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Trade in spur-Thighed tortoises Testudo graeca in Morocco: Volumes, value and variation between markets
Abstract and Figures
Until the late 1970s spur-Thighed tortoises Testudo graeca, endemic to the Mediterranean region, were exported from range countries in large volumes for the pet trade. Testudo graeca was included on CITES Appendix II in 1975, and in 1978 Morocco introduced national protection, banning domestic and international trade. However, the species is still openly traded in Moroccan markets. In 2013-2014 we conducted 48 surveys in 20 Moroccan towns and cities and single surveys in two Spanish exclaves to assess trade levels, size-composition, turnover, and variation between cities. We recorded 3267 T. graeca in 107 shops in 12 cities. Of 989 tortoises measured, two-Thirds measured <10 cm (∼2-8 years of age) and <3% could comprise first-year individuals. There is a clear relationship between price and size, with 'average' tortoises costing USD 9.20. The largest volumes were observed in Tangier (869) and Rabat (752), two cities that are well-connected centres of export. The largest proportion of shops selling tortoises was in Agadir (78%) and Fez (63%), and turnover was highest in Tangier (32/week) and Casablanca (28/week). Country-wide turnover was ∼30% after two weeks and ∼80% after 10 weeks. Annual turnover was estimated at 3500-7000 tortoises, with a monetary value of USD 30 000-60 000. Predictors for volumes of trade and proportion of shops selling tortoises are: The number of wildlife shops in markets, diversity of wild vertebrate species the shops have on offer, and city population. While legal, large-scale international trade of spur-Thighed tortoises from Morocco has diminished over the last decades, domestic smaller-scale trade continues to impede their conservation. Consistent punitive measures are required to enforce new laws.
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... In markets in 12 West and Central African countries, only two species (black kite and hooded vulture) account for almost half of the victims out of the total 52 species of raptors traded (Buij et al., 2016), posing a serious threat to the species at regional levels (Beilis & Esterhuizen, 2005). The same is true for reptiles in Morocco (Nijman & Bergin, 2017), for example. Pangolin scales are traditionally used in several African cultures (Soewu & Ayodele, 2009;Soewu & Sodeinde, 2015). ...
... However, the main reason that leads to its overexploitation in many African (Soewu & Sodeinde, 2015) and Asian countries is its use in traditional medicine. The import of foreign species is not exclusive to the better-known Asian market, but also occurs in Africa (Nijman & Bergin, 2017). ...
... The perception of turtles as tame and even as non-wild and defenceless (Pérez et al., 2011) favours their non-commercial capture for being kept in captivity, but with a serious conservation impact locally (Pérez et al., 2012). In addition to the more or less opportunistic capture of turtles by private individuals in southern Spain, they are subject to intensive trade, especially with Morocco (Nijman & Bergin, 2017). ...
Environmental crimes refer to those behaviours that put natural resources and the environment at risk and which, due to their particular seriousness, are subject to the greatest social and legal
reproach, and have therefore been included in national criminal legislations, being the most severe penalties, such as imprisonment, applied for some of these behaviours. These measures are intended to restore the damage caused, to deter potential offenders and to protect the legal asset
at stake.However, this reactive approach cannot be considered in isolation and needs to be accompanied by awareness-raising and communication measures to promote understanding and compliance with the rules, as well as measures to reintegrate offenders. The comprehensive prevention of environmental crime ultimately aims to reduce or eliminate the likelihood of the criminal act being committed. Thus, to ensure the success of any preventive measure, it is necessary to start gaining a detailed knowledge of the problem, i.e., the causes and circumstances that give rise to it. This is the main objective of this paper – analysing the motivations that lead to committing environmental crimes. It is focused on Spain and Portugal, although some of the chapters provide a universal analysis of the motivation for environmental crime.
The first chapter explores the published scientific literature on the subject, with a special focus on crimes against wildlife, such as illegal hunting and trade in protected species, possession and
release into the wild of alien species, illegal waste management and habitat destruction, in particular through forest fires (issues such as illegal urban development, which is mainly
economically motivated and has not been the subject of any scientific study, are not analysed here).
Therefore, this is an unprecedented summary of information collected on the environmental problems caused, the cultural origin of the offences, if applicable, and the common motivations
for committing them after depersonalising the events.
The second chapter analyses, through a general population survey, the social perception in Spain and Portugal of wildlife and environmental crimes and their different elements (subject, object and context), as well as the actions taken by different entities and organisations to detect, prevent and respond to them.
The third chapter presents the results of the analysis of more than 250 judgments given for environmental crimes in Spain. The main connections found between the species concerned, the
methods used in the crimes, the geographical location, the general profile of the offenders who committed the crimes using the available data and the decisions taken are presented.
In the fourth chapter, we surveyed law enforcement officers in charge of investigating several of these crimes (illegal hunting, illegal buying and selling of species and destruction of nests of
protected species), both in Spain and Portugal. The motivations these officers attribute to offenders are shown in the results, as well as their views and experiences regarding the
effectiveness of the legal system and penalties and the changes they would propose to make it more effective.
After presenting some conclusions on all the above in chapter five, the last chapter contains some final considerations and proposes future lines of action based on the findings of this analysis as a
whole. These lines of action follow two fundamental approaches, which must necessarily be interconnected: research of the various psychological, social and legal factors that interact with each other and intervention, both for specific populations and for the general population.
In order to make reading and understanding easier, the information in each of these chapters will be structured according to the specific table of contents at the beginning of each chapter, with an initial summary and final conclusions.
This report was prepared within the framework of LIFE Nature Guardians (Action A4), a project funded by the European Union's LIFE programme, which aims to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of actions aimed at fighting crimes against nature. It is coordinated by SEO/BirdLife and its beneficiary partners are the Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Sustainable Development
Department of the Autonomous Government of Andalusia, the Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves (SPEA) and the Nature Protection Service (SEPRONA) of the General Directorate
of the Civil Guard.
... Habitat loss as a result of human activities, such as agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation, in addition to collection for the pet trade, are considered to be the major threats to the Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise Testudo graeca throughout its entire distribution (e.g., Lambert, 1979;Bayley and Highfield, 1996;Pérez et al., 2004;Nijman and Bergim, 2017). The loss of habitats that are suitable for the Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise in Morocco has been progressive since 1955 and 1969 owing to the decline of both the argan tree and the cork oak tree in forests, mostly as the result of overgrazing Lahssini et al., 2015). ...
... More recently, in 2008, the illegal importation of 1400 tortoises from North Africa was documented in Sicily (Brianti et al., 2010). Nijman and Bergim (2017) recognised changes in the numbers, in addition to the ages, of the tortoises that were traded in Morocco in 2013-2014 when compared to 2001 (see also Znari, Germano and Macé, 2005), along with higher frequencies of the domestic trade -i.e., exchanges taking place within the boundaries of the country -rather than the export trade tortoises (Lambert, 1979), both of which appear to be affecting the sizes and structures of tortoise populations in the field (Znari, Germano and Macé, 2005). ...
... The main cause of the decline in the size of this forest is human pressure (Fennane and Rejdali, 2015;Lahssini et al., 2015). With regard to tortoise populations in this area, its proximity to Rabat (<60 km) and the weekly presence of 5000 cars and 30 000 visitors on sunny days (Fennane and Rejdali, 2015), indicate the possibility that these populations are particularly sensitive to over-collecting (Nijman and Bergim, 2017). In this study, we aimed to: 1) determine the size and structure of tortoise populations located in Maamora forest in order to explore differences between protected (>10 years) and unprotected populations, 2) characterise the use of tortoises as pets in Moroccan society (>18 years old) close to Rabat, and 3) describe the possible influence of the pet trade on the population demography in Maamora forest. ...
Collection for the pet trade has been considered one of the major threats to the Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise Testudo graeca , since it modulates the size and structure of the species’ populations and, therefore, their demography. Maamora forest is one of the most suitable habitats for this species. The proximity of the forest to Rabat indicated the possibility of these tortoise populations being particularly sensitive to over-collecting. Population demography was studied in four populations, in protected and unprotected areas in Maamora forest. The results showed significant differences as regards population size and structure between protected and unprotected areas. They specifically highlighted: i) higher density (23-17 indiv · ha ⁻¹ ) balanced populations in the protected areas, in which young adults were predominant, ii) a higher body condition in the protected areas, especially the females, and iii) a low density (5.5 ind · ha ⁻¹ ) more unbalance population in the unprotected areas, in which older females and younger males were predominant. In addition, a survey carried out by interviewing local adults ( ) showed that most people owned tortoises (61%, ), mainly juveniles (65%, ). The respondents stated that their tortoises had been captured in the forest (68%, ). Maamora forest is home to one of the highest density populations of Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoises documented to date, and its conservation is essential if this species is to be maintained. Our social survey suggested that one of the challenges is to change the social perception of the Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise as a pet and highlight its intrinsic ecological value.
