![Iconotypes of pre-Friesian interpretations of Ganoderma lucidum. (A) Agaricus pseudoboletus Jacq. (≡ G. pseudoboletus [Jacq.] Murrill) in Jacquin’s Flora Austriaca vol. 1 (Tab. 41). (B) Boletus rugosus Jacq. was published in Flora Austriaca vol. 2. (Tab. 169). (C) B. lucidus Curtis (≡ G. lucidum [Curtis: Fr.] P. Karst.) in Flora Londinensis.](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318480782/figure/fig4/AS:543926999109632@1506693710880/Iconotypes-of-pre-Friesian-interpretations-of-Ganoderma-lucidum-A-Agaricus_Q320.jpg)
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What Is Ganoderma lucidum in the Molecular Era?
Abstract and Figures
The scientific name "Ganoderma lucidum" has long been used in the global market of medicinal mushrooms, and many of the publications have proved its pharmacological properties and chemical components. Despite the fact that several Ganoderma species have been described with considerable morphological similarities for G. lucidum s. str. from all over the world, this binomial is still the most frequently used in pharmacological studies. However, the use of particularly divergent nomenclature has caused major difficulties in the evaluation of the results of pharmacological studies. The present paper is intended to provide a nomenclatural and taxonomic overview of the medically important G. lucidum group, i.e., G. lucidum agg. and G. lingzhi. Moreover, we evaluate the possibilities of how the nomenclatural changes can help to avoid the misunderstanding of thousands of publications and highlight the scientifically correct interpretations for future studies.
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... study is recommended to clarify the placement of the species (Dai et al., 2017;Papp et al., 2017). It is evident that the correct identification of samples can greatly improve the discovery of new drugs and other products (Wasser, 2011) because various species differ in metabolite synthesis. ...
... lucidum. et al. (2012) showed that Asian G. lucidum is not the same as the one found in other parts of the world, including Europe.The molecular identification of the Chinese strain in our work produced the same result, with the Chinese strain clustering next to G. lingzhi in the Asian G. lucidum group; however, more research is needed to confirm the uniqueness of the Chinese species, as stated by other scientists(Papp et al., 2017). Their findings confirm those ofMoncalvo et al. (1995a), who stated that the distribution of G. lucidum is restricted to northern and southern Europe in addition to southwest China. ...
... They also suggested that the identification of any sample from Eurasia must be carefully done. Recent phylogenetic studies have shown that G. lucidum s. str. is a Eurasian species which has a widespread distribution from Europe to southwestern China(Papp et al., 2017).Moncalvo et al. (1995a) reported a polyphyletic group for G. resinaceum. Microscopic studies on growing mycelia from the two European G. resinaceum members of this group showed that one produced many chlamydospores and the other produced few(Moncalvo et al., 1995a). ...
The genus Ganoderma Karst. has broad‐spectrum usage in biotechnology, medicine and the food industry. The complexity of the morphology within species has led to uncertain identification in the past, but recent advancements in molecular identification methods have provided scientists with the opportunity to better understand the taxonomy of the species. The present study attempts for the first time to elucidate the distinctiveness of the Ganoderma species growing in Iran concerning those elsewhere in the world based on mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal DNA (mtSSU rDNA) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence data. The results disclosed that the G. lucidum Karst. samples collected in Iran are more similar to the European Ganoderma species than to the Asian (Chinese) one used in this study.
... In the public databases (GeneBank, UNITE) the ITS sequence of nearly 70 different Ganoderma binoms are deposited. Nevertheless, due to the unclear taxonomic interpretation of these Ganoderma species and the exclusively morphological based identification, the majority of the Ganoderma sequences accessible in the GeneBank are labeled as misidentified or ambiguously (e.g., Jargalmaa et al., 2017;Papp et al., 2017). Therefore, it would be essential to sequence the types of those Ganoderma species which were used in the modern scientific literature and previously described based on morphological features. ...
... Among the 14 different binomials given to this species by pre-Friesian European mycologists, the epithet lucidus was proposed by Curtis (1781) and accepted by Fries (1821) proved to be the most popular name, thereafter spreading worldwide. Currently G. lucidum seems to be the most often incorrectly used name within the genus and taxonomically represents a difficult complex with uncertain species boundaries (Papp et al., 2017). The type of G. lucidum was described from Europe, where currently three morphologically similar species have been accepted (Ryvarden and Melo, 2014). ...
... The results of recent phylogenetic studies also indicate that G. lucidum s. str. (excluding the other members of the G. lucidum complex) is a Eurasian species, with widespread distribution in Europe toward temperate Eurasia (Europe, northwestern and northeastern China) to Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces (southwestern China) (e.g., Yang and Feng, 2013;Zhou et al., 2015;Papp et al., 2017). According to Zhou et al. (2015), the representatives of the G. lucidum aggregate in North America are G. tsugae and G. oregonense. ...
The white-rot polypore genera Ganoderma (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) has a global distribution and includes several economically important species. However, Ganoderma taxonomically is one of the most difficult and misunderstood genera among the polypores, and the species names are often misused, especially in applied mycological studies. Therefore, in this contribution the following topics have been rewieved: (i) systematic state of Ganoderma genus and its relative genera; (ii) possibilities of species separation; (iii) current taxonomical state and biogeography of the most important Ganoderma species (e.g., G. applanatum, G. boninense, G. lucidum, G. lingzhi, G. sinense and G. tsugae) based on the light of most recent research results.
... three morphospecies) and the G. resinaceum lineage (incl. two genotypes within one morphospecies) (Papp et al. 2017;Náplavová et al. 2020). In order to clarify the laccate Ganoderma species present in the United States, more than 500 collections were studied by Loyd et al. (2018), who revealed 12 species using molecular phylogenetic techniques combined with morphological examination. ...
... Although, no DNA sequence data are available for the majority of currently accepted Ganoderma species (He et al. 2019;Jayawardena et al. 2020), several unidentified or mislabelled sequences are deposited at public databases, which represents distinct Ganoderma lineages (Papp et al. 2017). In order to estimate the global species richness in Ganoderma, an OTU (operational taxonomic unit; Blaxter et al. 2005) abundance dataset was used. ...
Fungi are eukaryotes that play essential roles in ecosystems. Among fungi, Basidiomycota is one of the major phyla with more than 40,000 described species. We review species diversity of Basidiomycota from five groups with different lifestyles or habitats: saprobic in grass/forest litter, wood-decaying, yeast-like, ectomycorrhizal, and plant parasitic. Case studies of Agaricus, Cantharellus, Ganoderma, Gyroporus, Russula, Tricholoma, and groups of lichenicolous yeast-like fungi, rust fungi, and smut fungi are used to determine trends in discovery of biodiversity. In each case study, the number of new species published during 2009–2020 is analysed to determine the rate of discovery. Publication rates differ between taxa and reflect different states of progress for species discovery in different genera. The results showed that lichenicolous yeast-like taxa had the highest publication rate for new species in the past two decades, and it is likely this trend will continue in the next decade. The species discovery rate of plant parasitic basidiomycetes was low in the past ten years, and remained constant in the past 50 years. We also found that the establishment of comprehensive and robust taxonomic systems based on a joint global initiative by mycologists could promote and standardize the recognition of taxa. We estimated that more than 54,000 species of Basidiomycota will be discovered by 2030, and estimate a total of 1.4–4.2 million species of Basidiomycota globally. These numbers illustrate a huge gap between the described and yet unknown diversity in Basidiomycota.
... Recent molecular phylogenetic studies also showed that the European specimens of G. resinaceum grouped in a lineage well separated from the G. lucidum agg [9,10]. The genetic diversity of nine fungal collections from the Slovakian urban and suburban areas (Central Europe) morphologically identified as G. resinaceum was recently investigated by phylogenetic analysis of internal transcribed spacer DNA sequences. ...
... Ganoderma genus has long been regarded as one of the most important genera of medicinal fungi worldwide with more than 300 species described. The research interest focused mainly on G. lucidum complex [10] and variability of other species has not been studied in detail. That is why there is very limited data on variability of G. resinaceum species. ...
Ganoderma resinaceum Boud. is commonly found in Mediterranean region, but rarely in Western, Central or Eastern Europe. It is a parasitic basidiomycetous fungus causing stem decay—especially in urban trees. A collection of nine fungal specimens from Slovakia (Central Europe), morphologically identified as G. resinaceum, was recently studied on the basis of sequence data from the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions. Analyses showed that the collections clustered into two separate groups. In this study—for the first time—the sequences of other molecular markers, namely partial translation elongation factor (tef1-α) region and partial 25S large subunit ribosomal RNA gene (25S LSU rRNA), as well as matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI–TOF MS) were obtained and used to evaluate the genetic variability of G. resinaceum. All these analyses confirm the existence of two previously unrecognized genotypes within the morphospecies.
