
maintains the photovoltaic panel and solar radiation monitored, sending a differential signal when
the difference occurs what allows positioning the solar panel until practically zero error voltage is
obtained. Each pair of data (azimuth and elevation) is captured and stored by the Arduino platform
regularly, and after being interpreted, it activates the movement of motors.
Figure 6. Closed loop blocks diagram of tracking system.
Under the premises of the diagram of blocks the control algorithm was designed as flow diagram
that allows checking all the photodiodes positioning the prototype. This diagram can be seen in
Figure 7.
Figure 5. Sensors block scheme. (a) Design phase; and (b) built prototype.
As it can be seen in the final state in Figure 5b, the cross to differentiate cardinal points was
custom made with the help of a 3D printer with polyethylene of dark color.
2.3. Solar Tracker Algorithm Definition
The descriptive diagram of blocks of solar tracker in closed developed loop is shown in Figure 6.
Its objective is to obtain the maximum perpendicularity between the incident rays of sun and the
surface of photovoltaic panel. Feedback controller is based on the Arduino platform and the block of
sensors is based on the photodiodes and operation amplifier of type 741. The input to the comparator
is the intensity of output received from the block of photodiodes, which is amplified and generates
error voltage of feedback, being the variance between the responses of the sensors North-South and
West-East the cause of this imbalance. At this moment the comparator sensitive to these variations of
radiation two by two activates a linear actuator being the rod extended or moved back to obtain the
maximum performance in elevation movement, or activates the driver that allows turning by means
of stepper motor improving the effectiveness in azimuthal movement. Consequently, the controller
maintains the photovoltaic panel and solar radiation monitored, sending a differential signal when
the difference occurs what allows positioning the solar panel until practically zero error voltage is
obtained. Each pair of data (azimuth and elevation) is captured and stored by the Arduino platform
regularly, and after being interpreted, it activates the movement of motors.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 6 of 12
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Sensors block scheme. (a) Design phase; and (b) built prototype.
As it can be seen in the final state in Figure 5b, the cross to differentiate cardinal points was
custom made with the help of a 3D printer with polyethylene of dark color.
2.3. Solar Tracker Algorithm Definition
The descriptive diagram of blocks of solar tracker in closed developed loop is shown in Figure 6.
Its objective is to obtain the maximum perpendicularity between the incident rays of sun and the
surface of photovoltaic panel. Feedback controller is based on the Arduino platform and the block of
sensors is based on the photodiodes and operation amplifier of type 741. The input to the comparator
is the intensity of output received from the block of photodiodes, which is amplified and generates
error voltage of feedback, being the variance between the responses of the sensors North-South and
West-East the cause of this imbalance. At this moment the comparator sensitive to these variations of
radiation two by two activates a linear actuator being the rod extended or moved back to obtain the
maximum performance in elevation movement, or activates the driver that allows turning by means
of stepper motor improving the effectiveness in azimuthal movement. Consequently, the controller
maintains the photovoltaic panel and solar radiation monitored, sending a differential signal when
the difference occurs what allows positioning the solar panel until practically zero error voltage is
obtained. Each pair of data (azimuth and elevation) is captured and stored by the Arduino platform
regularly, and after being interpreted, it activates the movement of motors.
Figure 6. Closed loop blocks diagram of tracking system.
Under the premises of the diagram of blocks the control algorithm was designed as flow diagram
that allows checking all the photodiodes positioning the prototype. This diagram can be seen in
Figure 7.
Figure 6. Closed loop blocks diagram of tracking system.
Energies 2017,10, 1298 7 of 13
Under the premises of the diagram of blocks the control algorithm was designed as flow diagram
that allows checking all the photodiodes positioning the prototype. This diagram can be seen in
Figure 7.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 7 of 12
Figure 7. Flow diagram of prototype’s solar tracking.
Therefore, according to the flow diagram shown in Figure 7, the variable that predominates over
the movement of the tracker is the radiation, that is different to zero during daylight hours and equal
to zero from the nightfall until the beginning of a new day. The tracker stays positioned towards West
once the day is over and before starting a new day of measuring. Moreover, with an aim to avoid
possible components wear caused by mechanical vibrations produced by continuous starts and stops
of motors, the measurements were spaced every 10 min, reducing in this way the frequency of capture
and possible saturation of the system.