... Animal welfare in markets has been overlooked partially because it is seen as a transit stage of their captivity and therefore is not significant. With around a 16% turnover of tortoises in Moroccan markets after one week, it is apparent that some animals will not spend a very long time in the conditions seen in these markets (Nijman & Bergin, 2017a). Some animals, however, will spend longer periods in captivity and will experience prolonged periods of negative welfare conditions. ...
... Some animals, however, will spend longer periods in captivity and will experience prolonged periods of negative welfare conditions. From 10 weeks to 12 weeks, turnover estimates only increased from 74% to 75%, indicating that a significant number of animals (~25%) spend several months in these markets (Nijman & Bergin, 2017a). Animals used as photo props or to entice customers to a shop can spend months or even years in these situations. ...
... Both domesticated, captive-bred animals and wild-caught animals are kept and sold openly in pet shops, marketplaces, and squares (Bergin & Nijman, 2014;Nijman, Bergin, & Van Lavieren, 2016;Znari, Germano, & Mace, 2005). For some species, the number of individuals affected by this trade is high (Bergin & Nijman, 2014;Nijman & Bergin, 2017a, 2017b. The welfare of these animals does not appear to be prioritized, and the conditions in which they are kept are very poor (Bergin & Nijman, 2014;Martin & Perry-Martin, 2012;Shipp, 2002;Van Lavieren, 2008). ...
The welfare of wild-caught animals in markets has generally been overlooked by both wildlife trade and welfare studies, despite the potential negative impacts on the animals. Morocco is a member of the World Organisation for Animal Health and has proposed draft legislation prohibiting mistreatment or abuse of animals in captivity. There is still, however, a bustling wild animal trade, and vendor compliance with industry-standard best practices is lacking. This study provides insight into the conditions of 2113 wild-caught animals in markets in six of the largest cities in Morocco by scoring their welfare based on four of the Farm Animal Welfare Committee Five Freedoms: freedom from hunger and thirst, freedom from discomfort, freedom to express normal behavior, and freedom from distress. Over 88% of animals were housed in situations that broke all four of the freedoms measured, and only 9 animals were in situations that broke none. Access to water, sun/heat exposure, and ability to hide from stressors were particularly poor. We urge the Moroccan government to fulfill its commitment to establish welfare laws and devote resources to their application.
... Tortoises are long-lived animals with high adult survival rates, late sexual maturity, low hatching and juvenile survival rates and a specialized diet. Because of this, increases in adult mortality due to overexploitation of adult specimens in a tortoise population will have longterm impacts on the population viability, making them very sensitive to the pet trade ( [7,18,22,33]. Bayley and Highield [5] indicated that the population of tortoises observed in the lower Souss Valley near Agadir was not sustainable; the age sex structure showed a marked predominance of males and a notably small percentage of juveniles. This could be the same case for the population of the central Jbilet [22] and maybe other populations in west-central Morocco. ...
... However, T. graeca, like all reptiles native to Morocco, is protected by law since 1978, banning domestic and international trade. Despite these designations, large numbers of Moorish tortoises are still being removed from the wild in Morocco every year[33], mainly for European pet shops. Besides international traic, T. graeca in Morocco, is threatened mostly by collecting for household pets and 'medicinal' use, for manufacture of tourist souvenirs.Znari et al.[13] reported on having counted not less than 692 T. graeca on ofer in the souks (traditional markets) of Marrakech only in the period of July-August 2001. ...
... Besides international traic, T. graeca in Morocco, is threatened mostly by collecting for household pets and 'medicinal' use, for manufacture of tourist souvenirs.Znari et al.[13] reported on having counted not less than 692 T. graeca on ofer in the souks (traditional markets) of Marrakech only in the period of July-August 2001. According to a more a recent survey conducted in 2013-2014[33], 40% of shops selling tortoises throughout Morocco are found in Agadir (9%) and Marrakech (31%). Given that tortoises were reported to have been sourced near the cities in which they are sold; the subspecies most likely to be present in Marrakesh and Agadir is T. g. soussensis. ...
... This species can measure up to 30 cm in carapace length with a maximum weight of approximately 6 kg (Vlachos & Tsoukala, 2014). The Greek tortoise is a very long-lived animal, achieving a lifespan upwards of 125 years, with some unverified reports up to 200 years (Nijman & Bergin, 2017). In T. graeca, immediately after waking from hibernation, the mating instinct starts up (Nijman & Bergin, 2017). ...
... The Greek tortoise is a very long-lived animal, achieving a lifespan upwards of 125 years, with some unverified reports up to 200 years (Nijman & Bergin, 2017). In T. graeca, immediately after waking from hibernation, the mating instinct starts up (Nijman & Bergin, 2017). ...
Background
The Greek or Mediterranean tortoise (Testudo graeca), commonly known as the spur‐thighed tortoise, is a species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae that is found in North Africa, Western Asia and Europe. Several species of this genus are under threat in the wild, mainly from habitat destruction therefore, accurate information about the sexual cycle and the exact time of follicular development can be effective in successful reproduction planning and preventing species extinction.
Objective
The experimental part of this study is focused on the evaluation of the reproductive apparatus of tortoises and development of follicles in ovaries during 1 year by ultrasonography and computed tomography.
Methods
Ultrasonography and CT scanning was carried out on 10 female ‘T. Graeca’ tortoises which were maintained at Tehran Eram Zoo from November 2021 to November 2022 (1 year). Ultrasonography and CT exams were performed on all animals.
Results
In the first study, on 28 November 2021, the ovarian cycle was characterized by the presence of previtellogenic follicles and atretic follicles. The numbers of follicles were best demonstrated on CT examination. Ultrasonography and CT scan in the second study showed no change in type of follicles from previous study. In the third study, atretic follicles were more than previtellogenic follicles, whereas in the fourth one, the numbers of previtellogenic follicles were more than atretic follicles. In following, at 6 and 29 June 2022, the absence of atretic follicles and just presence of previtellogenic follicles were observed. On 20 July 2022, the presence of a few number of atretic follicles and more previtellogenic follicles were noticed. On 30 July 2022, the absence of atretic follicles and presence of previtellogenic follicles and, for the first time, preovulatory follicles were obvious. In four following studies the absence of atretic follicles and the presence of previtellogenic follicles were diagnosed. In the last study, the absence of atretic follicles and the presence of preovulatory and previtellogenic follicles were observed.
Conclusion
In current study, the reproductive cycle of female T. Graeca is evaluated during 1 year in captivity with ultrasonography and CT scan. It can be concluded that in captivity, the reproductive cycle does not result in the formation of eggs or calcareous shells and atretic follicles in the study year continued as before; so this should be highly considered in captivity breeding programmes. This study also revealed that among imaging modalities, CT scan is the best modality for detecting the shape, size, type and numbers of the follicles for further evaluation of location and shape of the follicles.
... Precipitation is limited to the winter and confined mainly to the north-western slopes of the mountain ranges and the north-western Atlantic coast. All localities are situated near touristic cities (Marrakech, Rabat, Essaouira and Agadir) and are subject to illegal capture of tortoises sold as pets and for international illegal trade (Lambert 1983;Jacobson 1994;Bayley and Highfield 1996;Znari et al. 2005;Bergin and Nijman 2014;Hichami et al. 2016;Nijman and Bergin 2017;Znari and Hichami 2018). The spatial separations between the sampled sites and the differences in habitat characteristics offer a diversity of environmental factors, which will allow us to evaluate their influence on tick presence and loads. ...
... All sampled localities in the present study are situated near touristic cities of Morocco. Their populations are subject to illegal capture of tortoises for use as pets through international trade (Lambert 1983;Jacobson 1994;Bayley and Highfield 1996;Znari et al. 2005;Bergin and Nijman 2014;Hichami et al. 2016;Nijman and Bergin 2017;Znari and Hichami 2018). The tortoises are then shipped worldwide with parasites (Hidalgo-Vila et al. 2009;Brianti et al. 2010;Segura et al. 2019Segura et al. , 2020, which could be a source of contamination of local animal populations either in farms or in the natural environment when they are accidentally or voluntary released by their owners. ...
The spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca L., 1758) is classified as a vulnerable species by the IUCN. In this context, it is important to explore the factors affecting its populations to set up an effective conservation plan. The present study was carried out in seven localities of Morocco with the objective to determine the ticks parasitizing this tortoise and their prevalence in relation to host characteristics and environmental factors. We examined 392 free-living tortoises for the presence of ticks during the spring 2018. A total number of 2238 adult ticks (no immature tick detected) were collected and all identified as Hyalomma aegyptium. Infection with at least one tick was detected in 77.6% ± 6.5 of the total tortoises. The infestation prevalence varied according to localities. Infestation intensity varied from 1.5 to 12, while tick abundance ranged from 0.65 to 12 ticks/tortoise. Male tortoises were more infested than females (P < 0.01) and the infestation was age-dependant. Our statistical result provides that the best model drivers tick parasitism was which included locality and age. Further studies are needed to assess the impact of the high intensity of H. aegyptium infestation on the tortoise’s health status and to assess the potential transmission of zoonotic pathogens.
