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Land Forces Academy Review
Vol. XXII, No 2(86), 2017
NEW WAYS IN THE COGNITIVE DIMENSION
OF INFORMATION OPERATIONS
Zsolt HAIG
National University of Public Service, Budapest, Hungary
haig.zsolt@uni-nke.hu
Veronika HAJDU
National University of Public Service, Budapest, Hungary
hajdu.veronika@uni-nke.hu
ABSTRACT
In this paper the authors introduce the cognitive dimension
that is becoming more and more important in the field of information
operations with special regard to psychological operations (PSYOPS).
The strengthening role of influencing skills and technological
progress has created new avenues and opportunities in the military
field. The paper seeks to point out the relationship between marketing
and PSYOPS. In connection with this, the study intends to present a
new approach to PSYOPS that can achieve the operational goals
which set by the leader by applying guerrilla marketing tools and
methods.
KEYWORDS: information operations, PSYOPS, target audience,
guerrilla marketing
1. Introduction
The information and related activities,
including the role and importance of
information operations has intensified over
the years, increasingly plays a central
function in the military operations. The
force multiplier role of information may
create an opportunity to with minimal
losses, but a higher efficiency set to be
available by the commander goals.
The new kind of warfare methods and
new challenges that arise during the
command, control and execution of military
operations require the change and
transformation of the military mindset. New
skills like informational capabilities have to
be highly considered. This conclusion is
further underscored by the changes in the
theater of war, as well as the appreciation
and the emergence of civil society's role in
peace-support operations. In addition,
military operations are now underway not
only in physical space, but also in
cyberspace, even it cuts across continents
without direct physical presence.
We are experiencing a significant
strengthening of the human dimension,
namely the cognitive skills among the
information activities of the changed
environment. Its purpose is in line with the
concept of commander to influence the
target groups in order to change their
attitudes to achieve the intended operational
objectives. The aim of this study is to point
out the ever-increasing role of cognitive
skills in the field of information operations.
DOI: 10.1515/raft-2017-0013
© 2017. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.
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Some new methods and principles of
influence will be presented which are
already approved in the civil sphere and can
also be adapted during military operations.
2. The Strengthening Role of the
Cognitive Capabilities in Military
Operations
Nowadays, owing to the explosive
development of information technology, we
can witness the most important role of
information in all areas of social life. All of
this has an impact on the conduct of
military operations. The use of modern
military information systems and
information in different ways can
significantly influence the ultimate outcome
of the operations compared to earlier times.
The operational environment of the
wars of our times is significantly different
from conventional state on state armed
conflict. These altered military operations
are labeled with numerous names, such as
asymmetric, irregular, fourth generation,
counterinsurgency or hybrid warfare.
Examples of hybrid warfare include the
clashes in the areas of Eastern Ukraine or
the activities applied by and against the
Islamic State.
According to Hoffman „Hybrid
threats incorporate a full range of different
modes of warfare including conventional
capabilities, irregular tactics and
formations, terrorist acts including
indiscriminate violence and coercion, and
criminal disorder. Hybrid Wars can be
conducted by both states and a variety of
non-state actors. These multi-modal
activities can be conducted by separate
units, or even by the same unit, but are
generally operationally and tactically
directed and coordinated within the main
battlespace to achieve synergistic effects in
the physical and psychological dimensions
of conflict. The effects can be gained at all
levels of war” (Hoffman, 2007, p. 8).
Based on this definition it can also be
seen that the role of synergistic effects
reached in the psychological (or otherwise
cognitive) physical and informational
dimensions of conflicts is appreciated in these
operations. In hybrid operations, indirect
methods are used instead of direct
intervention, whose influence is one of the
decisive elements and in which the cultural
aspects play a significant role too.
With the emergence of hybrid warfare
– as a fourth generation warfare – the
borders blur between the belligerents.
According to Clausewitz in the first three
generations of war, the separation between
the soldier, the citizen and the state was
always characteristic. One of the key
features of fourth generation warfare is that
the border between soldiers and civilians
disappears, and non-state actors appear as
belligerent. Accordingly among the goals of
fourth generation warfare winning public
support is important and often gets a top
priority.
According to Allen, although conflicts
in the physical dimension can be triggered
in the cognitive dimension, the ultimate
conflict cannot be resolved in the physical
space. While steps can be taken to reduce
the violence, the choice to use violence
must be addressed primarily in the
cognitive dimension. All conflicts in the
cognitive space need to be resolved in the
cognitive space, because that is where the
cause is located. Resulting activities, such
as violence in the physical space are only
symptoms of the cause, and treating the
symptoms alone will not resolve the causes
(Allen, 2007, p. 285). Therefore in the
military operations of the information age
the precondition for success is the
execution of influencing operations not
only required during armed conflict, but
also before and after it. The theses of
information operations were developed into
a coherent theoretical and practical system
among the various conflict theories related
to information. The emergence of this
concept has gone back more than 20 years
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ago and its focal points and capabilities
have changed significantly in recent years.