3. Results and Discussion
Once the work of design and simulation of the prototype was done, real fabrication began.
Design guidelines indicated in the previous section were followed and a scheme of real wiring of the
prototype with the sensors block and two motors was carried out, according to the simulation done
by PSIM©. This scheme of wiring that can be seen in Figure 8 was implemented inside a custom
printed box made from polyethylene complying with the requirements of ventilation for the circuitry
and avoiding possible overheating [33].
As can be observed in Figure 9, the built prototype can be controlled through laboratory test or
even through dynamic simulators that model the parameters of irradiance and energy production.
Figure 7. Flow diagram of prototype’s solar tracking.
Therefore, according to the flow diagram shown in Figure 7, the variable that predominates over
the movement of the tracker is the radiation, that is different to zero during daylight hours and equal
to zero from the nightfall until the beginning of a new day. The tracker stays positioned towards West
once the day is over and before starting a new day of measuring. Moreover, with an aim to avoid
possible components wear caused by mechanical vibrations produced by continuous starts and stops
of motors, the measurements were spaced every 10 min, reducing in this way the frequency of capture
and possible saturation of the system.
3. Results and Discussion
Once the work of design and simulation of the prototype was done, real fabrication began. Design
guidelines indicated in the previous section were followed and a scheme of real wiring of the prototype
with the sensors block and two motors was carried out, according to the simulation done by PSIM
©
.
This scheme of wiring that can be seen in Figure 8was implemented inside a custom printed box
made from polyethylene complying with the requirements of ventilation for the circuitry and avoiding
possible overheating [33].
Energies 2017,10, 1298 8 of 13
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 8 of 12
Figure 8. Real scheme of wiring of the prototype’s elements.
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Designed photovoltaic solar tracker: (a) Front view; and (b) Side view.
Moreover, as shown in Figure 10, a solar photovoltaic installation was performed, using the
same typology of photovoltaic panel as in developed solar tracker prototype with 30° inclination and
south orientation. In this way, the comparison between both systems was carried out, calculating the
difference in energy production.
Figure 8. Real scheme of wiring of the prototype’s elements.
As can be observed in Figure 9, the built prototype can be controlled through laboratory test or
even through dynamic simulators that model the parameters of irradiance and energy production.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 8 of 12
Figure 8. Real scheme of wiring of the prototype’s elements.
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Designed photovoltaic solar tracker: (a) Front view; and (b) Side view.
Moreover, as shown in Figure 10, a solar photovoltaic installation was performed, using the
same typology of photovoltaic panel as in developed solar tracker prototype with 30° inclination and
south orientation. In this way, the comparison between both systems was carried out, calculating the
difference in energy production.
Figure 9. Designed photovoltaic solar tracker: (a) Front view; and (b) Side view.
Energies 2017,10, 1298 9 of 13
Moreover, as shown in Figure 10, a solar photovoltaic installation was performed, using the
same typology of photovoltaic panel as in developed solar tracker prototype with 30
◦
inclination and
south orientation. In this way, the comparison between both systems was carried out, calculating the
difference in energy production.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 9 of 12
(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a) Connection scheme of static installation; and (b) applied installation.
Obtained Production and Collected with the Tracker Data
First, Figure 11 presents results obtained in the production of the prototype and static panel
during the months from January until May. For this, the prototype was placed on the roof of the
center Salesianos Carabanchel in Madrid (Latitude 40.37° and Longitude −3.75°), capturing data every
30 min, and obtaining the average daily production achieved by the panel performing the tracking.
As it can be observed, the levels of energy production keep a direct relation with the
environment conditions registered in the area at the moment of data collection, as shown in Figure
11. Clear days and those of higher temperatures are ones that give the highest levels of energy
production. Moreover, as it can be observed in Figure 11, solar tracker prototype allows for obtaining
higher energy production compared to static panel. This gain in production was about 18%, being in
accordance with the average values obtained by other authors using different technologies of solar
tracking [34,35]. Consequently, used low cost technology with Arduino can be validated as a tool for
solar trackers design.
Figure 11. Average daily production obtained by the solar tracker.