... Proportion (mean ± s.e.m. and range) of non-jalla type of birds recorded in bird markets in Java and Bali while surveying Javan pied starlings. We calculated turnover (birds being sold or having died in the markets) [20]. When revisiting a bird market at short intervals, we subtracted the number observed during the second visit from what was observed during the first visit. ...
... It was not possible to calculate turnover when in between surveys a new consignment of Javan pied starlings had arrived and the number of starlings in the shops had increased. Calculating turnover in this manner only gives a minimum estimate, and turnover does not increase in a linear fashion over time ( [20]; and Section 3). Turnover is expected to be high on the first few days after new birds arrive, as buyers are anticipating these new arrivals, but then it levels off. ...
Indonesia is at the epicenter of the Asian Songbird Crisis, i.e., the recognition that the cage bird trade has a devastating impact on numerous imperiled bird species in Asia. The Javan pied starling Gracupica jalla, only in the last five years recognized as distinct from the pied starlings of mainland Southeast Asia, has been declared extinct the wild in 2021. Up until the 1980s, it used to be one of the most common open countryside birds on the islands of Java and Bali, Indonesia. From the early 2000s onwards, the species is commercially bred to meet the demand from the domestic cagebird trade. We conducted 280 market surveys in 25 bird markets in Java and Bali between April 2014 and March 2020, with 15 markets being surveyed at least six times. We recorded 24,358 Javan pied starlings, making it one of the most commonly observed birds in the markets. We established that, conservatively, around 40% of the birds in the market were sold within one week and used this to estimate that at a minimum ~80,000 Javan pied starlings are sold in the bird markets on Java and Bali. The latter represents a monetary value of USD 5.2 million. We showed that prices were low in the 1980s, when all birds were sourced from the wild. It became more varied and differentiated in the 2000s when a combination of now expensive wild-caught and cheaper captive-bred birds were offered for sale, and prices stabilized in the 2010s when most, if not all birds were commercially captive-bred. Javan pied starlings are not protected under Indonesian law, and there are no linked-up conservation efforts in place to re-establish a wild population on the islands, although small-scale releases do take place.
... Since 1978, when the CITES convention was ratified in Morocco, tortoise trade has been banned there (Highfield 1990). However, tortoises are still sold in Morocco in local markets, although the trade has shifted from the large export trade in the 20th century to a largely domestic trade, commonly involving hundreds of tortoises in shops, mainly individuals from 2 to 8 yrs old (Znary et al. 2005;Nijman and Bergin 2017). In Morocco, it is common custom to keep tortoises in gardens (55% of 480 people surveyed, with an average of two turtles per person) and 42% come from juvenile animals caught in the wild (Segura et al. 2020). ...
... Indeed, previous studies showed that one of the major threats for wild populations of chameleons and tortoises is the non-commercial collection, which seems a common activity in Morocco [40]. In this sense, many day-buyers of the souks purchase chameleons and specially tortoises (i.e., 55% of the Moroccan population has tortoises in their households), to keep as pets [40,41]. Similarly, species of snakes used by charmers were also represented by the common and more attractive species, particularly Egyptian cobras, which are considered the most profitable species given its unique display of warning behavior [7,8]. ...
The world-famous markets of Marrakech, also known in Arabic as souks, harbor a vast diversity of reptiles that are sold for medicinal/magic/pet purposes or used for snake charming. This unique epidemiological context has never been studied considering the interactions of humans, reptiles, and zoonotic pathogens. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify the parasites and pathogens present in blood and feces associated with handled reptiles in the markets of Marrakech to assess the risk of zoonotic transmission within the reptile-human interface. Privately owned reptiles (n = 118), coming from vendors or snake charmers, were examined and blood and feces sampled. DNA was extracted and molecular screening (cPCR, nPCR, qPCR, dqPCR) was performed aiming to identify potentially zoonotic pathogens (i.e., Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Coxiella burnetii, Babesia/Theileria spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Leishmania spp., Cestoda). Overall, 28.9% (34/118) of reptiles were positive for at least one pathogen. In blood, Anaplasma spp. were detected in four snakes, with two Montpellier snakes positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, while Rickettsia spp. were detected in one Mediterranean chameleon and four puff adders. Leishmania tarentolae was molecularly detected in a Mediterranean chameleon and a Montpellier snake. In feces, the cox1 gene generated a myriad of sequences for nematodes, cestodes, fungi and bacteria. Importantly, Proteus vulgaris was identified from a Mediterranean chameleon. Cryptosporidium spp. nPCR yielded a positive sample (i.e., Cryptosporidium sp. apodemus genotype I) from a Moroccan worm lizard, as well as for bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an Egyptian cobra, and Morganella morganii from a puff adder. Results from this study demonstrated the risk of zoonotic transmission of microorganisms and parasites present in blood and feces from reptiles that are brought to the souks in Marrakech, Morocco, to be sold for medicinal purposes or used for snake charming, being in direct and straight contact with humans.
... We conducted 76 fortnightly surveys (August 2016 to October 2019) with either or both species being recorded during each survey. In addition to the fortnightly surveys, we conducted 24 weekly visits, and this allowed us to estimate turnover (percentage of birds that were sold or had died within a seven-day period) [48]. ...
It is challenging to disentangle the legal and illegal aspects of wild-caught animals that are traded in wildlife markets or online, and this may diminish the value of conducting wildlife trade surveys. We present empirical studies on the trade in birds (ducks, owls, songbirds, non-passerines) in Indonesia (2005 to 2021). Based on visits to wildlife markets, wholesale traders, and monitoring of an Instagram account, we examine if five specific pieces of legislation (domestic and international) are adhered to: (1) protected species, (2) harvest quota, (3) welfare, (4) provincial transport restrictions, and (5) illegal import of CITES-listed species. Our five distinctly different case studies showed that in each case, certain rules and regulations were adhered to, whilst others were violated to varying degrees. When trade involved non-protected species, there was frequently a lack of harvest quotas or trade occurred above these allocated quotas. Basic welfare provisions were regularly and habitually violated. Visiting wildlife markets and recording first-hand what is openly offered for sale is a highly reliable, verifiable, and valuable method of data collection that can give insight in numerous aspects of the animal trade. Our research provides support for recognising the urgency for the government to take appropriate action to curb all the illegal aspects of the bird trade in Indonesia.
... It is futile to try to prove that UK, whose diplomatic discourse is as powerful as its eco-political one, is a very competitive country which fully benefits from untenably ferocious globalization (Teevan, 2019). In the Moroccan case, promoting national economic interest goes in harmony with statecraft economy whereby national welfare is effectively achieved and international positioning is solidly fulfilled (Nijman & Bergin, 2017). In that respect, there is a fair amount of complexity in the Moroccan relationship with UK since the fulfillment of economic interest within a global political conditionality retains a high degree of diplomatic maneuverability. ...
... It is futile to try to prove that UK, whose diplomatic discourse is as powerful as its eco-political one, is a very competitive country which fully benefits from untenably ferocious globalization (Teevan, 2019). In the Moroccan case, promoting national economic interest goes in harmony with statecraft economy whereby national welfare is effectively achieved and international positioning is solidly fulfilled (Nijman & Bergin, 2017). In that respect, there is a fair amount of complexity in the Moroccan relationship with UK since the fulfillment of economic interest within a global political conditionality retains a high degree of diplomatic maneuverability. ...
Morocco is the UK's 58 th largest trading partner (ONS, 2019). Based on this fact, a new perception of the state actors' role in diplomacy should be brought into play and transformational force of economic actors may be the appraiser and monitor of international relations. Diplomatic and economic actors' effective performance lies on their capacity to go beyond the usual standards of the main institutional narrative and reshape their own narrative. What are the real contours of the state actors' instrumentality under the pressure of institutional directives? And how are institutional pressures constructed and the extent to which they shape the state actors' discourse? We have conducted a textual analysis of political discourse based on the interventions made by three interveners to understand and analyse the interests of the UK and Morocco as determined by their institutional logics. State actors' effective performance on a diplomatic scale seems practicably incapable to go beyond the usual standards of the main institutional narrative and reshape their own narrative. State actors are indeed far from bringing about change and consolidate a more harmonious standpoint vis-à-vis the official diplomatic and economic perspective.
... Tortoises have been traditionally kept as pets in the mediterranean region (Lazenby, 1949). In Morocco, large scale exploitation has been banned since the end of the 1970s, but until then, several hundreds/thousands of tortoises were yearly exported to another countries (Nijman and Bergin, 2017). However, non-commercial trade, captive breeding and uncontrolled release of tortoises to the wild are still common practices in countries such as Morocco and Spain (Pérez et al., 2004;Segura et al., 2020), and may have had an effect on Testudo and H. aegyptium population structures. ...