The NATO newest information
operations doctrine defines them as „a staff
function to analyze, plan, assess and
integrate information activities to create
desired effects on the will, understanding
and capability of adversaries, potential
adversaries and NAC approved audiences
in support of Alliance mission objectives”
(AJP-3.10, 2015, p. I-5). They consist of
three interrelated areas, such as:
− information activities focusing on
preserving and protecting friendly forces’
freedom of action in the information
environment at all times;
− information activities focusing on
behaviors, perceptions and attitudes of
audiences;
− information activities focusing on
countering an adversary’s propaganda as
well as their command and control (C2)
functions and capabilities (AJP-3.10, 2015,
p. I-5).
There are many information activities
and capabilities in these three areas e.g.
operation security, deception, electronic
warfare, computer network operations
psychological operations etc. They are
realized in the physical, informational (or
virtual) and cognitive dimensions.
The NATO information operations
doctrine lists psychological operations
(PSYOPS) as an information activity
among others. Cognitive capabilities have
played an important role in both world
wars, but their full accomplishment is
observed in today’s military operations
other than war. PSYOPS as a key capability
of information operations, has become an
increasingly important area over the years,
including in operations such as “Enduring
Freedom” in Afghanistan, where besides air
operations, humanitarian operations had a
role too. Furthermore during the “Iraqi
Freedom” operation, while using the
ammunition, leaflets were also dropped by
urging the enemy soldiers to be
surrendered. (Friedman)
According to the NATO PSYOPS
doctrine, psychological operations are
„planned activities using methods of
communication and other means directed at
approved audiences in order to influence
perceptions, attitudes and behavior,
affecting the achievement of political and
military objectives” (AJP-3.10.1, 2014).
This can be simple oral communication or
any information transmitted accessible
media device. While PSYOPS activities in
war are aimed at deterring and intimidating
the enemy, in today’s peace-support
operations the goal of PSYOPS is to
influence and obtain the support of the
neutral population.
The activities in the physical and
informational dimensions are already aimed
at influencing events in the cognitive
dimension in many cases (Rózsa, 2017,
p. 12). All of this is displayed both in the
analysis of target group and environment,
like in the Maslow pyramid for example.
Thus, the essential element is the human
actor, who is the main character of military
psychological operations.
3. The Significance of the
Information Environment in Psychological
Operations and Marketing Activity
Information environment is the arena
of information operations, in which
information based activities are conducted
in the physical-, informational- and
cognitive dimensions.
The physical dimension is the
dimension of real world, where physical
activities occur and individuals, nations,
cultures and societies interact (AJP-3.10,
2015, p. I-2). The physical dimension
includes: human beings; command and
control facilities; paper based media;
infocommunication technologies, like
telecommunications assets, computers,
laptops, smart phones, tablets, etc. In this
dimension the information activities are
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realized across national, economic, and
geographical boundaries (JP 3-13, 2014,
p. I-2-I-6)
The informational dimension
encompasses where electronic based
information activities occur. In this
dimension information is collected,
processed, stored, disseminated, and
protected. According to the new NATO
Information operations doctrine, this
dimension is called as virtual domain.
The cognitive dimension or according
to the NATO doctrine, psychological
domain encompasses the minds of
individuals who transmit, receive, and
respond to or act on information (AJP-3.10,
2015, p. I-2). This dimension is influenced
by individual and cultural beliefs, norms,
vulnerabilities, motivations, emotions,
experiences, morals, education, mental
health, identities, and ideologies. Defining
these influencing factors in a given
environment is critical for understanding
how to best influence the mind of the target
audiences and create the desired effects.
According to the US Joint Information
Operations doctrine, this dimension
constitutes the most important component
of the information environment (JP 3-13,
2014, p. I-3).
The cognitive dimension and the
various cognitive capabilities that can be
realized in it have a particular importance in
today’s military operations. The Military
Information Support Operations – MISO
doctrine designed to mitigate negative
appreciation of PSYOPS in the US military.
It emphasizes the importance of
environmental and target group analysis in
the cognitive dimension, complemented by
competency and expertise of the
commander (JP 3-13.2, 2010, p. 108).
The focus has been on developing
culturally and environmentally sensitive
messages, and the use of sophisticated
media as a communication tool. This can
give rise to a number of methods and
approaches that are not common in military
operations.
Figure no. 1 shows the processes
involved in the three dimensions of the
information environment, ultimately
resulting fulfillment of influence capability.
Information activities in the three
dimensions are directly or indirectly aimed
at target groups.
Figure no. 1: Representing the information environment dimensions
Source: based on (JP 3-13, 2014, p. I-2-I-6), edited by the authors
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The tools and methods are all
involved in all three dimensions. They have
an impact on the ability of the target group
to collect, process and analyze the
information before making the decision.