Furthermore, existing correlation between the average produced power and average incident
radiation over the surface of the tracking panel can be seen in Figure 12.
Figure 10. (a) Connection scheme of static installation; and (b) applied installation.
Obtained Production and Collected with the Tracker Data
First, Figure 11 presents results obtained in the production of the prototype and static panel
during the months from January until May. For this, the prototype was placed on the roof of the
center Salesianos Carabanchel in Madrid (Latitude 40.37
◦
and Longitude
−
3.75
◦
), capturing data every
30 min, and obtaining the average daily production achieved by the panel performing the tracking.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 9 of 12
(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a) Connection scheme of static installation; and (b) applied installation.
Obtained Production and Collected with the Tracker Data
First, Figure 11 presents results obtained in the production of the prototype and static panel
during the months from January until May. For this, the prototype was placed on the roof of the
center Salesianos Carabanchel in Madrid (Latitude 40.37° and Longitude −3.75°), capturing data every
30 min, and obtaining the average daily production achieved by the panel performing the tracking.
As it can be observed, the levels of energy production keep a direct relation with the
environment conditions registered in the area at the moment of data collection, as shown in Figure
11. Clear days and those of higher temperatures are ones that give the highest levels of energy
production. Moreover, as it can be observed in Figure 11, solar tracker prototype allows for obtaining
higher energy production compared to static panel. This gain in production was about 18%, being in
accordance with the average values obtained by other authors using different technologies of solar
tracking [34,35]. Consequently, used low cost technology with Arduino can be validated as a tool for
solar trackers design.
Figure 11. Average daily production obtained by the solar tracker.
Furthermore, existing correlation between the average produced power and average incident
radiation over the surface of the tracking panel can be seen in Figure 12.
Figure 11. Average daily production obtained by the solar tracker.
As it can be observed, the levels of energy production keep a direct relation with the environment
conditions registered in the area at the moment of data collection, as shown in Figure 11. Clear days and
Energies 2017,10, 1298 10 of 13
those of higher temperatures are ones that give the highest levels of energy production. Moreover, as it
can be observed in Figure 11, solar tracker prototype allows for obtaining higher energy production
compared to static panel. This gain in production was about 18%, being in accordance with the average
values obtained by other authors using different technologies of solar tracking [34,35]. Consequently,
used low cost technology with Arduino can be validated as a tool for solar trackers design.
Furthermore, existing correlation between the average produced power and average incident
radiation over the surface of the tracking panel can be seen in Figure 12.
Energies 2017, 10, 1298 10 of 12
Figure 12. Correlation between produced power and incident radiation.
Therefore, Figure 12 shows a linear relation among the levels of production and average incident
irradiance, what is really useful for further theoretical calculations that allow measuring the
maximum performance that can be reached by the panels placed in a determined geographic
situation knowing only the levels of radiation in the area. To implement these systems in building of
houses, the consumption of motors has to be deducted from the obtained energy production that in
clear areas is in any case lower than reached production. On the other hand, varying the calibration
of the sensors and adjusting the frequency of tracking to the real conditions of the geographic
location, the electric production can improve even more.
In relation to the analysis of the prototype fabrication cost, consulting known commercial
sources [36–38], not superior to 800 euros cost was obtained. In terms of large-scale production, such
as solar farms, developed solar tracker is not competitive with commercial systems that are able to
move hundreds of photovoltaic panels. However, it can be competitive for small less powerful
installations placed on flat surfaces. Lightweight of this type of prototype is one of its advantages for
installation in houses, where it is not feasible to place large masses that can generate loads on the
building structure, or vibrations caused by rotating movements that could coincide with fundamental
resonance frequencies of the building structure. Moreover, the fact of using Arduino as electronic
control card, provides it with a power comparable to any commercial PLC, but at lower cost, not only
because of the device itself, but also because of great amount of developed freeware programs that
allow modelling, programming and simulating of previous behavior of these systems. That is why
this type of prototype is ideal for its installation in houses without presenting any serious technical
difficulties and at a reduced cost.
4. Conclusions
This paper offers a new and effective prototype of photovoltaic solar tracker based on Arduino
platform that with a reduced cost and following logic of effective control is able to move
autonomously and regularly under different conditions of irradiance. Moreover, a previous
simulation of tracker’s behavior was achieved, which is able to anticipate the movement of the
prototype in phase of design, what is really useful to know is the suitability of the device.
