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KNOWLEDGE AND HUMAN INTERESTS/ JURGUEN ABERMAS
Abstract
INCLUYE INDICE Y NOTAS
The conclusion of the former part is that collective intentionality and the intersubjective perspective are insufficient to ensure the norms that can form our entire social life. The universal validity of normativity should be found beyond the objective scale of Intentionality. For Searle, that means an ultimate constitution of political institution. He believes that the state’s authority builds the foundation of other social norms. Under political domination, all social institutions and members can be controlled and guided to the rules that the state has made. In this sense, the universal validity of norms is ensured by the universal exercise of political power. Searle’s view is similar to Hegel’s, who also claims that the state means the highest realization of human ethical life. To summarize their common ideas, we can conclude a “Searle–Hegel thesis,” which proposes that the political authority is the highest and ultimate form of normative order.
Public intellectuals were once honest and knowledgeable academics who engaged in critical debate and spoke truth to power, but seem today rather to be celebrities who make vast amounts of money from selling an oversimplified message to policymakers and the public. This chapter discusses the role of the new public intellectuals for the rise of oversimplified and misguided innovation policy, both in the wider context of the recent spread of the ideology of “innovationism” and with specific attention to the sociological mechanisms involved. With the help of a conceptual discussion and some key examples, the chapter issues some warnings of what might happen when public intellectuals give up essential virtues of academic work in favor of fame and fortune, and the role they can then come to play in the spread of “innovationism” and misdirected innovation policy agendas.
Collaborations between public institutions and civil society organisations are popular. One such context for public-civil collaboration is rehabilitation, where health care institutions and sports clubs collaborate in supporting physical activity for people with non-communicable diseases. More specifically, our study involves health care workers, sports club volunteers, and people with Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), whose perspectives on physical activity might differ. The objective of this article is methodological in the sense that we aim to explore how focusing on moments of tension, arising in interactions between the different people involved, may be useful for researching perspectives on public-civil collaborations. To accomplish this goal, we describe how we conducted fieldwork during collaborative rehabilitation practices and how moments of tension manifested in the fieldnotes. Upon realising the potential significance of such moments, we identified six areas in which tension arose. Two of these areas are then used as examples to show how we moved analytically from the moments of tension identified in the fieldnotes to formulating interest/value statements (IVSs). Subsequently, we describe how these IVSs were utilised in focus group interviews to stimulate conversations by (re)creating tension. Furthermore, leaning on Habermas’ theory of communicative action, we discuss how IVSs based on moments of tension might lead to discussions around not only the views of the other parties in collaborations but also the reasons for those views, and the legitimacy of those reasons.
Full article: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/KGMJEWBSCNACTZRQF36Q/full?target=10.1080/2159676X.2023.2296983
The notion and practice of critical thinking (CT) has moved from its speculative formation by John Dewey to a standard element in teacher education curricula and standards. In the process, CT has narrowed its focus to the analysis and articulation of logical thought, and lost transformative value. In this paper, we examine the conception and implementation of CT in three teacher education domains primarily in the United States–music, media and information literacy, and social studies–asking how CT has deformed education in those domains, and how domain-specific approaches could reinvigorate CT. We further suggest refocusing the purpose of CT in teacher education on accomplishing transformative education for equity in school and society, by implementing a critically reflective, transformative praxis based on the insights of domain-specific approaches to CT.
The article begins with a discussion on the importance, subjectivity, and longstanding search for a definition for Quality Education (QE). It conceptualizes QE in terms of “resilience” and “responsibility towards other”. It reviews the theoretical landscape and philosophical contributions of philosophers and learning theories to the field of education. It seeks to identify salient principles of QE from ancient times to the digital era and it speculates of how philosophers and learning theories would have thought about digital pedagogy today. Three principles of QE are proposed: 1) mutual respect and reciprocity, 2) differentiated and student-centered instruction, 3) attainment of knowledge for a virtuous humanity, along with two universal, timeless values: Equity and Democracy. The paper concludes with a discussion of how democracy and equity could be supported by Nussbaum’s model of human development as to cultivate the ethos of schools in the digital ages and transform QE into classroom practices.