... Molecular genetic analyses using a multi locus approach is currently the most robust and accepted method for designating species ranks for the fungi [22]. Other several methods available for molecular characterization of this fungi includes internal transcribed space (ITS), random amplified polymorphic DNA, ITS-RFLP, multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and so forth [23,24]. The multi locus molecular identification begins with isolation of DNA and then amplifying ITS, EF1-α, and RPB2 by PCR and finally sequencing to determine the DNA sequences which were then subjected to phylogenetic analysis [25]. ...
Forest ecosystems play an important role in upholding life on our planet. However, the onslaught of fungal pathogens like Ganoderma lucidum, poses a threat by decimating numerous tree species. G. lucidum identified as a root pathogen, causing root rot in numerous tree species of horticulture and forestry importance. The fungus initiates infection through basidiospores, which germinate and penetrate within roots and start to degrade lignocellulosic components of plant cells. Early-stage detection of G. lucidum, is challenging, while in advance stages, the wood undergoes softening and a loss of tensile strength, rendering the disease incurable. Hence, effective management of G. lucidum necessitates a pivotal role of disease diagnostic techniques, which are currently underutilized or inadequately accessible. Subsequent implementation of suitable control measures becomes imperative to thwart disease occurrence and mitigate its impact in early stages, thus preserving the vitality of forest ecosystems. This study provides comprehensive overview of G. lucidum, covering taxonomy, pathogenicity, disease cycle, diagnosis and effective control measures, which will be helpful in formulating effective diagnostic techniques for early management of root rot disease.
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... For more than a century, Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi, Reishi) has been a therapeutic agent for the prevention and treatment of many diseases, including cancer, which leads to improved health and increased longevity in Asian countries. The G. lucidum is a well-known mushroom dietary supplement for treating different conditions [17,18]. Recently, G. lucidum has attracted much attention in non-Asian countries. ...
BackgroundHCC is among the most common cancer. Ganoderma lucidum (G.lucidum) has been essential in preventing and treating cancer. The Nrf2 signaling cascade is a cell protective mechanism against further damage, such as cancer development. This signaling pathway upregulates the cytoprotective genes and is vital in eliminating xenobiotics and reactive oxygen. This study aimed to show the potential cytotoxic activity of G. lucidum aqueous extract in HCC.Methods and resultsMTT assay was used to detect cell viability. Nrf2-related proteins were measured by western blotting, and the flow cytometry method assayed cell population in different cycle phases. Cell viability was 49% and 47% following G. lucidum extract at 100 µg/ml at 24 and 48 h treatments, respectively. G. lucidum extract (aqueous, 100 or 50 µg/ml) treatments for 24, 48, or 72 h were able to significantly change the cytoplasmic/nuclear amount of Nrf2 and HO-1, NQO1 protein levels. Moreover, at both concentrations, arrest of the G0/G1 cell cycle was stimulated in HCC.Conclusions
The activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathways seems to be among the mechanisms underlining the protective and therapeutic action of G. lucidum against HCC.
... However, the results of taxonomic and nomenclature works on these economically important fungi are often overlooked or ignored in applied researches (e.g. Papp et al. 2017;Shen et al. 2021). The continued use of popular names that is scientifically incorrect may also be due to the difficulties to survey the sometimes conflicting literatures, especially for researchers less experienced in taxonomy and nomenclature. ...
In recent years, the scientific names of many cultivated and well-known medicinal fungal species have been changed. However, the results of taxonomic and nomenclature works on these economically important fungi are often overlooked or ignored in applied researches. The incorrect use of scientific names may cause uncertainty in research and in the global medicinal mushroom market. In this paper, we briefly review the current taxonomy and nomenclature of “Fuling” medicinal mushroom and make a proposal for biochemists, pharmacists and businessmen on the correct use of scientific names related to this species. Based on the recent taxonomic results and nomenclatural proposals, the use of the names Wolfiporia extensa, W. cocos and especially Poria cocos for the “Fuling” mushroom are incorrect and misleading; therefore, the acceptance of the names Pachyma hoelen or Wolfiporia hoelen is recommended.
... (He & al., 2019(He & al., , 2022, and taxonomically one of the most chaotic groups of polypores (Ryvarden, 1991;Papp, 2019). Although species-level identification of most Ganoderma taxa is not feasible solely based on macromorphological characteristics (Moncalvo & Ryvarden, 1997;Papp & al., 2017), a few species are well recognizable by unique features of the basidiocarp. For instance, the so-called Beeswax bracket is the only European Ganoderma species that has a perennial basidiocarp with a resinous layer on the pileus surface and dark brown context (Ryvarden & Melo, 2017;Bernicchia & Gorjón, 2020). ...
Ganoderma is a large and diverse, cosmopolitan fungal genus in the Basidiomycota, comprises species with prized medicinal properties, valuable biotechnological applications and of significant phytopathological interest. In Europe, the number of Ganoderma species is low compared to North America, East Asia or the tropics. Among the seven accepted Ganoderma species in Europe, only one has a perennial basidiome with a resinous layer on the pileus surface and dark brown context. In the scientific literature, this species appears under the name G. pfeifferi or G. cupreolaccatum. However, Quélet provided a detailed watercolour painting of a single basidiome under the name Fomes advena in 1872, which shows similar morphological features. Considering that F. advena was validly and effectively published well before G. pfeifferi and “Polyporus cupreolaccatus”, the nomenclatural status of this forgotten and overlooked name is discussed.
... The health benefits of the various Ganoderma species and their compounds responsible for beneficial effects are intensely studied worldwide [23][24][25][26]. The most studied Ganoderma species, which has been described in traditional Asian medicine under several popular names (such as "Lingzhi" in China or "Reishi" in Japan) is taxonomically identical with G. lingzhi [27][28][29]. However, G. lingzhi is commercially sold under the name of G. lucidum [30] and this scientific binomial has widely been used incorrectly for the commercially cultivated East Asian medicinal mushroom [31]. ...
Probiotic L. acidophilus La-14 cells were co-encapsulated with Ganoderma lingzhi extract to prolong the viability of the cells under simulated gastrointestinal (SGI) condition and to protect the active ingredients of Reishi mushroom during the storage period. Combinations of distinctive reagents (sodium alginate, chitosan, maltose, Hydroxyethyl-cellulose (HEC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), and calcium lactate) were tested. Optimal double layer Ca-alginate hydrogel beads were fabricated with significantly improved characteristics. The incorporation of maltose significantly decreases the release rate of mushrooms' phenolics, antioxidants, and β-glucan during the storage time. Significant improvement in probiotic cells viability under SGI condition has been found and confirmed by confocal laser microscopy in maltose containing double layer coated calcium alginate beads variants. The encapsulation of newly formulated prebiotic Reishi extract and probiotic L. acidophilus is creating a new potential food application for such medicinal mushrooms and natural products with unpleasant taste upon oral consumption.
... The genus Ganoderma, the largest genus in Polyporales with about 180 species (He et al. 2019), is probably the most expressive example for this problem. Morphology-dependency has resulted in ambiguous species circumscriptions in Ganoderma (Lloyd 1905;Ryvarden 1991;Papp et al. 2017). Since the DNA era, several molecular markers have been used to clarify species boundaries within the genus: IGS, SSU, ITS, LSU, mtSSU, btub, rpb1, rpb2, tef1, and atp6 (Moncalvo et al. 1995;Hong and Jung 2004;Sun et al. 2006;Zheng et al. 2009;Wang et al. 2012;Thakur et al. 2015;Zhou et al. 2015;Loyd et al. 2018;Xing et al. 2018). ...
Species delimitation is one of the most fundamental processes in biology. Biodiversity undertakings, for instance, require explicit species concepts and criteria for species delimitation in order to be relevant and translatable. However, a perfect species concept does not exist for Fungi. Here, we review the species concepts commonly used in Basidiomycota, the second largest phylum of Fungi that contains some of the best known species of mushrooms, rusts, smuts, and jelly fungi. In general, best practice is to delimitate species, publish new taxa, and conduct taxonomic revisions based on as many independent lines of evidence as possible, that is, by applying a so-called unifying (or integrative) conceptual framework. However, the types of data used vary considerably from group to group. For this reason we discuss the different classes of Basidiomycota, and for each provide: (i) a general introduction with difficulties faced in species recognition, (ii) species concepts and methods for species delimitation, and (iii) community recommendations and conclusions.
... Still, the species concept in Ganoderma is not universally accepted and remains inadequately established (Corner 1983;Moncalvo et al. 1995a;Richter et al. 2015;Papp et al. 2017). For many species, phylogenetic and mating data are missing or are fragmentary and not properly documented. ...