Tortoise ticks, Hyalomma aegyptium, are considered so strongly associated with their hosts that they are even used as indirect indicators for them. In such a case, a robust pattern of congruence between host and parasite could be expected, with phylogeographic breaks within the host being reflected in their parasites. We sequenced two mitochondrial partial gene regions (12S rRNA and Cytochrome Oxidase 1) from ticks across northern Africa and Anatolia, and compared patterns of variation with those identified in its main host, Testudo graeca. Two distinct haplogroups were identified, both of which were found distributed across much of northern Africa. This pattern does not reflect the known variation within the host, which has multiple, geographically disjunct subspecies in this region, but rather the major climatic zones. This relationship can be explained by adaptive processes to environmental conditions influenced by the climate, as well as by the spatial structure of the communities of tick potential hosts in larval and nymphal stages. Extensive anthropogenic movement of tortoises may also obscure congruence patterns between H. aegyptium ticks and their hosts.
... Since 1978, when the CITES convention was ratified in Morocco, tortoise trade has been banned there (Highfield 1990). However, tortoises are still sold in Morocco in local markets, although the trade has shifted from the large export trade in the 20th century to a largely domestic trade, commonly involving hundreds of tortoises in shops, mainly individuals from 2 to 8 yrs old (Znary et al. 2005;Nijman and Bergin 2017). In Morocco, it is common custom to keep tortoises in gardens (55% of 480 people surveyed, with an average of two turtles per person) and 42% come from juvenile animals caught in the wild (Segura et al. 2020). ...
... graeca is one of the preferred tortoises in the commercial pet trade (Türkozan et al., 2008), and furthermore, they are frequently collected from the wild directly into households, increasing the risk of transmission of tick-borne diseases to humans and other domestic animals (Nijman & Bergin, 2017;Segura et al., 2020). Because H. aegyptium carries multiple bacteria and protozoan species pathogenic to humans, wildlife and domestic animals (Kar et al., 2020;Kumar et al., 2020;Paștiu et al., 2012;Široký et al., 2014), and adults and nymphs of this species have been reported to bite humans (Vatansever et al., 2008), TBM screening in this system will provide relevant information for public health. ...
Ticks carry a diverse community of microorganisms including non-pathogenic symbionts, commensals and pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, protozoans, and fungi. The assessment of tick-borne microorganisms (TBM) in tortoises and their ticks is essential to understand their eco-epidemiology, and to map and monitor potential pathogens to humans and other animals. The aim of this study was to characterize the diversity of microorganisms found in ticks collected from the spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca) in North Africa and Anatolia. Ticks feeding on wild T. graeca were collected, and pathogens were screened by polymerase chain reaction using group-specific primers.
In total, 131 adult Hyalomma aegyptium ticks were collected from 92 T. graeca in Morocco (n = 48), Tunisia (n = 2), Algeria (n = 70) and Turkey (n = 11). Bacteria and protozoa detected included Hemolivia mauritanica (22.9%), Midichloria mitochondrii (11.4%), relapsing-fever borreliae (8.4%), Ehrlichia spp. (7.6%), Rickettsia spp. (3.4%), Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. (0.9%), Francisella spp. (0.9%) and Wolbachia spp. (0.8%). The characterization of Rickettsia included R. sibirica mongolitimonae (Algeria), R. aeschlimannii (Turkey) and R.africae (Morocco).
Hemolivia mauritanica and Ehrlichia spp. prevalence varied significantly with the sampling region/ country. We did not detect significant associations in microorganism presence within ticks, nor between microorganism presence and tick mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. This is the first report of Francisella persica -like, relapsing fever borreliae, M. mitochondrii and Wolbachia spp. in H. aegyptium ticks collected from wild hosts from the South and Eastern Mediterranean region, and of R. sibirica mongolitimonae and R. africae in H. aegyptium from Algeria and Morocco, respectively.
Given that T. graeca is a common species in commercial and non-commercial pet trade, the evaluation of the role of this species and its ticks as hosts for TBM is particularly relevant for public health.
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... All localities sampled during this study are situated near touristic cities (Marrakech, Rabat, Essaouira, and Agadir) and are subject to illegal capture of tortoises for use as pets and international trade (Bayley and Highfield 1996;Bergin and Nijman 2014;Nijman and Bergin 2017;Znari et al. 2005;Znari and Hichami 2018;Hichami et al. 2016;Jacobson 1994;Lambert 1983;Segura et al. 2020). Despite the apparent absence of H. mauritanica, it is still necessary to verify potential infection by other pathogens, especially because H. aegyptium has been found to be infected with several human and animal pathogens such as Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia canis, Coxiella burnetii, and Rickettsia aeschlimannii (Bitam et al. 2009;Javanbakht et al. 2015;Kalmár et al. 2015;Kautman et al. 2016;Parola and Raoult 2001;Paștiu et al. 2012;Široký et al. 2009). ...
During spring 2018, we captured 101 spur-thighed tortoises, Testudo graeca, from seven localities in central Morocco. All tortoises were examined for the presence of blood parasites Hemolivia mauritanica and Hyalomma aegyptium ticks, the known vectors. We looked for H. mauritanica infection by examination of blood smears and by genetic analysis with PCR using extractions from both tortoises and ticks. On all tortoises collected, 71.29% were infested with at least one tick, with a mean infestation intensity of 7.12 ticks/tortoise and maximum of 15.55 ticks/tortoises in Had Draa locality (Essaouira region). Although the definitive host is present and abundant in all tortoise populations, all blood samples were Hemolivia-negative. Our results support and confirm the finding of studies previously conducted in other populations of Morocco and indicate that H. mauritanica has a narrower distribution range than its tick vector.
... tortoise populations in Morocco have declined by over 90 percent(van Uhm, 2016), however, the species is still openly traded in Moroccan markets, hindering their conservation(Nijman & Bergin, 2017).A significant amount of recorded souvenirs were leather products from reptile skins, like pythons and alligators. According to Liddick (2011) more than 10 million reptiles are killed for the leather industry each year, which is largely unregulated. ...
Rising demand for endangered and/or exotic wildlife has triggered a large-scale illegal wildlife trade (IWT) of protected species and their derivatives (ROUTES, 2017). While a large part of IWT is controlled by organized criminal syndicates, much is also believed to be carried out by tourists and vacationers who knowingly and unknowingly buy souvenirs made from protected and endangered species (Woronuk, 2008). Safe Souvenirs is a mobile-ready website (www.safesouvenirs.com) on which travelers can learn about illegal (‘unsafe’) and legal (‘safe’) souvenirs from various countries. At present, Safe Souvenirs lacks funding and resources to collect and import data on unsafe and safe souvenirs. As such, this research aims to collect usable data that can be populated in the platform. More generally, this research intends to further understand the wildlife souvenir trade, with a particular interest in the U.S. consumer, by establishing a baseline that can be expanded upon moving forward. In total, seventy-five unsafe and thirty safe souvenirs were added to the database. Mammals, reptiles, sea turtles, plants, molluscs, cartilaginous fish, bony fish, birds, coral, and insects make up the seventy-five souvenir products, of which most take the form of leather products, food, fashion items, jewelry, musical instruments, sea shells curios, home goods, ivory trinkets, cosmetics, health products, and dead or live specimens. Moving forward, this database will be expanded upon based on further research and outreach.
... In addition to our monthly surveys, Mawar bird market and Kerkhof bird market in Garut were visited at weekly intervals, as this allowed us to get an insight in how frequently new birds arrived and how long individual black-winged mynas remained in the markets. We calculated minimum turnover of black-winged mynas following the methodology described by Nijman and Bergin (2017). It was not possible to calculate turnover when in between the weekly surveys a new consignment of mynas had arrived and the number of mynas in the shops had increased. ...
The illegal cage bird trade is increasingly recognised as a major impediment to the survival of a large number of songbirds. Indeed some bird species are now more common in captive private hands than they are in the wild. This includes the black-winged mynas (Acridotheres melanopterus, A. tricolor and A. tertius), three species of Critically Endangered songbirds endemic to Indonesia. Only 20 years ago these species were not considered globally threatened but high levels of trapping from the wild for the largely domestic cage bird trade has brought all three species to the brink of extinction. It is estimated that less than 500 black-winged mynas remain in the wild. Here we investigate the trade in black-winged mynas, online and in bird markets, and make an assessment of the role captive breeding played in the conservation and management of the species over the period 2009–2018. We found prices peaked in 2014 at ∼ US$140 (∼75% of the monthly minimum wage) per bird and have subsequently gone down to US$85 (now ∼33% of the minimum wage), possibly indicating higher supply and lower demand. In 2015–2018 we surveyed seven bird markets in western Java and in 127/145 visits observed 1253 black-winged mynas for sale. Turnover was high, with ∼50% of birds sold after one week upon arrival in the market. We estimate that between 1300 and 2300 mynas (retail value ∼ US$170,000) are sold annually in these seven bird markets. Few birds had closed leg-rings, but were in all likelihood a combination of captive-bred, first-generation captive-born and wild-caught individuals; some appeared to be crossbreeds between the three recognised species. With additional bird markets in Java and Bali and a thriving online trade, we estimate that the number of black-winged mynas in private ownership in Indonesia is in the order of 40,000 birds. Without proper registration and regulation in the trade of captive-bred mynas, even a small amount of wild-caught birds entering this now substantial trade will act as a serious impediment to the conservation of black-winged mynas. With the species already being ecologically extinct, we anticipate that it soon will join the ranks of species like Père David's deer Elaphurus davidianus and scimitar-horned oryx Oryx dammah that are extinct in the wild but that have captive populations in the tens of thousands. In order to prevent the imminent extinction of black-winged mynas in the wild, we recommend (1) that the Indonesian authorities invest in more effective law enforcement and prosecution of lawbreakers; (2) establishing a multi-stakeholder three species black-winged myna management plan, in which commercial captive breeders participate; and (3) better coordination of reintroduction programmes.