On the other hand, the effectiveness of the tracker was verified taking measurements during five
months, observing a good correlation between the maximum levels of daily radiation in the area and
the levels of energy production reached by the prototype. Furthermore, results obtained from the
comparison between the reference static solar installation and developed solar tracker prototype
show 18% energy gain using this latter, applying the same type of photovoltaic panel in both cases.
These results show the effectiveness of the device, and suggest its possible use in buildings (flat roofs,
Figure 12. Correlation between produced power and incident radiation.
Therefore, Figure 12 shows a linear relation among the levels of production and average incident
irradiance, what is really useful for further theoretical calculations that allow measuring the maximum
performance that can be reached by the panels placed in a determined geographic situation knowing
only the levels of radiation in the area. To implement these systems in building of houses, the
consumption of motors has to be deducted from the obtained energy production that in clear areas is
in any case lower than reached production. On the other hand, varying the calibration of the sensors
and adjusting the frequency of tracking to the real conditions of the geographic location, the electric
production can improve even more.
In relation to the analysis of the prototype fabrication cost, consulting known commercial
sources [
36
–
38
], not superior to 800 euros cost was obtained. In terms of large-scale production,
such as solar farms, developed solar tracker is not competitive with commercial systems that are able
to move hundreds of photovoltaic panels. However, it can be competitive for small less powerful
installations placed on flat surfaces. Lightweight of this type of prototype is one of its advantages
for installation in houses, where it is not feasible to place large masses that can generate loads on the
building structure, or vibrations caused by rotating movements that could coincide with fundamental
resonance frequencies of the building structure. Moreover, the fact of using Arduino as electronic
control card, provides it with a power comparable to any commercial PLC, but at lower cost, not only
because of the device itself, but also because of great amount of developed freeware programs that
allow modelling, programming and simulating of previous behavior of these systems. That is why
this type of prototype is ideal for its installation in houses without presenting any serious technical
difficulties and at a reduced cost.
Energies 2017,10, 1298 11 of 13
4. Conclusions
This paper offers a new and effective prototype of photovoltaic solar tracker based on Arduino
platform that with a reduced cost and following logic of effective control is able to move autonomously
and regularly under different conditions of irradiance. Moreover, a previous simulation of tracker’s
behavior was achieved, which is able to anticipate the movement of the prototype in phase of design,
what is really useful to know is the suitability of the device.
On the other hand, the effectiveness of the tracker was verified taking measurements during five
months, observing a good correlation between the maximum levels of daily radiation in the area and
the levels of energy production reached by the prototype. Furthermore, results obtained from the
comparison between the reference static solar installation and developed solar tracker prototype show
18% energy gain using this latter, applying the same type of photovoltaic panel in both cases. These
results show the effectiveness of the device, and suggest its possible use in buildings (flat roofs, garden
areas, plots, etc.) or centers of photovoltaic production using scale models and developing a correct
encapsulation for electric and electronic components what would allow the equipment to endure
adverse weather conditions. Finally, and thanks to the versatility of Arduino platform, it would be
possible to integrate a unit of control of environmental parameters that would complete commercially
the design of the solar tracker developed in this work.
Finally, despite the fact that the prototype presents a lower performance compared to other
commercial equipment (approximately 12% lower), it is competitive for its installation in houses, due
to its low fabrication cost, easiness to be integrated in the building and simplicity to be programmed
and to update tracking software as it belongs to Arduino community.
Acknowledgments:
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Vicente Martínez and JoséDaniel Sanz
for collaboration in prior calibration of photodiodes and to JoséLuis Rodríguez for collaboration in machining
of prototype’s components; both are professors of Professional Institution Salesiana Carabanchel with
wide experience.