Ganoderma P. Karst. is a cosmopolitan genus of white-rot fungi which comprises species with highly-prized pharmaceutical properties, valuable biotechnological applications and of significant phytopatho-logical interest. However, the status of the taxonomy within the genus is still highly controversial and ambiguous despite the progress made through molecular approaches. A metadata analysis of 3908 nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA sequences obtained from GenBank/ENA/DDBJ and UNITE was performed by targeting sequences annotated as Ganoderma, but also sequences from environmental samples and from material examined for the first time. Ganoderma taxa segregated into five main lineages (Clades A to E). Clade A corresponds to the core of laccate species and includes G. shanxiense and three major well-supported clusters: Cluster A.1 ('G. lucidum sensu lato') consists of taxa from Eurasia and North America, Cluster A.2 of material with worldwide occurrence including G. resinaceum and Cluster A.3 is composed of species originating from all continents except Europe and comprises G. lingzhi. Clade B includes G. applanatum and allied species with a Holarctic distribution. Clade C comprises taxa from Asia and Africa only. Clade D consists of laccate taxa with tropical/subtropical occurrence, while clade E harbours the highest number of non-laccate species with a cosmopolitan distribution. The 92 Ganoderma-associated names, initially used for sequences labelling, correspond to at least 80 taxa. Amongst them, 21 constitute putatively new phylospecies after our application of criteria relevant to the robustness/support of the terminal clades, intra-and interspecific genetic divergence and available biogeographic data. Moreover , several other groups or individual sequences seem to represent distinct taxonomic entities and merit further investigation. A particularly large number of the public sequences was revealed to be insufficiently and/or incorrectly identified, for example, 87% and 78% of entries labelled as G. australe and G. lucidum, respectively. In general, ITS demonstrated high efficacy in resolving relationships amongst most of the Ganoderma taxa; however, it was not equally useful at elucidating species barriers across the entire genus and such cases are outlined. Furthermore, we draw conclusions on biogeography by evaluating species occurrence on a global scale in conjunction with phylogenetic structure/patterns. The sequence variability assessed in ITS spacers could be further exploited for diagnostic purposes.
... Karst, therefore naming as the same name (Cao, Wu, & Dai, 2012). However, in recent years disputes of the different names used in different countries have been proposed (Papp, Dima, & Wasser, 2017). Some researchers raised a controversy that Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) ...
... These morphological characteristics were recognized in recent articles, 28,29 but the characteristics of G. weberianum were wrongly attributed to the holotype of G. sichuanense. The morphological dissimilarity between G. sichuanense and G. weberianum, and the controversy over what name should be applied to a lingzhi type specimen were fairly reviewed, 30 but the name G. lingzhi was adopted. All these later publications were possibly influenced by the ITS sequence JQ781877 as claimed of the holotype of G. sichuanense by Cao et al. 13 However, any doubts about the morphology can be checked by examining specimens of G. weberianum and the holotype of G. sichuanense. ...
The well-known and widely cultivated lingzhi has had a significant impact on Chinese culture and is now an important fungal crop providing medicinal benefits to human health and economic value to social development within China and around the world. The European mushroom name, Ganoderma lucidum, has been misapplied to this species for over 100 years until recently reidentified as G. sichuanense. Soon after this, a new species name, G. lingzhi, was also proposed for the fungus because of an unusual internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence purportedly of the holotype of G. sichuanense. This extraordinary ITS sequence, which apparently belongs to another species, created an inconsistency between morphological characteristics and molecular data of the holotype making it "demonstrably ambiguous"; this led to an epitypification to support the holotype for the precise application of the name, according to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. However, arguments concerning the names G. sichuanense and G. lingzhi are still heating up, including attempts to reject the epitype of G. sichuanense. To clarify the confusion, the typification of G. sichuanense is reviewed here to demonstrate that the epitype of G. sichuanense was appropriately designated for the purpose to support the holotype of the name, the fact that both G. sichuanense and G. lingzhi are conspecific, and that the name G. lingzhi was based on the unwarranted ITS sequence claimed to be of the holotype of G. sichuanense. Suggestions are made for this case to make a way forward, especially re-examination of relevant fungarium collections to reach a consensus to stabilize the use of the name.
... These morphological characteristics were recognized in recent articles, 28,29 but the characteristics of G. weberianum were wrongly attributed to the holotype of G. sichuanense. The morphological dissimilarity between G. sichuanense and G. weberianum, and the controversy over what name should be applied to a lingzhi type specimen were fairly reviewed, 30 but the name G. lingzhi was adopted. All these later publications were possibly influenced by the ITS sequence JQ781877 as claimed of the holotype of G. sichuanense by Cao et al. 13 However, any doubts about the morphology can be checked by examining specimens of G. weberianum and the holotype of G. sichuanense. ...
The well-known and widely cultivated lingzhi has had a significant impact on Chinese culture and is now an important fungal crop providing medicinal benefits to human health and economic value to social development within China and around the world. The European mushroom name, Ganoderma lucidum, has been misapplied to this species for over 100 years until recently reidentified as G. sichuanense. Soon after this, a new species name, G. lingzhi, was also proposed for the fungus because of an unusual internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence purportedly of the holotype of G. sichuanense. This extraordinary ITS sequence, which apparently belongs to another species, created an inconsistency between morphological characteristics and molecular data of the holotype making it "demonstrably ambiguous"; this led to an epitypification to support the holotype for the precise application of the name, according to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. However, arguments concerning the names G. sichuanense and G. lingzhi are still heating up, including attempts to reject the epitype of G. sichuanense. To clarify the confusion, the typification of G. sichuanense is reviewed here to demonstrate that the epitype of G. sichuanense was appropriately designated for the purpose to support the holotype of the name, the fact that both G. sichuanense and G. lingzhi are conspecific, and that the name G. lingzhi was based on the unwarranted ITS sequence claimed to be of the holotype of G. sichuanense. Suggestions are made for this case to make a way forward, especially re-examination of relevant fungarium collections to reach a consensus to stabilize the use of the name.
... This makes G. lucidum one of the oldest mushrooms known to have medicinal use and seemingly one of the most investigated species among medicinal mushrooms. [11][12][13][14] G. lucidum contains a wide range of bioactive molecules such as mono-, oligo-, and polysaccharides (mainly β-glucans), terpenoids, phenolic compounds, nucleotides, steroids, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins (B1, B2, B6), proteins, and minerals with recognized health benefits. [14][15][16][17] The antidiabetic effects of reishi mushrooms were identified via different in vitro and in vivo experiments making it a novel candidate for application in sweet foodstuffs like honey. ...
Acacia honey, as a favored delicate was supplemented with extracts of distinctive Ganoderma lucidum (lingzhi or reishi) variants in order to enhance its biological value and lay the foundations for prospective functional food application. Health promoting effect of G. lucidim has already been documented and its prebiotic feature has been verified. In spite of promising studies and the unambiguous nutritional value, G. lucidim mushroom has not gained extensive use in food industry so far. Special honey-based foodstuffs fortified with G. lucidim extract were developed as novel food-prototypes, and screened for their enhanced total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant (FRAP) and antiradical activity (DPPH). The obtained variants were also investigated for the possibly increased prebiotic index by means of an in vitro digestion procedure. A concentration dependent positive correlation was observed for all the studied parameters in case of the investigated prototypes. Supplementation of acacia honey with 0.5% Reishi mushroom extract significantly increased the TPC, the antioxidant activity and the radical scavenging power. A statistically significant improvement in the prebiotic index was also observed for the developed prototypes when compared to pure acacia honey. The evidence gained from the conducted studies fully support the conception of combining honey and Reishi extract to obtain a functional food product of high biological potential.
... accessed date: 1 June 2019). Ganoderma can be a confusing genus to study due to the highly variable morphological features of the species in this group, including intra-species variations (Ryvarden 2000;Papp et al. 2017;Hapuarachchi et al. 2018a, c;Hapuarachchi et al. 2019a, b). ...
Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan genus of mushrooms, which can cause root and butt rot diseases on many tree species. Members of this genus are particularly diverse in tropical regions. Some Ganoderma spp. are medicinally active and therefore are used to treat human diseases or as a dietary supplement. In this study, three Ganoderma strains were collected in tropical southern Thailand. Phylogenetic analyses of combined ITS, LSU, TEF1α and RPB2 sequence data indicated that the three strains grouped in a distinct lineage within laccate Ganoderma . One strain was collected from Surat Thani Province clustered in the G. casuarinicola clade with high statistical support (MLBS = 100% / MPBS = 98% / PP = 0.96), while the other two strains of Ganoderma , collected from Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, formed a distinct well-supported clade (MLBS = 100% / MPBS = 100% / PP = 1.00) and are described here as a new species. Ganoderma casuarinicola is reported here as a new record to Thailand. Morphological differences of the two taxa and their closely related taxa are discussed. Colour photographs of macro and micro morphological characteristics and a phylogenetic tree to show the placement of the new record and new species are provided.
... In this respect, the name "G. lucidum" has been erroneously applied to morphologically similar collections of Ganoderma with laccate pilei. 3 However, the compounds associated with the medicinal properties of Ganoderma have been extensively attributed to G. lucidum. Even so, the same compounds may also be found in other Ganoderma species such as G. applanatum (Pers.) ...