The trading and collection of wild animals as pets may be cause for concern regarding animal welfare and species conservation. These concerns can be exemplified by Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca), a long-living species whose use as pets is long established. The human dimension plays a major role in the wildlife for the pet collection, and is particularly important in countries like Morocco, where this might pose a threat to the conservation of the species involved. This study, which is based on a questionnaire survey (n = 480 participants), documents the fact that many people in Morocco keep tortoises as pets: 55% of the participants in the survey and over two tortoises/person. Importantly, most captive tortoises, particularly juveniles, had been collected directly from wild populations by their owners (42%, n = 264). In general, the tortoise owners had limited knowledge of their tortoises’ habits and requirements, although rural people were more likely to acknowledge that the tortoise is a wild and threatened species. Our study reveals that non-commercial collection is a common activity in Morocco that may threaten wild tortoise populations and hence species conservation, and it could have consequences regarding the welfare of the animals. We were also able to identify the profile of people towards whom education campaigns should be directed in order to reduce the number of tortoises collected from wild populations. Additional field research should also be conducted to quantify the impact of pet collection on wild tortoise populations.
Social media has become an increasingly popular platform to trade legal and illegal wildlife. Here, we evaluate the online trade of otters, a group of globally threatened taxa in Thailand, a country of high global social media use. During the 14-month period, we monitored five Facebook groups to establish a primary understanding of the scope and scale of the trade. We recorded 160 sales posts (337 individual otters) of two species, the Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus) (81%) and the smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) (19%). Newborn otter pups accounted for 53% of the offers, whereas young otters accounted for 35%. Prices averaged US$78, where the smooth-coated otter was offered at a significantly higher price than the Asian small-clawed otter. Juvenile otters were also significantly more expensive than newborns. Trade appears to be domestic; however, the potential for international trade cannot be overlooked. Although otters are protected domestically, we find that the trade is easily accessible and prevalent. The results reflect current inadequacies in enforcement and legislation in keeping pace with the rapidly shifting nature of the Internet in Thailand and throughout the global Internet community. A consistent collaborative effort from consumers, enforcement agencies, and operators is required to address this illicit trade. © 2018 National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA)
Reptiles are traded globally for medicinal purposes. Historic qualitative accounts of reptiles used as medicine in Morocco are numerous, but contemporary quantitative data are rare. In 2013-2014, we surveyed 49 wildlife markets in 20 towns throughout Morocco, plus the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. We recorded 1,586 specimens of at least nine species for sale in 14 of the Moroccan markets with a combined value of about US $100,000. The most prominent markets were those in Marrakesh, Meknes, Casablanca, and Fez, with the former two cites trading equal quantities of dried and live specimens and the latter two trading mainly dried specimens. Common species were the Med-iterranean chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) with 720 specimens (506 dried, 214 alive) and the Bell's Dabb lizard (Uro-mastyx acanthinura) with 428 specimens (247 dried, 181 alive), both traded in 10 markets, and spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca; 57 carapaces), for sale in eight cities. Over 200 African rock python (Python sebae) skins were identified and may have been illicitly imported from other parts of Africa. The turnover of Mediterranean chameleon and Bell's Dabb lizard specimens after four weeks as measured by repeat surveys was 66% for both species, resulting in an estimated annual turnover of 1,520 chameleons (range 921–2,303) and 775 lizards (range 364–1,174). Despite legal protection and regulations locally within Morocco and internationally through CITES, reptiles are commonly and openly traded for medicinal purposes throughout Morocco. However, traders are not forthcoming in conveying the legal status of these species and restrictions on trade to potential buyers. Increased enforcement of existing wildlife protection legislation is needed to prevent this exploitation from the illegal wildlife trade that could negatively impacts imperiled species.
Of the 10,272 currently recognized reptile species, fewer than 8% are regulated by the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the European Wildlife Trade
Regulations (EWTR). However, The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List has assessed
45% of the world’s reptile species and determined that at least 1390 species are threatened by “biological
resource use.” Of these, 355 species are intentionally targeted by collectors, including 194 non-CITES-listed
species. Herein we review impacts of the global reptile pet trade, and its contribution to the over-harvesting of
species and populations, in light of current international law. Findings are based on examination of relevant
professional observations, online sources and literature (e.g., applicable policies, taxonomy [reptile database],
trade statistics [EUROSTAT], and conservation [IUCN Red List]). Case studies are presented from the following
countries and regions: Australia, Central America, China, Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), Germany, Europe, India,
Indonesia (Kalimantan), Islamic Republic of Iran, Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
the Philippines, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Western Africa, and Western Asia. Between 2004 and 2014
(the period under study), the European Union (EU) member states officially reported the import of 20,788,747
live reptiles. Illegal trade activities involve species regulated under CITES, but concerns are also raised about
the provenance of species that are not CITES-regulated but are nationally protected in their country of origin
and are openly offered for sale in the EU. Analysis of trade data and examples suggest that law and
enforcement in several countries may be inadequate to prevent the overexploitation of species and to halt
illegal trade activities.
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has an active pet trade market which, owing to the extreme weather conditions experienced in the country, is mainly limited to species that can be kept indoors, such as birds, reptiles and freshwater and marine aquarium species. In order to assess the status of the trade in wildlife as pets in the
UAE, the CITES Scientific Authority in the country conducted a survey of pet shops. The following
information was collected: the identity of the wildlife species (CITES and non-CITES) being sold in pet shops in the UAE; information on the general condition of species and pet shops; • the awareness of CITES amongst pet-shop staff; the prices of various species in trade. It was considered that the information gathered would also provide important baseline data which can be used as a benchmark for future surveys.
We examined a total of 29 specimens of the Mediterranean Spur-thighed Tortoise, Testudo graeca, from two localities in the Aegean region and southeastern Turkey: 7♂ and 9♀ from Izmir and 4♂ and 9♀ from Adiyaman. An analysis of variance based on 31 morphometric ratios revealed significant differences (p<0.05) in the ratios of straight carapace length/femoral suture length, straight carapace length/plastron width 2, plastron length/plastron width 2, carapace width/carapace height, carapace width/gular suture length, carapace width/femoral suture length, nuchal length/nuchal width, and carapace width/plastron width 2. Both populations can be characterized by those parameters. The colour and pattern were inconsistent in both populations, but black is generally dominant in the Aegean population, whereas the prevailing colour in the southeastern population is yellow. A quantitative and qualitative comparison of the electrophoretic pattern (electropherograms) of the blood-serum proteins of both populations revealed no differences.
The Kingdom of Morocco, situated on the northwestern coast of the African continent, has a population of over 32 million people. It has a relatively well developed tourism sector, in part due to stability the region has enjoyed compared to other North African countries and its close proximity to Europe. Morocco is classified as being within the Mediterranean Basin, an area with exceptional concentrations of endemic species undergoing rapid rates of habitat loss, and is therefore considered to be a hotspot for conservation priority (Myers et al., 2000). It has 29 endemic species (21 reptiles and eight mammals) (Franchimont and Saadaoui, 1998) and is home to the Barbary Macaque Macaca sylvanus, the only nonhuman African primate north of the Sahara. Morocco’s proximity to Europe, coupled with its porous borders, makes it a potentially important wildlife trade hub (van Lavieren, 2008). The sale of much of the observed wildlife in Morocco is illegal and yet large amounts of live animals and their parts were observed openly for sale. This article reports on findings of wildlife surveys undertaken during 2013 in Morocco’s major cities, located in the northwest of the country. Large quantities of specimens were observed including two thousand live animals, hundreds of whole stuffed animals and hundreds of skins, carapaces, and horns.