4. PSYOPS and Marketing Contexts
PSYOPS is practically linked to
marketing and marketing communication in
the civil field, where the goal is to influence
a certain target group through various
devices, in accordance with management
goals. Communicating with the target
group, reaching them is achieved through
different categories and themes both in
PSYOPS and marketing. PSYOPS planners
use marketing fundamentals and methods to
create themes. In marketing, according to
the macroeconomic approach “consumer
behavior can influence economic process
and trends” (Horváth, 2010, p. 11). In the
light of this, various sociological researches
have spread to reveal and to confine the
various consumer behavior patterns. This
delimitation can also be a huge advantage
during military operations, as better knowledge
of the target group can result in the build up
a more successful argumentation.
In the 21st century there is a broad
palette where both PSYOPS and marketing
can move around, learning from each other
even adapting each other’s practices. Although
not all marketing rules can be adapted to
PSYOPS, but there are common features
that can contribute to the implementation of
both methods. In marketing well-planned,
strategically thought-out plans are being
developed, which defining target groups,
positioning products, planning price wars,
allocating resources, and taking losses.
There are also a number of methods
used in civil practice through which
cognitive abilities can prevail in military
PSYOPS. Such an analytical method can be
the analysis of the behavior of target group
that was specified by Kotler (see Figure no. 2).
These factors may help to determine which
elements modify the opinion and cognitive
dimension of the human factor. Thus, this
method can be applied well in the planning
process of PSYOPS activity. The
importance of these factors is demonstrated
by the fact that the Hungarian Defense
Forces Civil-Military Cooperation and
Psychological Operations Center has issued
separated handbooks to support
Afghanistan and Balkan missions. They
detail local cultural characteristics, habits,
infrastructure characteristics, population,
economy information, the sights, or the
legal system. (CIMIC Handbook, 2005, p. 63)
Figure no. 2: Influencing factors which determine the behavior of the target audiences
Source: based on (Kotler, - Keller, 2008, pp. 246-258), edited by the authors
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We do not want to analyze the factors
in detail since their importance is
unquestionable both in military and civil
fields. However it is significant, that during
persuasion and influence, the focus should
be placed on what important is to the target
group, and why it is beneficial for him to
change his behavior and attitude.
The development of networked
infocommunication technologies has
fundamentally changed the possibilities of
interpersonal and mass communication. The
actors can react to events in their actuality,
immediately. This may even hinder the
successful implementation of PSYOPS, as
powerful distortion processes are created.
Because of the distortions of the media,
entertainment, recreation and education,
information, and propaganda or influencing
are often blurred (Castells, 2007, p. 19).
5. Using Non-Conventional Method
to Influence the Cognitive Dimension
Through Marketing Approach
The strength of non-conventional
methods lies in the fact that they use non-
standard methods to influence human
consciousness. As a result of this change of
attitude, the influenced party will re-evaluate
its entire cognitive decision-making process.
The collection, processing, use and
transmission of information are done in a
variety of ways and methods. From the
definition of guerrilla war, a marketing
direction has emerged that attempts to
accomplish its goals using atypical tactics
of its name. The main advantage of
guerrilla marketing is an idea-based
communication method in which it draws
attention to extraordinary solutions. It is
characterized by continuous innovations,
unusual, new and surprising methods for
transmitting messages. Its foundation is
mostly rumor, through which the message
can be accessed to anyone, as through the
various social groups – family, friends,
staff, members of religious communities –
wide masses can also be reached. Folk,
communal, local support is one of their
most important weapons, which can
provide moral, personal and financial
support, and last but not least, it can also
lead to successful implementation of
PSYOPS (Forgács, 2009, p. 91). Therefore,
the importance of guerrilla marketing is that
it maintains a close relationship with the
target group and knows its motivations.
There are many varieties of guerrilla
marketing that serve both online and offline
ways to achieve the set goals such as for
example, aims to attain attitude change of
the target group in accordance with the
PSYOPS goals. Table no. 3 shows a number
of types of guerrilla marketing, however,
due to the extent limitations; only a few
types are described below.
From perspective of PSYOPS, the
most important types of guerrilla marketing
are the followings (Guerrillaonline.com):
− Viral Marketing: Word of Mouth
advertising, which is spread over the
Internet, on mobile communication devices,
or through face-to-face communication. It
can be described as an epidemic
communication process. Once it is
“unleashed”, it becomes unmanageable for
the message to reach. Unfortunately, today
it has become a "favorite" method of
terrorists with the use of twitter, YouTube.
− Undercover Marketing: The
product is presented to target audience in a
way that does not appear to be commercial;
marketing pressure does not apply. Today,
blogs, forums, and video sharing sites
typically give positive opinions to people
who are involved in the product. It
generates low budget and positive rumors.