The aim of this work was to evaluate wood chips from vineyard prunings (VPs) as a potential substrate in cultures of Ganoderma spp. Biological efficiency (BE), production rate (PR), yield, and protein and fat contents of basidiomes increased when the wild strains G. oerstedii and G. subincrustatum, which were isolated from the Sonoran Desert, were cultivated on VPs. The mineral content of the basidiomes varied depending on the strain and substrate. The carbohydrate and phenol contents of the different substrate combinations and of the basidiomes were similar among strains. However, the carbohydrate and phenol contents of the substrates did not correlate with an increase in BE. Conversely, the high availability of protein, fat, and hemicellulose in VPs positively correlated with increases in BE, in yield, and in the protein and fat contents of the basidiomes of the wild strains. Our results clearly demonstrate that, in comparison with the traditional substrate of oak wood, VPs improve the production and biochemical composition of basidiomes. Therefore, cultivation of Ganoderma spp. on VPs is an environmentally friendly strategy for increasing their nutritional value and for cultivating these mushrooms for other biotechnological applications.
... This makes G. lucidum one of the oldest mushrooms known to have medicinal use and seemingly one of the most investigated species among medicinal mushrooms. [11][12][13][14] G. lucidum contains a wide range of bioactive molecules such as mono-, oligo-, and polysaccharides (mainly β-glucans), terpenoids, phenolic compounds, nucleotides, steroids, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins (B1, B2, B6), proteins, and minerals with recognized health benefits. [14][15][16][17] The antidiabetic effects of reishi mushrooms were identified via different in vitro and in vivo experiments making it a novel candidate for application in sweet foodstuffs like honey. ...
Acacia honey is one of the most preferred honey types, thus it can be considered as a basic substance of favored functional foodstuffs. Reishe (Ganoderma lucidum) mushroom is a well-known species used as traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. Many of its medicinal and anti-oxidative effects have been proven recently.
Methodology & Theoretical Orientation: The most efficient extraction method has been selected. Total phenol content (TPC) and radical scavenging activity (RSA) of each concentrate have been assessed. TPC and RSA of honey supplemented with different concentrations of the extract (0.1, 0.25 and 0.5%) were studied. Different sensory parameters and visual appearance have been considered to establish the final supplementation dosage. Antibacterial effect of the samples was investigated in comparison with the samples supplemented with different concentration of lingzi mushroom extract.
Findings: The highest extraction yields were obtained for 50% ethanol (9.1%) and 50% methanol (9%), respectively. The highest TPC content though was recorded in case of extract obtained with 75% Methanol (100mgGAE/g) and Ethanol (98.06 mgGAE/g) with no significant difference. The highest RSA (16.8% of DPPH) was recorded in the extract obtained for 75% Ethanol. Addition of 0.5% ethanolic extract to honey significantly increased the TPC content (from 72.22 to 282.22 mgGAE/kg honey). Marked increase (42%) was also observed in RSA for fortified honey. Supplementation of honey with 0.5% ganoderma extract contributed to huge enhancement of antibacterial effect against such harmful bacteria as Salmonella, E. coli and Streptococcus.
... Research on morphological and molecular taxonomies is currently underway to accurately describe this strain, taking into account the emerging discussion on the nomenclature of the genus Ganoderma P. Karst. 24 ...
Solid-state fermentation (SSF) with the medicinal higher Basidiomycete Ganoderma lucidum was
studied as a strategy to use pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) and poplar (Populus nigra L.) wood chips and sawdust.
Fruiting bodies were produced and the value of the biotransformed substrate was assessed. The highest mushroom
yield (63 g dry weight per kilogram of dry substrate) was obtained with poplar sawdust and wood chips. Immersion
of the bioreactors was a simple watering method that obtained suitable yields. Two morphological types were induced
using 2 different incandescent light intensities. High light irradiation induced the highest valued mushroom morphology
(as a whole product). Time course study of substrate biodegradation and mycelial growth dynamics indicated that
the trophophase lasted 20 days and presented laccase activity of 0.01–0.03 units · g−1. The activity at idiophase was 10
times higher. Aqueous and alkali extracts, as well as carbohydrase enzyme profile activity, revealed differences in the
properties of the residual substrate; some related to the substrate source are considered to be of concern for further use
of this pretreated biomass. In view of the results obtained, we propose use of SSF of pine and poplar with G. lucidum
to profitably recycle softwood by-products from the timber industry.
During systematic surveys of urban, rural and forest areas in Slovakia and Moravia (Czech Republic) and occasional botanical excursions in Northern Hungary, seventy-five collections of Ganoderma spp. were gathered during 2015 – 2018. Taxa identification was accomplished through observation of morphological characteristics of their mature, sporulating and undeformed basidiocarps. The genetic diversity of the collections was investigated by using internal transcribed spacer (ITS1/4) of ribosomal DNA sequences comparisons. Both analyses showed that the 75 collections clustered into six clades, namely, G. applanatum, G. adspersum, G. resinaceum, G. pfeifferi, G. lucidum and G. carnosum in accordance with the morphospecies concept.
The sequence comparison demonstrated genetic homogeneity of all G. resinaceum clade. Multiple sequence alignment indicated the presence of two G. resinaceum sequence types with significant statistic support and, probably, the existence of two cryptic taxa. The twenty-eight collections clustered with the G. applanatum group and the twenty other collections were grouped with morphologically very similar G. adspersum group. However, ITS sequences show no close similarity between these two species.
PDF: http://mycosphere.org/pdf/MYCOSPHERE_11_1_3.pdf
The Basidiomycota constitutes a major phylum of the kingdom Fungi and is second in species numbers to the Ascomycota. The present work provides an overview of all validly published, currently used basidiomycete genera to date in a single document. An outline of all genera of Basidiomycota is provided, which includes 1928 currently used genera names, with 1263 synonyms, which are distributed in 241 families, 68 orders, 18 classes and four subphyla. We provide brief notes for each accepted genus including information on classification, number of accepted species, type species, life mode, habitat, distribution, and sequence information. Furthermore, three phylogenetic analyses with combined LSU, SSU, 5.8s, rpb1, rpb2, and ef1 datasets for the subphyla Agaricomycotina, Pucciniomycotina and Ustilaginomycotina are conducted, respectively. Divergence time estimates are provided to the family level with 632 species from 62 orders, 168 families and 605 genera. Our study indicates that the divergence times of the subphyla in Basidiomycota are 406–430 Mya, classes are 211–383 Mya, and orders are 99–323 Mya, which are largely consistent with previous studies. In this study, all phylogenetically supported families were dated, with the families of Agaricomycotina diverging from 27–178 Mya, Pucciniomycotina from 85–222 Mya, and Ustilaginomycotina from 79–177 Mya. Divergence times as additional criterion in ranking provide additional evidence to resolve taxonomic problems in the Basidiomycota taxonomic system, and also provide a better understanding of their phylogeny and evolution.
Ganoderma lucidum is a typical polypore fungus used for traditional Chinese medical purposes. The taxonomic delimitation of Ganoderma lucidum is still debated. In this study, we sequenced seven internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of Ganoderma lucidum strains and annotated the ITS1 and ITS2 regions. Phylogenetic analysis of ITS1 differentiated the strains into three geographic groups. Groups 1–3 were originated from Europe, tropical Asia, and eastern Asia, respectively. While ITS2 could only differentiate the strains into two groups in which Group 2 originated from tropical Asia gathered with Groups 1 and 3 originated from Europe and eastern Asia. By determining the secondary structures of the ITS1 sequences, these three groups exhibited similar structures with a conserved central core and differed helices. While compared to Group 2, Groups 1 and 3 of ITS2 sequences shared similar structures with the difference in helix 4. Large-scale evaluation of ITS1 and ITS2 both exhibited that the majority of subgroups in the same group shared the similar structures. Further Weblogo analysis of ITS1 sequences revealed two main variable regions located in helix 2 in which C/T or A/G substitutions frequently occurred and ITS1 exhibited more nucleotide variances compared to ITS2. ITS1 multi-alignment of seven spawn strains and culture tests indicated that a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) site at position 180 correlated with strain antagonism. The HZ, TK and 203 fusion strains of Ganoderma lucidum had a T at position 180, whereas other strains exhibiting antagonism, including DB, RB, JQ, and YS, had a C. Taken together, compared to ITS2 region, ITS1 region could differentiated Ganoderma lucidum into three geographic originations based on phylogenetic analysis and secondary structure prediction. Besides, a SNP in ITS 1 could delineate Ganoderma lucidum strains at the intraspecific level. These findings will be implemented to improve species quality control in the Ganoderma industry.
The taxonomic interpretations of Ganoderma japonicum (Polyporus japonicus) was controversial
in mycological studies and formerly proposed to be dropped for consideration, because
of the lack of type specimen. However, according to the International Code for Nomenclature for
algae, fungi and plants, P. japonicus is a superfluous name for Boletus dimidiatus published validly
by Thunberg in 1784. The original material of B. dimidiatus is available at the Museum of Evolution
at Uppsala University (UPS). Therefore the new combination Ganoderma dimidiatum is proposed
hereby.