The illegal and unsustainable trade in tortoises and freshwater turtles in Asia is a clear impediment to their conservation, leading to steep population declines and what has become known as the Asian Turtle Crisis. We focus on the trade in tortoises and freshwater turtles for pets in one of Southeast Asia’s largest wildlife trading centres, the Chatuchak Market in Bangkok, Thailand. Between November 2004 and December 2013 we surveyed Chatuchak 12 times, recording all species and quantities of tortoises and freshwater turtles openly for sale. In total, 2,667 individuals representing 55 species, were observed with 97 % of the individuals belonging to species not native to Thailand. African, South Asian and Southeast Asian species made up the largest numbers. The number of individuals recorded per survey ranged between 110 and 522 of between 11 and 24 species; species richness, species diversity and evenness did not show any clear temporal pattern. New species were added after new surveys suggesting a continual increasing supply of novel species. The most common species in trade over this period were Indian star tortoise Geochelone elegans (653 individuals), African spurred tortoise G. sulcata (536) and radiated tortoise Astrochelys radiata (320). Globally threatened species were observed during every survey, totalling 1,235 individuals of 20 species. These included Critically Endangered radiated tortoises and Burmese star tortoise G. platynota. Non-native CITES I listed species, i.e. species that should not be traded internationally, such as black spotted turtle Geoclemys hamiltonii from northeastern India and Bangladesh, were observed during all but one surveys, totalling 417 individuals of seven species. The observations of large numbers of species that had clearly entered the country illegally was clear evidence that unscrupulous traders are taking advantage of the loopholes in Thailand’s legislation. Legal reform in Thailand is urgently required, so that the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act can function as an effective piece of legislation to be used to bring an end to the illegal trade in tortoises and freshwater turtles in Thailand.
Seeds belonging to 34 species, mainly Poaceae, Asteraceae and Juncaceae, were identified in a sample of 170 faecal pellets of Testudo graeca from Donana Biological Reserve, Huelva province, Spain. The effect of the digestion of these chelonians on the seeds of Spergula arvensis, Hypochaeris glabra, Rumex bucephalophorus, Ornithopus sativus, Briza maxima and Lavandula stoechas was studied. Average period of retention in the digestive tract was 5.3 d. Percentage of recovered seeds in the faeces was 19.3 (6.5-34.2). All seeds germinated, except in H. glabra and L. stoechas, suggesting that T. graeca is a disperser for these species. Seeds of S. arvensis that pass through the digestive tract of the tortoise show increased germination. -from Authors
Reproduction in female spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca) in a population from southwestern Spain was studied by X-radiography of thread-trailed and radio-tagged individuals. Most females reproduce every year, laying one to four clutches from April to June with internesting intervals ranging from 21 to 29 days. Clutch size varied from 1 to 7 eggs and averaged 3.5 eggs. Carapace length and mass of females were positively correlated with the starting date and duration of the nesting season, while age was not correlated with any reproductive variable. Eggs averaged 33.87 × 27.97 mm in dimensions and 14.4 g in mass. Female mobility increased shortly before or after nesting, which resulted in wide dispersal of the various nests laid by an individual female.
Amphibians and reptiles are taken from the wild and sold commercially as food, pets, and traditional medicines. The overcollecting of some species highlights the need to assess the trade and ensure that it is not contributing to declines in wild populations. Unlike most countries, the United States tracks the imports and exports of all amphibians and reptiles. Records from 1998 to 2002 reveal a US trade of several million wild-caught amphibians and reptiles each year, although many shipments are not recorded at the species level. The magnitude and content of the global com- mercial trade carries even greater unknowns. The absence of accurate trade and biological information for most species makes it difficult to estab- lish whether current take levels are sustainable. The void of information also implies that population declines due to overcollecting could be going undetected. Policy changes to acquire baseline biological information and ensure a sustainable trade are urgently needed.
REPTILE SPECIES ARE DECLINING ON A GLOBAL SCALE. SIX SIGNIFICANT THREATS TO REPTILE POPULATIONS ARE HABITAT
LOSS AND DEGRADATION, INTRODUCED INVASIVE SPECIES, ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, DISEASE, UNSUSTAINABLE
USE, AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE.
There are growing concerns among conservationists that commercial trade in many species of wild-caught turtles may not be sustainable. Little information on the turtle trade and its impact on populations is available at the national level, and there are no analyses of the commercial trade in turtles in Texas. To quantitatively describe the turtle trade in Texas, we surveyed government organizations, pet and meat establishments, reptile expositions, zoos, aquariums, and Texas herpetological societies by mail, phone calls, or visits. We used the United States Fish and Wildlife Service’s (USFWS) Law Enforcement Management Information System (LEMIS) database to quantify the turtle trade in Texas from 1995-2000. Five turtle species accounted for 99% of collections from the wild in 1999, but at least 69 native and exotic species were available in the pet and meat markets. Nonnative species were exported from Texas, implying that they were either imported from other states and re-exported from Texas or were bred in captivity. Unfortunately, the current national wildlife trade monitoring system does not distinguish between export and re-export, making it difficult to fully understand wildlife trade patterns. Turtle populations in general were susceptible to overexploitation. We recommend that populations of commercially exploited turtles be monitored to build databases required for establishing harvest quotas and size limits. Methods used in this study could be implemented by other states to monitor their turtle trade.
China is the largest consumer of turtles in the world and international trade has been cited as the greatest threat to Asian turtles. Two main types of trade in live turtles occur in China: for food and traditional Chinese medicine, and for pets, including those for release by Buddhists. The food trade involves the largest quantities of turtles. In recent years, however, the international pet turtle trade has increased dramatically. Yuehe Pet Market in Guangzhou is the largest pet market in China. selling live chelonians and other animals. To understand the potential impacts of the pet trade on chelonians we conducted seven surveys in Yuehe Pet Market from August 2006 to March 2008. Over 39,000 individual chelonians of 61 species were recorded (19.1% of the global total of 319 species). Fifteen (24.6%) of these species are native to China and 46 (75.4%) are native to other countries. Two are designated as grade II key state-protected species in China. Thirty-eight (62.3%) are CITES listed species (four in CITES Appendix I, 26 in CITES II and eight in CITES III). Four are categorized on the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered, 16 as Endangered and 19 as Vulnerable. Our surveys indicate that increasing demand and the illegal international pet trade could be having a severe impact on chelonian conservation, and we make recommendations for law enforcement and conservation.
In 1973 the Convention in International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was called to life as to regulate the international wildlife trade, and to prevent species becoming (economically and biologically) extinct. The trade in freshwater turtles and tortoises in Asia is so huge that it threatens the survival of many species. In 2006 and 2007, during three surveys at Chatuchak market in Bangkok, Thailand, we record-ed a significant trade in non-native CITES-listed freshwater tur-tles and tortoises to be used as pets. We documented a total of 688 individuals of 19 species from different regions of the world, many of which are globally threatened with extinction. Most commonly recorded were three species of tortoise from Mada-gascar and Africa, i.e. Radiated Tortoise Geochelone radiata, Spurred Tortoise G. sulcata and Leopard Tortoise G. pardalis. Five species were listed on CITES Appendix I, precluding all international trade, and an additional six Appendix II or III-list-ed species that can be traded albeit regulated, were not regis-tered as being imported into Thailand in the last six year. CITES I-listed species were not more expensive than CITES II or III listed species, nor was there a relationship between retail price and numbers of turtles observed. The large number and availa-bility of illegally sourced animals indicates a blatant disregard for law and authority by traders both from Thailand and from exporting countries. We conclude that the trade in these species, in such significant volumes, is of serious conservation concern, and in order for CITES to be more effective it is imperative that Parties recognize the scale of the international trade in freshwa-ter turtles and tortoises, and respond accordingly.
We investigated the mitochondrial phylogeography of spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca) in the Western Mediterranean. In North Africa, four major lineages (A-D) occur that together constitute a well-supported clade correspond-ing to one of the six major clades within T. graeca; the North African clade is sister to a Caucasian clade representing the subspecies T. g. armeniaca. Phylogenetic relationships between the North African lineages are badly resolved. Lineage A is distributed in Tunisia and adjacent Algeria, lineage B in Algeria and northern Morocco, lineage C in the Libyan Cyrenaica Peninsula, and lineage D north of the High Atlas Mts. and in the Souss Valley (southern Morocco). Lineage B is subdivided into two subgroups, B 1 (eastern Morocco and Algeria) and B 2 (north-western Morocco). Italian tortoises harbour haplotypes of lineage A, Spanish tortoises of subgroup B 1 . Based on a relaxed molecular clock calibrated with fossil evidence, the six major mtDNA clades of T. graeca are estimated to have diverged approximately 4.2-1.8 Ma ago; the split between the clades representing the eastern subspecies T. g. ibera and T. g. terrestris is younger than the split between Western Mediterranean tortoises and T. g. armeniaca. The Western Mediterranean lineages A-D were dated to have diverged at least 1.4-1.1 Ma ago; B 1 and B 2 split approximately 0.7 Ma ago. Our results suggest that Italian and Spanish tortoises were either introduced or originated from trans-oceanic dispersal in historic or prehistoric times. Spur-thighed tortoises invaded North Africa probably across Near Eastern landbridges that emerged in the Late Tertiary. Their diversification in North Africa seems to be correlated with habitat aridization cycles during the Pleistocene. The ranges of the Western Mediterranean lineages largely correspond to the distribution of morphologically defined subspecies in North Africa, with exception of T. g. graeca and T. g. whitei, and of T. g. lamberti and T. g. marokkensis, which are not differentiated. We propose to lump the first two subspecies under the name of T. g. graeca and the latter under the name of T. g. marokkensis. The complex differentiation of spur-thighed tortoises in North Africa implies that the model of a bipartite east-west differentiation, as proposed for other Maghrebian amphibians and reptiles, may be too simplistic, reflecting incomplete locality sampling rather than actual phylogeographic differentiation.