− Tissue-packing Advertising: The
advertisement is placed on tissue-papers,
and since it is very useful product for
people, they preserve for using. The
products are not limited only on tissues,
however the campaign often depends highly
on cost of the products and value for their
target audience. This method can also be
known for PSYOPS. During the World
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Wars, in propaganda activities were also a
popular way to send messages via products.
− Ambient Marketing: “Medium is the
message” (McCluhan, 1964, p. 8). Ambient
media means the surrounding non-
traditional advertising environment, which
affects the target audience in their own
environment in an unexpected way and
shape. The ambient media reflects its direct
environment, creates a special atmosphere,
and if this atmosphere has a valuable and
relevant content for the target audience, it
will receive the message and will not reject
the advertisement or the message.
− Ambush Marketing: A marketing
technique where advertisers strive to link
their product to a particular event in the
eyes of potential target audience without
paying sponsorship for the event. An
example of this is when the local radio
transmits their messages to allied soldiers in
the eyes of the general public, creating the
appearance of supporting by the channel
and the leaders of the country.
It is important to note that the types
shown above follow a certain division, and
of course there are different classifications.
Different guerrilla marketing methods
can otherwise aid the execution of PSYOPS
and their goals. There are several common
points for defining each type of model that
can reinforce or weaken the efficiency of
the method, either in military or civilian
applications. These features are:
− unexpected: The message is
displayed at a moment when the target
group is not counting on it at all.
− drastic: It tries to influence the
target audience in an uncommon way and to
achieve attitudinal change.
− wide reach: The messages are
transmitted between each other, reach high
speeds from one person to the next, based
on a trusted relationship, even reaching
groups that are difficult to access.
− cheap: The cost has to be paid just
once in the beginning. The communication
channel is essentially the interrelationship
between people. Then everything goes by
itself.
− one-shot: The message can be seen
only once in an appropriate way, then it
loses the power of surprise and
unexpectedness, and after that it only builds
on the power of the rumor.
− target audience (TA) benefit/
goodwill: The guerrilla marketing campaign
must provide something that benefits the
target audience. For example, in the case of
PSYOPS, it could be satisfaction,
acceptance, support, trust, etc.
Table no. 1 summarizes the most
important aspects, characteristics for each
guerrilla marketing method that can
contribute to the PSYOPS goals.
Table no. 1 Types of guerrilla marketing and their applicability in PSYOPS
Source: based on (Guerrillaonline.com), edited by the authors
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The table also shows the degree of
each marketing method characteristics that
may be present in the PSYOPS application.
Of course, military use can somewhat
restrict the possibility of using certain types
of guerrilla marketing (lack of internet,
cultural features, religious differences,
rules, etc.), but its impact and influence can
be greatly enhanced by a thorough target
group and environmental analysis.
The use of the methods listed in the
table also involves a certain degree of
operational risk (low, medium, high), which
is important to consider during planning, as
it may even cause the opposite effect of the
objectives set.
6. Conclusions
To be effective current events require
to have up-to-date and accurate information
be available for us. The use of information
operations in history has many documented
examples, like deception or PSYOPS. At
the same time as the development of digital
technology, commanders can apply new
methods of non-kinetic influencing,
especially in the field of virtual space and
human influence. In the changing
operational environment, new methods are
needed to achieve a more successful
implementation of PSYOPS goals.
Unfortunately, these new methods are also
available on the opponent's side.
In this study PSYOPS were
approached from a non-traditional
marketing method, the guerrilla marketing
point of view, whose tools and methods
could make it possible to help achieve
PSYOPS goals. The importance of guerrilla
marketing is due to the variety of methods,
which strive to achieve change of attitudes,
through the possibilities offered by
technology and creativity. By building on
the “power” of the message and the activity
of the target audience, it tries to reach as
many people as possible. As an
intermediary medium, people become the
communication channel, giving credibility
to the content of the message, as
information comes from a friend,
acquaintance, and opinion leader,
facilitating the acceptance of the content of
PSYOPS messages as well.
In our opinion, and based on the
research so far, from the perspective of
PSYOPS it is worth considering and
following marketing activities in the civil
sphere that are constantly evolving and
applying the latest methods and tools for
success. Adaptive application of them
offers new opportunities for PSYOPS,
which can increase the efficiency of
operations. In addition, marketing research
as a separate discipline conducts a
continuous and wide-ranging sociological,
demographic, technological, psychological
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researches that can be applied to military
PSYOPS.
Marketing and PSYOPS are quite a
different area, but the basic processes and
goals (target group, attitude change) are
similar. As a part of marketing, marketing
research and marketing communication
(advertising) involve a methodology that
can help increase PSYOPS efficiency.
Therefore developing a PSYOPS marketing
strategy is advisable, which could be
determined by the fundamentals of
marketing research.
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