Author Contributions:
All the authors have designed the experiment and worked in the development of
the prototype equally throughout the project. Carlos Morón and Daniel Ferrández created and designed the
experiments. Gabriela Vega and Daniel Ferrández performed the experiments; Carlos Morón and Pablo Saiz
analyzed the data; Daniel Ferrández wrote the article. Jorge Pablo Díaz helped to analyze the documents.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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  • Jun 2017
  • RENEW SUST ENERG REV
tAccurate forecasting simultaneously becomes more important and more challenging due to the increasing penetration of photovoltaic (PV) systems in the built environment on the one hand, and the increasing stochastic nature of electricity consumption, e.g., through electric vehicles (EVs), on the other hand. Until recently, research has mainly focused on deterministic forecasting. However, such forecasts convey little information about the possible future state of a system and since a forecast is inherently erroneous, it is important to quantify this error. This paper therefore focuses on the recent advances in the area of probabilistic forecasting of solar power (PSPF) and load forecasting (PLF). The goal of a probabilistic forecast is to provide either a complete predictive density of the future state or to predict that the future state of a system will fall in an interval, defined by a confidence level. The aim of this paper is to analyze the state of the art and assess the different approaches in terms of their performance, but also to what extent these approaches can be generalized so that they not only perform best on the data set for which they were designed, but also on other data sets or different case studies. In addition, growing interest in net demand forecasting, i.e., demand less generation, is another important motivation to combine PSPF and PLF into one review paper and assess compatibility. One important finding is that there is no single preferred model that can be applied to any circumstance. In fact, a study has shown that the same model, with adapted parameters, applied to different case studies performed well but did not excel, when compared to models that were optimized for the specific task. Furthermore, there is need for standardization, in particular in terms of filtering night time data, normalizing results and performance metrics.
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Economic and environmental analysis of energy renovation packages for European office buildings
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2017
  • ENERG BUILDINGS
A large share of the buildings in Europe are old and in need of renovation, both in terms of functional repairs and energy efficiency. While many studies have addressed energy renovation of buildings, they rarely combine economic and environmental life cycle analyses, particularly for office buildings. The present paper investigates the economic feasibility and environmental impact of energy renovation packages for European office buildings. The renovation packages, including windows, envelope insulation, heating, cooling and ventilation systems and solar photovoltaics (PV), were evaluated in terms of life cycle cost (LCC) and life cycle assessment (LCA) through dynamic simulation for different European climates. Compared to a purely functional renovation, the studied renovation packages resulted in up to 77% lower energy costs, 19% lower total annualized costs, 79% lower climate change impact, 89% lower non-renewable energy use, 66% lower particulate matter formation and 76% lower freshwater eutrophication impact over a period of 30 years. The lowest total costs and environmental impact, in all of the studied climates, were seen for the buildings with the lowest heating demand. Solar PV panels covering part of the electricity demand could further reduce the environmental impact and, at least in southern Europe, even reduce the total costs.
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Techniques and Experimental Results for Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Modules Installed in Buildings
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2017
Photovotaic (PV) modules applied to buildings form a unique surface at the same roof inclination, replacing the tiles. Such PV systems are affected by thermal and mechanical stresses, and remarkable dirt. Another issue is the partial shading with possible failure of bypass diodes. In this paper a sample of PV modules, affected by the previous issues, was tested by electroluminescence and I-V curve scanning, to quantify power losses according to the causes. The experimental results are presented, demonstrating that the most important causes of losses are the cracks in module's solar cells and the failure of their bypass diodes.
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Temperature and relative humidity monitoring system in buildings. A study case of a flat in madrid
Article
  • Jan 2017
Presently, one of the most important objectives of building sector is to provide housing users comfort. So, to monitor comfort parameters plays an important and essential role. However, monitoring process can be laborious and too much expensive. Because of this, in this work an easy and cheap temperature and relative humidity monitoring system has been developed. It is based on Arduino platform. This system has been used in an inner house in Madrid, and the data obtained from it has been compared to data from a commercial thermohygrometer, which is more expensive than the based -on-Arduino system. This way, this system reliabilty has been checked. Furthermore, both temperature and relative humidity data are within the normative comfort values.
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Optimizing photovoltaic self-consumption in office buildings
Article
  • Jun 2017
  • ENERG BUILDINGS
Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) in commercial and office buildings can be designed with the aim of reducing the electricity consumption from the conventional local grid. This paper stresses the importance of matching the photovoltaic (PV) generation local profile with the building’s load shape to reach around 100% self-consumption indexes and to improve the self-sufficiency degree of the building, without storage nor load management. For that purpose, this paper proposes a methodology that helps BIPV designers to achieve these targets. Its application to a real case shows that the different façades of the building envelope may play a role in the local PV production if their orientations receive sufficient insolation during the hours of electrical consumption. In particular, in the North Hemisphere the possibilities that offer all the external surfaces of the building that are not oriented to the North should be taken into consideration in a first approach, and then those which achieve the best production-consumption match should be analyzed and compared to select the optimum solution.