The bioactivity of Ganoderma lucidum basidiocarps has been well documented, but there are no data on the medicinal properties of its submerged cultivation broth nor on the other species of the genus Ganoderma. Thus the aim of this study was to test the potential antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of fermentation broth obtained after submerged cultivation of G. applanatum, G. carnosum, and G. lucidum. DPPH• scavenging ability, total phenols, and flavonoid contents were measured to determine the antioxidative potential of Ganoderma spp. fermentation filtrates, whereas their antimicrobial potential was studied using the microdilution method. DPPH• scavenging activity of G. lucidum fermentation filtrates was significantly higher than that of G. applanatum and G. carnosum, with the maximum (39.67%) obtained from strain BEOFB 432. This filtrate also contained the highest concentrations of phenols (134.89 µg gallic acid equivalents/mL) and flavonoids (42.20 µg quercetin equivalent/mL). High correlations between the activity and phenol content in the extracts showed that these compounds were active components of the antioxidative activity. G. lucidum strain BEOFB 432 was the most effective antibacterial agent, whereas strain BEOFB 434 has proven to be the most effective antifungal agent. The study showed that Ganoderma spp. fermentation filtrates are novel potent antioxidative and antimicrobial agents that could be obtained more quickly and cheaper than basidiocarps.
One challenge in the dietary supplement industry is confirmation of species identity for processed raw materials, i.e. those modified by milling, drying, or extraction, which move through a multilevel supply chain before reaching the finished product. This is particularly difficult for samples containing fungal mycelia, where processing removes morphological characteristics, such that they do not present sufficient variation to differentiate species by traditional techniques. To address this issue, we have demonstrated the utility of DNA barcoding to verify the taxonomic identity of fungi found commonly in the food and dietary supplement industry; such data are critical for protecting consumer health, by assuring both safety and quality. By using DNA barcoding of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of the rRNA gene with fungal specific ITS primers, ITS barcodes were generated for 33 representative fungal samples, all of which could be used by consumers for food and/or dietary supplement purposes. In the majority of cases, we were able to sequence the ITS region from powdered mycelium samples, grocery store mushrooms, and capsules from commercial dietary supplements. After generating ITS barcodes utilizing standard procedures accepted by the Consortium for the Barcode of Life, we tested their utility by performing a BLAST search against authenticate published ITS sequences in GenBank. In some cases, we also downloaded published, homologous sequences of the ITS region of fungi inspected in this study and examined the phylogenetic relationships of barcoded fungal species in light of modern taxonomic and phylogenetic studies. We anticipate that these data will motivate discussions on DNA barcoding based species identification as applied to the verification/certification of mushroom-containing dietary supplements.
Novel species of fungi described in the present study include the following from Australia: Vermiculariopsiella
eucalypti, Mulderomyces natalis (incl. Mulderomyces gen. nov.), Fusicladium paraamoenum, Neotrimmatostroma paraexcentricum, and Pseudophloeospora eucalyptorum on leaves of Eucalyptus spp., Anungitea grevilleae (on leaves of Grevillea sp.), Pyrenochaeta acaciae (on leaves of Acacia sp.), and Brunneocarpos banksiae (incl. Brunneocarpos gen. nov.) on cones of Banksia attenuata. Novel foliicolous taxa from South Africa include Neosulcatispora strelitziae (on Strelitzia nicolai), Colletotrichum ledebouriae (on Ledebouria floridunda), Cylindrosympodioides brabejum (incl. Cylindrosympodioides gen. nov.) on Brabejum stellatifolium, Sclerostagonospora ericae (on Erica sp.), Setophoma cyperi (on Cyperus sphaerocephala), and Phaeosphaeria breonadiae (on Breonadia microcephala). Novelties described from Robben Island (South Africa) include Wojnowiciella cissampeli and Diaporthe cissampeli (both on Cissampelos capensis), Phaeotheca salicorniae (on Salicornia meyeriana), Paracylindrocarpon aloicola (incl. Paracylindrocarpon gen. nov.) on Aloe sp., and Libertasomyces myopori (incl. Libertasomyces gen. nov.) on Myoporum serratum. Several novelties are recorded from La Réunion (France), namely Phaeosphaeriopsis agapanthi (on Agapanthus sp.), Roussoella solani (on Solanum mauritianum), Vermiculariopsiella acaciae (on Acacia heterophylla), Dothiorella acacicola (on Acacia mearnsii), Chalara clidemiae (on Clidemia hirta), Cytospora tibouchinae (on Tibouchina semidecandra), Diaporthe ocoteae (on Ocotea obtusata), Castanediella eucalypticola,
Phaeophleospora eucalypticola and Fusicladium eucalypticola (on Eucalyptus robusta), Lareunionomyces syzygii (incl. Lareunionomyces gen. nov.) and Parawiesneriomyces syzygii (incl. Parawiesneriomyces gen. nov.) on leaves of Syzygium jambos. Novel taxa from the USA include Meristemomyces arctostaphylos (on Arctostaphylos patula), Ochroconis dracaenae (on Dracaena reflexa), Rasamsonia columbiensis (air of a hotel conference room), Paecilomyces tabacinus (on Nicotiana tabacum), Toxicocladosporium hominis (from human broncoalveolar lavage fluid), Nothophoma macrospora (from respiratory secretion of a patient with pneumonia), and Penidiellopsis radicularis (incl. Penidiellopsis gen. nov.) from a human nail. Novel taxa described from Malaysia include Prosopidicola albizziae (on Albizzia falcataria), Proxipyricularia asari (on Asarum sp.), Diaporthe passifloricola (on Passiflora foetida), Paramycoleptodiscus albizziae (incl. Paramycoleptodiscus gen. nov.) on Albizzia falcataria, and Malaysiasca phaii (incl. Malaysiasca gen. nov.) on Phaius reflexipetalus. Two species are newly described from human patients in the Czech Republic, namely Microascus longicollis (from toenails of patient with suspected onychomycosis), and Chrysosporium echinulatum (from sole skin of patient). Furthermore, Alternaria quercicola is described on leaves of Quercus brantii (Iran), Stemphylium beticola on leaves of Beta vulgaris (The Netherlands), Scleroderma capeverdeanum on soil (Cape Verde Islands), Scleroderma dunensis on soil, and Blastobotrys meliponae from bee honey (Brazil), Ganoderma mbrekobenum on angiosperms (Ghana), Geoglossum raitviirii and Entoloma krutiсianum on soil (Russia), Priceomyces vitoshaensis on Pterostichus melas (Carabidae) (Bulgaria) is the only one for which the family is listed, Ganoderma ecuadoriense on decaying wood (Ecuador), Thyrostroma cornicola on Cornus officinalis (Korea), Cercophora vinosa on decorticated branch of Salix sp. (France), Coprinus pinetorum, Coprinus littoralis and
Xerocomellus poederi on soil (Spain). Two new genera from Colombia include Helminthosporiella and Uwemyces on leaves of Elaeis oleifera. Two species are described from India, namely Russula intervenosa (ectomycorrhizal with Shorea robusta), and Crinipellis odorata (on bark of Mytragyna parviflora). Novelties from Thailand include Cyphellophora gamsii (on leaf litter), Pisolithus aureosericeus and Corynascus citrinus (on soil). Two species are newly described from Citrus in Italy, namely Dendryphiella paravinosa on Citrus sinensis, and Ramularia citricola on Citrus floridana. Morphological and culture characteristics along with ITS nrDNA barcodes are provided for all taxa.
Ganoderma is a well-known genus of polypores because of its important medicinal properties. The genus is typified by G. lucidum, which represents a species complex. Ganoderma aridicola sp. nov. is proposed as a new member of the G. lucidum complex from South Africa based on the combination of morphological and molecular evidences. The new species is characterized by its fuscous to black pileal surface with distinct concentric zones and small pores; in addition, it was found in an environment with contrasted dry and humid seasons. Phylogenetically, sequences data from nuclear internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) and the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (EF1-α) confirmed that G. aridicola is a new species within the G. lucidum complex.