Accurate information on density, structure and vulnerability of wild populations occupies a central place in conservation biology. A mark-recapture study was carried out during the 2003 activity season in a population of Testudo graeca in the Central Jbilets (Morocco). Juveniles were poorly represented in our data set, suggesting that juvenile numbers are actually low in our population and/or that tortoises are easier to capture after the behavioural shift of the acquisition of sexual maturity. Although the studied population was localised in a severely over-grazed area, the estimated adult and sub-adult population density, six individu-als/ha, was relatively high comparatively to available estimates in other places. However, within three months of fieldwork, it was possible to capture most of the adults (60%), suggesting that Testudo graeca graeca populations are very sensitive to illegal and repeated harvesting. Long-term monitoring of the population is re-quired to better appreciate the demographic trend of this population.
Terrestrial chelonians of arid regions are frequently faced with highly variable food quality and/or quantity and these problems could be aggravated in overgrazing areas. Then, it is crucial for species conservation to possess precise data on feeding ecology. In this paper, we provide the first quantitative data on Testudo graeca graeca feeding ecology, in the central Jbilets (Morocco). Diet composition was obtained by faecal analysis and compared to plant assemblages in the field. Interestingly, T. g. graeca seems rather a specialist herbivorous tortoise. The five main plant species found in faecal samples (Leontodon saxatilis (Asteraceae); Malva parviflora (Malvaceae); Astragalus cruciatus, Medicago hispida and Lotus arenarius (Fabaceae)) represent 70% of the identified material and are highly preferred whereas several other plant species, common in the field (e.g. Eryngium ilicifolium (Ombellifereae); Emex spinosus (Polygonaceae); Spergula flaccida Caryophyllaceae)) are actively avoided. Fabaceae made up 27% of the diet and may be important forbs in the diet of terrestrial tortoise owing to their high nutritional value. The diet composition of T. g. graeca suggests that diet overlap may occur between domestic ungulates and tortoises in overgrazed landscape and could generate a competition context. However, T. g. graeca seems to focus its foraging effort under the spiny shrubs where the impact of overgrazing is strongly attenuated.
Throughout Brazil a large number of people seek out reptiles for their meat, leather, ornamental value and supposed medicinal importance. However, there is a dearth of information on the use of reptiles in folk medicine. In North Brazil, the freshwater turtle, Podocnemis expansa, is one of the most frequently used species in traditional medicines. Many products derived from P. expansa are utilized in rural areas and also commercialized in outdoor markets as a cure or treatment for different diseases. Here we document the use and commercialization of P. expansa for medicinal purposes in the state of Pará, Northern Brazil.
Data were gathered through interview-questionnaires, with some questions left open-ended. Information was collected in two localities in Pará State, North of Brazil. In the City of Belém, data was collected through interviews with 23 herbs or root sellers (13 men and 10 women). Attempts were made to interview all animal merchants in the markets visited. In fishing community of the Pesqueiro Beach, interviews were done with 41 inhabitants (23 men and 18 women) and during the first contacts with the local population, we attempted to identify local people with a specialized knowledge of medicinal animal usage.
P. expansa was traded for use in traditional medicines and cosmetics. Fat and egg shells were used to treat 16 different diseases. Turtle fat was the main product sold. The demand for these products is unknown. However, the use of this species in folk medicine might have a considerable impact on wild population, and this must be taken into account for the conservation and management of this species.
Our results indicated that the use and commercialization of P. expansa products for medicinal purposes is common in North of Brazil. More studies regarding the use and commerce of Brazilian turtles are urgently needed in order to evaluate the real impact of such activities on natural populations. We hope that our findings about the trade and use of P. expansa in folk medicine will motivate further studies on the use of animals in folk medicine and its implications for conservation.
In this book the author examines the illegal wildlife trade from multiple perspectives: the historical context, the impact on the environment, the scope of the problem internationally, the sociocultural demand for illegal products, the legal efforts to combat it, and several case studies from inside the trade. The illegal wildlife trade has become a global criminal enterprise, following in the footsteps of drugs and weapons. Beyond the environmental impact, financial profits from the illegal wildlife trade often fund organized crime groups and violent gangs that threaten public safety and security in myriad ways.
This innovative volume covers several key questions surrounding the wildlife trade: why is there a demand for illegal wildlife products, which actors are involved in the trade, how is the business organized, and what are the harmful consequences. The author performed ethnographic fieldwork in three key markets: Russia, Morocco, and China, and has constructed a detailed picture of how the wildlife trade operates in these areas.
Conversations with informants directly involved in the illegal business ensure unique insights into this lively black market. In the course of his journey the author follows the route of the illegal wildlife trade from poor poaching areas to rich business districts where corrupt officials, legally registered companies, wildlife farms and sophisticated criminal organizations all have a share. A fascinating look inside the world of poachers, smugglers and traders.
Understanding how species have responded to past climate changes might inform how current climate change may affect species. However, current perspectives on species’ response to Quaternary cycles mainly stem from studies on mid and high latitudes and limited information is available at lower latitudes. In these systems a greater variation in individual species’ responses to glacial cycles has been suggested, but we lack of clear case studies of such variations. Here, by means of ecological niche modelling, we characterized the niche differentiation of the five subspecies of the tortoise Testudo graeca in north Africa and described the range dynamics suffered by each of the subspecies since the Last Glacial Maxima. Molecular data was employed to infer past population dynamics.
The five subspecies present a clear niche differentiation, particularly in relation to rainfall, covering a range from semiarid to humid species. The ecological differentiation among subspecies promotes very different, even opposite, post‐glacial range dynamics. Since the Last Glacial Maxima, the ranges have either expanded ( T. g. graeca ), contracted ( T. g. marokkensis ), shifted northwards ( T. g. soussensis ) or remained stable ( T. g. cyrenaica and T. g. nabeulensis ). Molecular data supported the majority of these range dynamics. Our work exemplifies how, in a climate change scenario, phylogenetically very close taxa (i.e. at the subspecies level) might experience strikingly different biogeographical dynamics due to former niche differentiation. Our work supports an individualistic response to glacial cycles, which can be particularly strong in lower latitudes. In these areas precipitation changes during glacial periods may have strongly affected distribution ranges in idiosyncratic ways. We hypothesize that in those species limited by precipitation the response to glacial cycles (and climate changes) is more unpredictable than in those limited by temperature.
Collecting tortoises for the pet trade is one of the factors threatening species of Testudo in the Mediterranean area. The collection of Testudo graeca graeca for pets is described in southeast Spain, where the main European population of this subspecies coincides with an area where keeping tortoises in captivity is a long-established custom. This present paper, based on inquiries made to children, reveals that this practice continues to be a common activity, and estimates a captive population in the order of tens of thousand of tortoises. Tortoises are collected as a result of chance encounters with wild animals by local inhabitants, and without any commercial objectives. The captive breeding and the release of tortoises without any institutional control is also common. These activities could be an important threat for the species. Implications for conservation are discussed and a critical review of the conservation strategies developed in relation to this threat (trade control and re-introduction programmes) are presented. We suggest that environmental education programmes are necessary to reduce casual collection and to change the social perception of tortoises as pets.
Human behavior is an important factor in understanding the impact of exurban sprawl (i.e. low-density rural home development) on native species. We studied the long-term effect of pet collection on popu-lations of the threatened spur-thighed tortoise by residents of exurban areas in southeastern Spain. We built a system dynamic model using authors' own data and bibliographic data about tortoise population dynamics, the housing development dynamics, and the behavior of local residents toward this species. The model includes two submodels (spur-thighed population dynamics and households dynamics) inter-connected through a tortoise collection submodel. Simulations showed that exurban intensity (i.e. size of a housing development) is essential in determining the intensity and speed of tortoise population decrease. Populations may become extinct due to collection in areas around medium to large housing developments (above 650 houses). Low housing development causes a considerable reduction of original population levels (more than 14%). Environmental education program by itself, with the aim of reducing the willingness of new residents to keep tortoises in captivity, does not seem very effective. The qual-ity and the speed with which the educational program is initialized are key factors in determining the effectiveness of the educational program. The scenarios simulation results suggest that the integration of policies of strong development constraints and educational programs are the most effective way in reducing the impact of exurban development on tortoise populations.