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Mathematical study of the movement of solar tracking systems based on rational models
Article
  • Jul 2017
  • SOL ENERGY
This paper presents the analytical deduction of generic and unified equations of the movement of solar tracking systems. These equations reproduce published equations, which only consider the sun position, or the equations of the astronomical movement. As a novelty, these equations are more generic, thus allowing the optimization of the positioning of PV installations where diffuse and reflected irradiance are usable. The analysis of the results obtained criticizes the axiomatic idea – widely considered by numerous authors – establishing that the ideal tracking system in PV installations is that tracker providing the best possible alignment with direct sunbeams.
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Photovoltaic solar energy: Conceptual framework
Article
  • Jul 2017
  • RENEW SUST ENERG REV
The purpose of this article is to understand the state of art of photovoltaic solar energy through a systematic literature research, in which the following themes are approached: ways of obtaining the energy, its advantages and disadvantages, applications, current market, costs and technologies according to what has been approached in the scientific researches published until 2016. For this research, we performed a qualitative and quantitative approach with a non-probabilistic sample size, obtaining 142 articles published since 1996–2016 with a slitting cut. The analysis result of this research shows that studies about photovoltaic energy are rising and may perform an important role in reaching a high-energy demand around the world. To increase the participation of photovoltaic energy in the renewable energy market requires, first, to raise awareness regarding its benefits; to increase the research and development of new technologies; to implement public policies a programs that will encourage photovoltaic energy generation. Although crystal silicon solar cells were predominant, other types of cells have been developed, which can compete, both in terms of cost reduction of production, or in terms of greater efficiency. The main applications are dominated by telecommunications, water pumping, public lighting, BIPV, agriculture, water heating, grain drying, water desalination, space vehicles and satellites. The studies found on photovoltaic solar energy are all technical, thus creating the need for future research related to the economic viability, chain supply coordination, analysis of barriers and incentives to photovoltaic solar energy and deeper studies about the factors that influence the position of such technologies in the market.
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Automated Positioning Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System with Precision Elevation and Azimuth Angle Control
Article
  • Feb 2017
This paper presents a study on an automated positioning open-loop dual-axis solar tracking system. The solar tracker was designed and fabricated using standard cylindrical aluminium hollow and Polyuthrene (PE). The control system of the solar tracker was governed by Micro Controller Unit (MCU) with auxiliary devices which includes encoder and Global Positioning System (GPS). The sun path trajectory algorithm utilizing the astronomical equation and GPS information was also embedded in the system. The power generation performance of the dual-axis solar tracking system was compared with the fixed-tilted Photovoltaic (PV) system. It is found that the solar tracker is able to position itself automatically based on sun path trajectory algorithm with an accuracy of ±0.5°. The embedded Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) positioning system improves the tracking of elevation and azimuth angles with minimum energy consumption. It is reveals that the proposed solar tracker is able generate 26.9% and 12.8% higher power than fixed-tilted PV system on a clear and heavy overcast conditions respectively. Overall, the open-loop dual-axis solar tracker can be deployed automatically at any location on the earth with minimal configurations and is suitable for mobile solar tracking system.
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Theoretical and experimental performance analysis of a Fresnel type solar concentrator
Article
  • Feb 2017
  • RENEW ENERG
Solar concentration is one of the most promising ways for the electricity production. The use of linear Fresnel solar power plant for electricity production, or heat supply is one of the most attractive solutions for developing countries with high sunshine because of the accessible level of technology involved. In this work we present a theoretical and experimental study of a prototype using Fresnel type concentrator. The theoretical model used allows us to determine various essential parameters design of the set up that are easily compared to measured data. It has been shown that thermal power production and daily efficiency are well predicted as compared to measurements. For a 250 kW installed thermal prototype, a thermal daily efficiency over 40% was measured.
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