Notes on 113 fungal taxa are compiled in this paper, including 11 new genera, 89 new species, one new subspecies, three new combinations and seven reference specimens. A wide geographic and taxonomic range of fungal taxa are detailed. In the Ascomycota the new genera Angustospora (Testudinaceae), Camporesia (Xylariaceae), Clematidis, Crassiparies (Pleosporales genera incertae sedis), Farasanispora, Longiostiolum (Pleosporales genera incertae sedis), Multilocularia (Parabambusicolaceae), Neophaeocryptopus (Dothideaceae), Parameliola (Pleosporales genera incertae sedis), and Towyspora (Lentitheciaceae) are introduced. Newly introduced species are Angustospora nilensis, Aniptodera aquibella, Annulohypoxylon albidiscum, Astrocystis thailandica, Camporesia sambuci, Clematidis italica, Colletotrichum menispermi, C. quinquefoliae, Comoclathris pimpinellae, Crassiparies quadrisporus, Cytospora salicicola, Diatrype thailandica, Dothiorella rhamni, Durotheca macrostroma, Farasanispora avicenniae, Halorosellinia rhizophorae, Humicola koreana, Hypoxylon lilloi, Kirschsteiniothelia tectonae, Lindgomyces okinawaensis, Longiostiolum tectonae, Lophiostoma pseudoarmatisporum, Moelleriella phukhiaoensis, M. pongdueatensis, Mucoharknessia anthoxanthi, Multilocularia bambusae, Multiseptospora thysanolaenae, Neophaeocryptopus cytisi, Ocellularia arachchigei, O. ratnapurensis, Ochronectria thailandica, Ophiocordyceps karstii, Parameliola acaciae, P. dimocarpi, Parastagonospora cumpignensis, Pseudodidymosphaeria phlei, Polyplosphaeria thailandica, Pseudolachnella brevifusiformis, Psiloglonium macrosporum, Rhabdodiscus albodenticulatus, Rosellinia chiangmaiensis, Saccothecium rubi, Seimatosporium pseudocornii, S. pseudorosae, Sigarispora ononidis and Towyspora aestuari. New combinations are provided for Eutiarosporella dactylidis (sexual morph described and illustrated) and Pseudocamarosporium pini. Descriptions, illustrations and / or reference specimens are designated for Aposphaeria corallinolutea, Cryptovalsa ampelina, Dothiorella vidmadera, Ophiocordyceps formosana, Petrakia echinata, Phragmoporthe conformis and Pseudocamarosporium pini. The new species of Basidiomycota are Agaricus coccyginus, A. luteofibrillosus, Amanita atrobrunnea, A. digitosa, A. gleocystidiosa, A. pyriformis, A. strobilipes, Bondarzewia tibetica, Cortinarius albosericeus, C. badioflavidus, C. dentigratus, C. duboisensis, C. fragrantissimus, C. roseobasilis, C. vinaceobrunneus, C. vinaceogrisescens, C. wahkiacus, Cyanoboletus hymenoglutinosus, Fomitiporia atlantica, F. subtilissima, Ganoderma wuzhishanensis, Inonotus shoreicola, Lactifluus armeniacus, L. ramipilosus, Leccinum indoaurantiacum, Musumecia alpina, M. sardoa, Russula amethystina subp. tengii and R. wangii are introduced. Descriptions, illustrations, notes and / or reference specimens are designated for Clarkeinda trachodes, Dentocorticium ussuricum, Galzinia longibasidia, Lentinus stuppeus and Leptocorticium tenellum. The other new genera, species new combinations are Anaeromyces robustus, Neocallimastix californiae and Piromyces finnis from Neocallimastigomycota, Phytophthora estuarina, P. rhizophorae, Salispina, S. intermedia, S. lobata and S. spinosa from Oomycota, and Absidia stercoraria, Gongronella orasabula, Mortierella calciphila, Mucor caatinguensis, M. koreanus, M. merdicola and Rhizopus koreanus in Zygomycota.
Ling-zhi is a medicinal herb that generally refers to a fungus in the genus Ganoderma. It has been used as a medicinal mushroom in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2000 years. Mycologists at the Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IMCAS) first artificially cultivated the Ling-zhi fruiting body in the late 1960s (X.J. Liu’s team). In IMCAS, different research teams have extensively studied Ling-zhi in the aspects of national resource surveys, systematic taxonomy, chemical analysis, and processing for medicinal and health applications. The research results from IMCAS have provided essential support and prompted the development of the Ling-zhi industry in China to some extent. This review aims to summarize the history of research on Ling-zhi in IMCAS and its role in the development of the Ling-zhi economy.
Ganoderma lucidum has a long history of use as a traditional medicine in Asian countries. However, the taxonomy of Ganoderma species remains controversial, since they were initially classified on the basis of their morphological characteristics. Recently, it was proposed that G. lucidum from China be renamed as G. sichuanense or G. lingzhi. In the present study, phylogenetic analysis using the internal transcribed spacer region rDNA sequences of the Ganoderma species indicated that all strains of the Korean 'G. lucidum' clustered into one group together with G. sichuanense and G. lingzhi from China. However, strains from Europe and North American, which were regarded as true G. lucidum, were positioned in a clearly different group. In addition, the average size of the basidiospores from the Korean cultivated Yeongji strains was similar to that of G. lingzhi. Based on these results, we propose that the Korean cultivated Yeongji strains of 'G. lucidum' should be renamed as G. lingzhi.
In China and other countries of East Asia, so-called Ling-zhi or Reishi mushrooms are used in traditional medicine since several centuries. Although the common practice to apply the originally European name ‘Ganoderma lucidum’ to these fungi has been questioned by several taxonomists, this is still generally done in recent publications and with commercially cultivated strains. In the present study, two commercially sold strains of ‘G. lucidum’, M9720 and M9724 from the company Mycelia bvba (Belgium), are compared for their fruiting body (basidiocarp) morphology combined with molecular phylogenetic analyses, and for their secondary metabolite profile employing an ultra-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (UPLC–ESIMS) in combination with a high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-ESI-MS). According to basidiocarp morphology, the strain M9720 was identified as G. lucidum s.str. whereas M9724 was determined as Ganoderma lingzhi. In molecular phylogenetic analyses, the M9720 ITS and beta-tubulin sequences grouped with sequences of G. lucidum s.str. from Europe whereas those from M9724 clustered with sequences of G. lingzhi from East Asia. We show that an ethanol extract of ground basidiocarps from G. lucidum (M9720) contains much less triterpenic acids than found in the extract of G. lingzhi (M9724). The high amount of triterpenic acids accounts for the bitter taste of the basidiocarps of G. lingzhi (M9724) and of its ethanol extract. Apparently, triterpenic acids of G. lucidum s.str. are analyzed here for the first time. These results demonstrate the importance of taxonomy for commercial use of fungi.
Six new lanostane-type triterpenoids, namely leucocontextins S–X (1–6), together with twelve known compounds, were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma leucocontextum. Their structures were established by MS and NMR data.
Graphical Abstract
In this research, the chemical composition and anticancer and antioxidant activity of the new medicinal mushroom Ganoderma tsugae var. jannieae CBS-120304 were evaluated. The chemical composition assay includes amounts of total carbohydrates and proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, micro- and macroelements, and vitamins. The investigated medicinal mushroom seemed to be a rich source of nutritional components. Mycelium accumulated more than 2-fold more total protein compared with the fruiting body and reached 37% and 16% of dry weight, respectively. Carbohydrate content in the fruiting body seemed to be conspicuously higher than in the mycelium (50% of dry weight) and reached 80% of dry weight. Quantification of the identified fatty acids indicated that, in general, palmitic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid were the major fatty acids. Toxic elements, such as silver, arsenic, cadmium, and mercury, were found only in trace amounts in mycelium and were not detected in the fruiting body. Furthermore, the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging assay was used to evaluate antioxidant activity. The highest radical scavenging activity was 9.0 mg/mL (65.9%) by ethanol extract. In addition, mycelial extracts were tested to inhibit MCF7 breast cancer cells. Ganoderma tsugae var. jannieae ethyl acetate extract (GTEAE) extract showed high potential by inhibiting reporter activity by more than 70%. Results demonstrated that GTEAE had a strong effect on inhibitory protein κΒα level in the higher concentration used (200 gg/mL), which could be compared with the effect of parthenolide. Furthermore, GTEAE demonstrated strong inhibition of IκΒα phosphorylation.
Six DNA regions were evaluated as potential DNA barcodes for Fungi, the second largest kingdom of eukaryotic life, by a multinational, multilaboratory consortium. The region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 used as the animal barcode was excluded as a potential marker, because it is difficult to amplify in fungi, often includes large introns, and can be insufficiently variable. Three subunits from the nuclear ribosomal RNA cistron were compared together with regions of three representative protein-coding genes (largest subunit of RNA polymerase II, second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II, and minichromosome maintenance protein). Although the protein-coding gene regions often had a higher percent of correct identification compared with ribosomal markers, low PCR amplification and sequencing success eliminated them as candidates for a universal fungal barcode. Among the regions of the ribosomal cistron, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region has the highest probability of successful identification for the broadest range of fungi, with the most clearly defined barcode gap between inter- and intraspecific variation. The nuclear ribosomal large subunit, a popular phylogenetic marker in certain groups, had superior species resolution in some taxonomic groups, such as the early diverging lineages and the ascomycete yeasts, but was otherwise slightly inferior to the ITS. The nuclear ribosomal small subunit has poor species-level resolution in fungi. ITS will be formally proposed for adoption as the primary fungal barcode marker to the Consortium for the Barcode of Life, with the possibility that supplementary barcodes may be developed for particular narrowly circumscribed taxonomic groups.