Tortoises of the Testudo graeca complex inhabit a patchy range that covers part of three continents (Africa, Europe, Asia). It extends approximately 6500 km in an east-west direction from eastern Iran to the Moroccan Atlantic coast and about 1600 km in a north-south direction from the Danube Delta to the Libyan Cyrenaica Peninsula. Recent years have seen a rapid increase of recognized taxa. Based on morphological investigations, it was suggested that this group consists of as many as 20 distinct species and is paraphyletic with respect to T. kleinmanni sensu lato and T. marginata. Based on samples from representative localities of the entire range, we sequenced the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and conducted nuclear genomic fingerprinting with ISSR PCR. The T. graeca complex is monophyletic and sister to a taxon consisting of T. kleinmanni sensu lato and T. marginata. The T. graeca complex comprises six well-supported mtDNA clades (A-F). Highest diversity is found in the Caucasian Region, where four clades occur in close neighbourhood. This suggests, in agreement with the fossil record, the Caucasian Region as a radiation centre. Clade A corresponds to haplotypes from the East Caucasus. It is the sister group of another clade (B) from North Africa and western Mediterranean islands. Clade C includes haplotypes from western Asia Minor, the southeastern Balkans and the western and central Caucasus Region. Its sister group is a fourth, widely distributed clade (D) from southern and eastern Asia Minor and the Levantine Region (Near East). Two further clades are distributed in Iran (E, northwestern and central Iran; F, eastern Iran). Distinctness of these six clades and sister group relationships of (A + B) and (C + D) are well-supported; however, the phylogeny of the resulting four clades (A + B), (C + D), E and F is poorly resolved. While in a previous study (Fritz et al., 2005a) all traditionally recognized Testudo species were highly distinct using mtDNA sequences and ISSR fingerprints, we detected within the T. graeca complex no nuclear genomic differentiation paralleling mtDNA clades. We conclude that all studied populations of the T. graeca complex are conspecific under the Biological Species Concept. There is major incongruence between mtDNA clades and morphologically defined taxa. Morphologically well-defined taxa, like T. g. armeniaca or T. g. floweri, nest within clades comprising also geographically neighbouring, but morphologically distinctive populations of other taxa (clade A: T. g. armeniaca, T. g. ibera, T. g. pallasi ; clade D: T. g. anamurensis, T. g. antakyensis, T. g. floweri, T. g. ibera, T. g. terrestris), while sequences of morphologically similar tortoises of the same subspecies (T. g. ibera sensu stricto or T. g. ibera sensu lato) scatter over two or three genetically distinct clades (A, C or A, C, D, respectively). This implies that pronounced morphological plasticity, resulting in phenotypes shaped by environmental pressure, masks genetic differentiation. To achieve a more realistic taxonomic arrangement reflecting mtDNA clades, we propose reducing the number of T. graeca subspecies considerably and regard in the eastern part of the range five subspecies as valid (T. g. armeniaca, T. g. buxtoni, T. g. ibera, T. g. terrestris, T. g. zarudnyi). As not all North African taxa were included in the present study, we refrain from synonymizing North African taxa with T. g. graeca (mtDNA clade B) that represents a further valid subspecies.
Based on customs trade statistics from 1999 to 2008, a total of 1989 metric tons of shells of hard-shelled chelonians have been imported into Taiwan for consumption in the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) market, with an average of 198.9 metric tons/y. The total amount of soft-shell turtle shells imported was 290 metric tons, averaging 29.0 metric tons/y. This volume indicates that millions of turtles and tortoises have been killed annually for the TCM market in Taiwan alone. The trade of turtle shells for TCM has existed in huge volumes for a long time, with no significant decrease in the market size through Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora listing of the main target species. Although the customs trade records were not species-specific, in the market survey conducted in 1996–2002, a total of 39 species of turtles and tortoises, mainly originating from China, Southeast and South Asia, were identified. Only 3 non-Asian species were found. The larger number and numerous species of origin in turtle-shell trade for the TCM market indicate blatant disregard by traders for law and authority of responsible agencies from both source and consumer countries. Observed levels of usage and trade of turtle shells appear to be highly unsustainable and may have a great impact on the chelonian fauna in source areas. For the sustainability of chelonian fauna in Asia, clear policies and close international cooperation for the regulation of turtle-shell trade are urgently needed.
More than 300,000 tortoises are exported every year from Morocco to Britain for pets. To find out the effect of this trade on the populations in the wild, the author, aided by a grant from the FPS/WWF Revolving Fund, searched the known tortoise areas in Morocco, weighing and measuring all he found. In his six weeks in the field he found only 23 tortoises. For the country as a whole he estimates numbers to be of the order of five million, a very thin spread over a large area of ground. But the trade may have a more serious effect than just reducing numbers. Because only tortoises of 4–6 inches (under-shell measurement) are wanted, the collectors concentrate on these, which often leaves small mature males to mate with very large mature females. If they are unable to do so it could seriously affect reproduction rates.
In 1969 an investigation supported by the FPS/WWF Revolving Fund established that there had been wholesale collecting of tortoises Testudo graeca throughout Morocco. The three exporting dealers reported that tortoises were very sparse in the Casablanca region, their exporting centre; only in the Oued Souss valley of south-west Morocco were they to be found in any numbers. The total Moroccan population in 1969 was estimated to be about five million, occupying an area of approximately 162,000 sq km at a mean density of around 30 per sq km. Because so few were found (only 23), comparisons in abundance between different regions were made only in relative terms; the effects of bulk trade collection on population size and structure could not be pinpointed. Routine size/weight measurements were made in relation to age, sex and maturity; air temperature measurements were recorded in relation to activity and time of year.
1. A total of 950 251 individuals of 157 turtle species were recorded during a 35-month survey of the turtle trade in Hong Kong, Shenzhen and Guangzhou, southern China. All but two of the 157 species were encountered in Hong Kong; Guangzhou ranked second in diversity (113 species) and Shenzhen third (89 species). Together, these turtles made up around 60% of the global chelonian fauna; 124 (∼80%) of them were freshwater turtles. 2. Seventy-two globally threatened species were traded in southern China during the survey: 13 classified by the IUCN as critically endangered (CE), 29 as endangered (EN), and 30 as vulnerable (VU). Thirteen species listed on CITES Appendix I and 64 species on Appendix II, as well as eight species nationally protected in China, were traded. 3. The majority of species traded had natural ranges that included China and neighbouring Southeast Asian countries, or Southeast Asian countries other than China. These non-Chinese Asian turtles (primarily Bataguridae) constituted around two-thirds of the 77 species in the food trade, and turtles sold as food accounted for 73% of individuals encountered during the survey. Most species sold as food were also traded as traditional Chinese medicine, and nearly all turtles (155 of 157 species) were sold as pets. Eighty-one species were traded only as pets. 4. Large numbers of Cuora galbinifrons (CE; CITES-II) were traded (> 15 000 individuals) and even greater quantities (> 210 000 individuals) of C. amboinensis (VU; CITES-II), as were significant numbers of other CR, EN and VU batagurids. Observed levels of exploitation of wild populations appeared unsustainable. 5. Enforcement of relevant CITES regulations during the survey seemed limited and globally threatened Asian species remained in trade in Hong Kong without the relevant licences. Trade within China is not subject to CITES, but could be regulated by enforcement of existing national laws and expansion of protected-species lists.
At least two amphibian and 28 reptile taxa are considered to have become extinct since 1600. Almost all of them were island forms and were heavily exploited by man until their number was so low that it no longer paid to hunt them. In connection with the exploitation of the island fauna and flora, man brought with him various domestic animals. Some of them—cats, dogs, goats and pigs—became feral thus creating, together with introduced rats and mice, another serious threat to endemic animals.The deliberate introduction of the mongoose into the many islands of the West Indies amounted to a critical threat to forms which were not affected because of their economic value. At least in one case, mongoose were introduced into an island especially on purpose to get rid of the iguana and snakes. Man has also directly affected the existence of some forms by destruction of habitat and by shooting them for ‘sport’.
The endemic Madagascar tortoise Geochelone yniphora exhibits a very localised distribution in the vicinity of Baly Bay on the northwest coast of the island. Data on growth, feeding, activity patterns, and habitat preference relate to adaptations in a strongly seasonal (wet-dry), tropical climate. Current distribution and density data indicate that G. yniphora is on the verge of extinction. This endangered status can be attributed to: (1) commercial exploitation in the past; (2) current heavy predation by the African bush pig; and (3) continuing habitat modification by indigenous agriculturists who create and maintain anthropogenic savannas through annual burning.
We studied growth of 284 live Moorish tortoises (Testudo graeca graeca) from the central Jbilet Mountains, the Admine Forest, and near Essaouira in westcentral Morocco in 2001. Size structures, but not age structures, differed significantly among populations. No very old tortoises were found at any site. Most populations of tortoises suffered over-collecting for the tourist trade in the past, and some collecting still continues, which probably explains the lack of older tortoises. Of tortoises remaining in the populations we studied, both males and females grew relatively quickly for 10–12 yr in all three populations, after which their growth rates deceased markedly. Females in all three populations had greater asymptotic sizes than males, and CL and log mass differed significantly between sexes by age 9 yr for the three populations, except for log mass of tortoises from Essaouira, which differed by age 6. Mean CLs and log masses were significantly greater in Admine and Essaouira tortoises than in tortoises from Jbilet. Estimated mean age at maturity varied from 5.8 to 7.6 yr for males and 7.7–10.5 yr for females. Although past over-collecting of tortoises has probably depressed population abundances and eliminated the larger, older tortoises at all three sites, the current differences in population structure and growth pattern may be the result of geographic variation in environmental conditions, suggesting different selective mechanisms for the three populations.
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