For this work, more than 120 specimens recently collected in the field or from ENCB, IBUG, and XAL herbaria were studied. Furthermore, 15 types from nine herbaria were studied to compare with Mexican samples. Twelve species of Ganoderma subgenus Ganoderma are reported from Mexico, viz. G. colossus, G. curtisii, G. mexicanum, G. oerstedii, G. oregonense, G. perturbatum, G. resinaceum, G. sessile, G. sessiliforme, G. subincrustatum, G. weberianum, and G. zonatum. From them, G. perturbatum is new to Mexico. Descriptions
and illustrations of each species and a key are provided.
Oxygenated lanostane-type triterpenes (OLTT), including ganoderic acids and lucidenic acids produced by fungi of the genus Ganoderma (Polyporales), are abundantly documented for their potential pharmacological value. In order to test the correlation between species identity and OLTT composition, methanolic extracts of seven laccate Ganoderma species were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. OLTT profiles of each species were compared to a phylogenetic reconstruction of Ganoderma based on ITS rDNA sequences. The results suggest a high specificity in OLTT composition in one of the phylogenetic lineages of Ganoderma that encompasses tropical species, when no OLTT compound was detected in other lineages (including the European G. lucidum and the Asian G. sinense). Within the OLTT-positive lineage, G. sichuanense, G. martinicense, and G. tuberculosum (Asian-tropicum clade) were characterized by a specific composition in ganoderic acids and G. curtisii by a variety of lucidenic acids. An unidentified OLTT was found in G. resinaceum, also equivocally positioned in phylogenetic analyses. These results confirm OLTT as a suitable taxonomic marker in a lineage of pharmacologically and economically valuable species. Correlations with phylogeny, and development of OLTT composition as a fingerprint tool for quality control, could be an issue to address next, based on a more complete species sampling.
DNA barcoding can be used to authenticate Ganoderma species for safe use. This study aims to identify commercial products containing Ganoderma using DNA barcoding.
We used 63 internal transcribed spacer (ITS) 2 sequences of Ganoderma species from 33 newly-sequenced wild samples, crude drugs, mycelia, spores, and authentic extracts and spore oils collected from various locations and markets, as well as 30 sequences from GenBank. Sequences were assembled and aligned using CodonCode Aligner V3.71. Intra- and inter-specific distances were estimated by MEGA 6.0, and phylogeny reconstruction was based on the K2P model. SNP(s) and RNA secondary structure of ITS2 were analyzed and compared among closely related Ganoderma species.
G. lucidum cultivated in China was different from those cultivated in Europe. "Chizhi" (G. lucidum) and "Zizhi" (G. sinense) were clustered into two clades that were separated from the other Ganoderma species. The fruiting bodies and commercial products of G. lucidum and G. sinense were successfully distinguished from those of other Ganoderma species by comparing the ITS2 sequences and RNA secondary structures.
The DNA barcoding method is applicable to the authentication of commercial products containing Ganoderma species.
Sixteen new lanostane triterpenes, ganoleucoins A-P (1-16), together with 10 known tripterpenes (17-26), were isolated from the cultivated fruiting bodies of Ganoderma leucocontextum, a new member of the Ganoderma lucidum complex. The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis and chemical transformation. The inhibitory effects of 1-26 on HMG-CoA reductase and α-glucosidase were tested in vitro. Compounds 1, 3, 6, 10-14, 17, 18, 23, 25, and 26 showed much stronger inhibitory activity against HMG-CoA reductase than the positive control atorvastatin. Compounds 13, 14, and 16 presented potent inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase from yeast with IC50 values of 13.6, 2.5, and 5.9 μM, respectively. In addition, the cytotoxicity of 1-26 was evaluated against the K562 and PC-3 cell lines by the MTT assay. Compounds 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 12, 16, 18, and 25 exhibited cytotoxicity against K562 cells with IC50 values in the range 10-20 μM. Paclitaxel was used as the positive control with an IC50 value of 0.9 μM. This is the first report of secondary metabolites from this medicinal mushroom.
Jacaranda mimosifolia trees have been progressively dying due to Ganoderma root and butt rot disease in Pretoria (the “City of Jacarandas”) for many years. Ganoderma austroafricanum was described from these trees previously but this was based on a single collection. This study treats a substantially expanded collection of isolates of Ganoderma made from all dying trees where basidiomes were present in a Pretoria suburb. DNA sequences were obtained from the ITS and LSU region for the isolates and compared against sequences on GenBank. Phylogenetic analyses were used to compare sequences with those for other Ganoderma species. Based on sequence comparisons and morphological characters, two new Ganoderma species were discovered and these are described here as G. enigmaticum and G. destructans spp. nov. Interestingly, the previously described G. austroafricanum was not found, G. enigmaticum was found on only one Ceratonia siliqua tree and G. destructans was found on all other trees sampled. The latter species appears to be the primary cause of root rot of J. mimosifolia in the area sampled.
Over 250 species have been described in Ganoderma. Species identification and species circumscription are often unclear and taxonomic segregation of the genus remains controversial. In this study we sequenced the 5′ half of the 25S ribosomal RNA gene and the internal transcribed spacers to determine appropriate regions to i) discriminate between Ganoderma species and ii) infer taxonomic segregation of Ganoderma s. lato (Ganodermataceae) on a phylogenetic basis. We studied 19 Ganoderma isolates representing 14 species classified in 5 subgenera and sections, one isolate of the related genus Amauroderma, and one isolate of Fomitopsis which served as the out-group in parsimony analysis. Results showed that a transition bias was present in our data, and that rates of nucleotide divergence in the different ribosomal regions varied between lineages. Independent and combined analyses of different data sets were performed and results were discussed. Nucleotide sequences of the internal transcribed spacers, but not those of the coding regions, distinguished between most Ganoderma species, and indicated that isolates of the G. tsugae group were misnamed. Phylogenetic analysis of the combined data sets of the divergent domain D2 of the 25S ribosomal RNA gene and of the internal transcribed spacers indicated that subgenus Elfvingia was monophyletic, whereas sections Characoderma and Phaeonema were not. Combined data from these regions is useful for infrageneric segregation of Ganoderma on a phylogenetic basis. Phylogenetic analysis from data of the D2 region alone strongly supported Amauroderma as a sister taxon of Ganoderma. This suggested that the D2 region should be suitable for systematics at higher taxonomic ranks in the Ganodermataceae. The low sequence variation observed in the 25S ribosomal gene within Ganoderma species suggested that the genus is young.
The present study quantifies Aphyllophorales (Homobasidiomycetes) and Heterobasidiomycetes species diversity in Israel. More specifically, our aims were to conduct a critical literature investigation in order to build an inventory based on the presence of Aphyllophorales s.l. and Heterobasidiomycetes fungi in Israel and to contribute new taxa records. As a result, 53 newly recorded taxa, including two novel forms recently described, Peniophora quercina f. merulioides and Stereum hirsutum f. lobulatum, were added to the list of Aphyllophorales s.l. of Israel, which currently contains 232 taxa. In addition, taxonomical structure and trophic division of these fungi in Israel are provided, together with relative abundance analyses (a study based on 126 specimens stored in the HAI herbarium, Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa).
Ganoderma includes species of great economic and ecological importance, but taxonomists judge the current nomenclatural situation as chaotic and poorly studied in the neotropics. From this perspective, phylogenetic analyses inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences have aided the clarification of the genus status. In this study, 14 specimens of Ganoderma and two of Tomophagus collected in Brazil were used for DNA extraction, amplification and sequencing of the ITS and LSU regions (rDNA). The phylogenetic delimitation of six neotropical taxa (G. chalceum, G. multiplicatum, G. orbiforme, G. parvulum, G. aff. oerstedtii and Tomophagus colossus) was determined based on these Brazilian specimens and found to be distinct from the laccate Ganoderma from Asia, Europe, North America and from some specimens from Argentina. Phylogenetic reconstructions confirmed that the laccate Ganoderna is distinct from Tomophagus, although they belong to the same group. The use of taxonomic synonyms Ganoderma subamboinense for G. multiplicatumnz, G. boninense for G. orbiforme and G. chalceum for G. cupreum was not confirmed. However, Ganoderma parvulum was confirmed as the correct name for specimens called G. stipitatu. Furthermore, the name G. hucidumn should be used only for European species. The use of valid published names is proposed according to the specimen geographical distribution, their morphological characteristics and rDNA analysis. 1208. Epub 2014 September 01.
Ganoderma leucocontextum was described from Tibet Autonomous Region and Sichuan Province of China. The new species was characterized by red brown to purplish or blackish red brown pileus, white to cream pore surface, white context, thickset stipe, broadly ellipsoid basidiospores (9.5-12.5 × 7-9 μm) with coarse echinulae, and the mostly regular cuticle hyphae. Ganoderma leucocontextum was known only grow on deciduous wood and closely related to the G. lucidum complex. © 2014 The Mycological Society of Japan. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
This book is a joint effort by 36 authors from 13 countries. The 19 chapters address many current issues in the development of sustainable disease management programmes and are grouped into five major themes. These are, an introduction to the pathogen and its systematics in chapters 1 and 2; outlines of the diseases (mainly on oil palms) caused by the pathogen (chapters 3-5); disease management (chapters 6-12); molecular biological variability in the pathogen (chapters 13-16); and the development of diagnostic tools (chapters 17-19). The majority of these chapters have been developed from presentations made at two international workshops on Ganoderma diseases held in Malaysia in 1994 and 1998, and a technical workshop held in the UK in 1998.
The author, as a reviewer of many international journals, describes his long-standing experiences with incorrect identification of mushroom and fungal species and the resultant incorrect naming of those species that served as experimental models. From his own praxis, he selected several characteristic examples that sometimes ended in a curious situation. Some recommendations to authors of publications and persons responsible for the proper naming of mushrooms under study are summarized.
OBJECTIVE: To establish a method of electrophoresis and isozymography to classify and identify Ganoderma. METHOD: The changes in isoenzyme pattern were characterized by polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic (PAGE) and compared. RESULTS: The five strains of Ganoderma had some similar bands with common hereditary characteristics and close relationship. While isoenzyme zymogram of G. sinense was different from other strains with a distant relation. CONCLUSION: Estease isozyme analyses is an effective way to classify strain of Ganoderma.
Ganoderma lucidum (generic type), originally described from England, has been reported worldwide. In the Orient, an economically important fungus commonly known as 'ling-zhi' or 'chi-zhi' for more than 2000 years, has also been named G. lucidum. However, the identity of the Oriental fungus has been questioned in recent years. Earlier molecular studies suggested that G. lucidum sensu stricto may be restricted to Europe and that 'G. lucidum' in Asia consists of at least two distinct species, one represented by material from mainland China and one by tropical Asian collections. This study attempts to clarify the identity of 'G. lucidum' in tropical Asia, with special emphasis on wild collections from Taiwan. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) of related species and strains were sequenced, and phylogenetic analyses were conducted. The results confirmed that G. lucidum is a name mistakenly applied to Oriental collections. The forgotten name Ganoderma multipileum, presented over half a century ago from Taiwan, was found in this study as the earliest valid name for 'G. lucidum' known from tropical Asia.
A discussion on the importance of morphological features in the taxonomy of Ganoderma subg. Ganoderma is presented. More than 500 specimens of 37 species, including 33 types, were checked: G. argillaceum, G. atkinsonii, G. boninense, G. capense,
G. chonoides, G. colossus, G. concinnum, G. corrugatum, G. curtisii, G. dorsale, G. elegantum, G. longistipitatum, G. mexicanum, G. multicornum, G. multiplicatum, G. nevadense, G. nitidum, G. oerstedii, G.
orbiforme, G. oregonense, G. parvulum, G. perturbatum, G. perzonatum, G. praelongum, G. pulverulentum, G. ravenelii, G. resinaceum, G. sequoiae, G. sessile, G. sessiliforme, G. simulans, G. stipitatum,
G. subfornicatum, G. subincrustatum, G. vivianimercedianum, G. weberianum, and G. zonatum. Color of the context, resinous deposits, structure of the basidiospores, and protuberances of the pileipellis cells are among the most important features for characterization
of the species.
Ganoderma lucidum and G. tsugae are two members of the G. lucidum complex that have had a controversial taxonomic relationship. The authenticity of the two widely distributed wood-rotting species was demonstrated by comparative studies. Specimens and isolates of both species were obtained from several locations in North America. Ganoderma lucidum is restricted to hardwoods. Its basidiospores were "smooth" walled, characterized by narrow, numerous inter-wall pillars, as observed by bright-field and scanning electron microscopy. Isolates of G. lucidum produced chlamydospores in culture and had an average growth rate of 7.8 mm/da at its optimum temperature range of 30-34 C. Ganoderma tsugae is restricted to conifers. Its basidiospores were "rough" walled and had broad interwall pillars. Isolates of G. tsugae did not produce chlamydospores in culture and had an average growth rate of 2.1 mm/da at the optimum temperature range of 20-25 C. Basidiospore sizes could not be used to distinguish the species. Mating systems were determined for both species as heterothallic and tetrapolar. Interspecific matings of homokaryons were completely incompatible. Cultures of G. resinaceum and G. valesiacum from Europe were similar in morphology and temperature relationships to North American cultures of G. lucidum and G. tsugae, respectively. Homokaryons of a European G. resinaceum isolate that fruited in culture were completely interfertile with homokaryons from North American collections of G. lucidum. History of the G. lucidum complex is considered with reference to the pleomorphic characteristics used in earlier taxonomy.
Morphology of basidiospores and pilocystidia of specimens of Ganoderma colossum, G. zonatum, G. oregonense, and G. meredithae was compared. Structure of basidiospores was similar in all species, but basidiospores of some species differed in length, width, spore index, and shape and distribution of inter-wall pillars. Basidiospores of G. zonatum were cylindrical, while those of the other species were ovate with truncated apex. Basidiospores of Ganoderma colossum had angular inter-wall pillars while those of the remaining species were cylindrical. Pilocystidia were clavate and unbranched for most species, but those of G. zonatum were highly branched or lobed. Pilocystidia of G. colossum were thin-walled, negative to weakly amyloid. Those of G. zonatum were thick-walled, negative to weakly amyloid, while those of the remaining species studied were thick-walled and strongly amyloid. Host relationships are reviewed and known geographical distributions are indicated for each of the species studied.
Basidiospores of Ganoderma eminii, G. alluaudii, alluaudii, Magoderna subresinosum, and Haddowia longipes are compared. Holes in the ecto-perisporium are considered to be artefacts.
The taxonomic and nomenclatural history of the genus Ganoderma and related basidiomycetes is reviewed and compared to recent studies on its molecular phylogeny. A basidiomycete belonging to the genus Ganoderma can often rather easily be recognised in the field from the macro-morphological characters of the sporocarp. The most important species and lineages can also be discriminated well by molecular phylogeny. However, the application of incongruent species concepts and the frequent misapplication of European names by chemists and other non-taxonomists have created confusion in the scientific literature. The identity of the species reported in the course of mycochemical studies can often not be verified, since no voucher material was retained. In this review, an overview on the most important types of specific chemotaxonomic traits (i.e., secondary metabolites of the basidiomes and mycelia) reported from the genus is provided. Albeit certain triterpenoids such as ganoderic and lucidenic acids, steroids (e.g. ergosterol) and triterpenes (e.g. friedelin) appear to have some chemotaxonomic value at the generic rank, their relevance for species discrimination remains to be assessed. We propose that all important names in Ganoderma should be, as required, epitypified by fresh collections for which living cultures should be made available and that these should be examined by a combination of morphological, chemotaxonomic and molecular phylogenetic methods to attain a more stable taxonomy.
The nomenclature of Ganoderma used as a Chinese medicine is debated. A group of researchers could not amplify the DNA of type specimens and concluded the DNA was degraded irreparably. New topotypes were used as the type specimens which was premature. The use of internal amplification controls is recommended to determine if other factors were involved as alternative explanations.
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
“Lingzhi” is a fungus found in China for about 2000 years, renowned for its immense values in traditional Chinese medicine and culture. This fungus was generally assigned to Ganoderma lucidum, a species originally described from the UK. In the mid-nineties of the twentieth century, molecular phylogenetic analyses indicated that collections named G. lucidum in East Asia were in most cases not conspecific with G. lucidum found in Europe. However, the scientific name for the “lingzhi” found in China remained unclarified ever since. To clarify the identity of this fungus, two groups of Chinese mycologists have simultaneously gathered morphological and molecular evidence. One group concluded that “lingzhi” belonged to G. sichuanense, a species which was collected from Sichuan, a province in southwestern China, while the other group stated that the “lingzhi” is an undescribed species and, thus, named it as G. lingzhi. Our molecular phylogenetic evidence showed that G. lucidum s. str. occurs not only in northwestern and northeastern China but also in the highlands of southwestern China, where it has been commercially cultivated. In other words, both G. lucidum s. str. and G. lingzhi occur in natural environments in China, where they have been cultivated. Due to the phenotypic plasticity and morphological stasis, DNA sequence data play a vital role in characterizing the species within the G. lucidum-complex. Because the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence has been successfully generated only once from the holotype of G. sichuanense, it suggests that the DNA in the holotype might have been largely digested. To settle the disputation and to clarify the relationships and taxonomic issues among G. lingzhi, G. sichuanense, G. sinense and other species in the complex, an epitype for G. sichuanense and for G. sinense from their type locality should be selected , and nucleotide sequences of more informative DNA markers should be used to delimit the species in the complex in the near future. In view of its economic, medicinal and cultural importance, the widely cultivated G. lingzhi is nominated as the fungus of the year (2013) for the journal Mycology.