This chapter examines the theatrical re-enactment of “the wooden language” pertaining to Communism as a cultural and political practice that foregrounds the traumas inflicted by the totalitarian regime. The staging of communism in Caryl Churchill’s Mad Forest and Matei Vișniec’s How to Explain the History of Communism to Mental Patients is reconsidered through the lens of memory and history wherein language is both an essential tool of cultural production during the regime and a means of contesting the absurdity of the subsequently fallen political regime. Both playwrights speak a mutual language of social contestation through dialogue as a method of recovering, denouncing and learning from the past.
As humanity progresses in civilization, it becomes increasingly clear that comprehending the complexities of life goes beyond a purely material, physical, or technological perspective. Educators recognize the need for broader approaches to shape our existence. It could be the reason that numerous scholars and educational practitioners emphasize the importance of harmonizing technological advancements with human life's inner, psychological, cultural, artistic, and spiritual dimensions. While many initiatives and programs already exist to enhance professional development in times of crisis, there remains a lack of evidence-based guidance for teachers and educators regarding their inner transformation. In this chapter, the authors delve into the realms of spirituality and consciousness, new biology, quantum sciences, and nature studies and education to explore the holistic form of professional development. This approach encourages teachers and educators to acknowledge their role as co-creators of the world, emphasizing inner awakening as a vital element of professional flourishing.
This paper aims to demonstrate the contemporary relevance of Adorno's thought for business ethicists working in the critical tradition by showing how his critique of modern social life anticipated, and offers continuing illumination of, recent technological transformations of capitalism. It develops and extrapolates Adorno's thought regarding three central spheres of modern society which have seen radical changes in light of recent technological developments: work, in which employee monitoring has become ever more sophisticated and intrusive; leisure consumption, in which the algorithmic developments of the culture industry have paved the way for entertainment products to dominate us; and political discourse, in which social media has exacerbated the anti-democratic tendencies Adorno warned of in the mid-20th century. We conclude by presenting, as a rejoinder to these developments, the contours of an Adornian ethics of resistance to the reification and dehumanisation of such developments.
This chapter explores personalization and its connection to the philosophical concept of the person, arguing that a deeper understanding of the human person and a good society is essential for ethical personalization. Insights from artificial intelligence (AI), philosophy, law, and more are employed to examine personalization technology. The authors present a unified view of personalization as automated control of human environments through digital platforms and new forms of AI, while also illustrating how platforms can use personalization to control and modify persons' behavior. The ethical implications of these capabilities are discussed in relation to concepts of personhood to autonomy, privacy, and self-determination within European AI and data protection law. Tentative principles are proposed to better align personalization technology with democratic values, and future trends in personalization for business and public policy are considered. Overall, the chapter seeks to uncover unresolved tensions among philosophical, technological, and economic viewpoints of personalization.
This chapter contributes to the book by questioning one framework—that of sociomateriality—and developing and advancing another—an integrative semiotics framework—as a product of theorizing.
Changes in the mission, organization, and administration of colleges and universities reflect the transformation from elite to mass to universal access institutions. Curriculum, pedagogy, academic standards, funding, and employer-employee relations have been transformed. Administration has increasingly become management in name and in nature, as the labor process of educational work mimics that of private-sector corporations. Meanwhile, the social purposes of higher education have shifted toward explicitly economic aims and away from intellectual pursuits. Colleges and universities increasingly pursue methods of technical and practical control over human and non-human nature in the interest of prosperity and progress. Academic values of open inquiry are compromised and largely eclipsed by market demands for employability skills and commercially based research. This chapter urges an ongoing critique of higher education in late capitalism, institutional governance reform, and critical interrogation of education as teachers and students address imminent and potentially catastrophic economic, ecological, and ethical problems.
Guided by the question, how does transformative praxis work as a means of promoting action learn-ing? In this chapter, the authors discuss the notion of transformative praxis (TP) in their pedagogies as university faculties and practitioners. Likewise, the authors argue that TP is an effective method for promoting action learning (AL). TP is a pedagogical and/or transformative model that focuses on 'praxis' and aims to create a possibility of orientation for learners as opposed to a linear hierarchy of outcomes and/or results. Next, the authors further discussed AL as a problem-solving approach that involves acting and reflecting on the results and/or outcomes to gain insights and improve outcomes. For instance, this chapter also aims to provide a theoretical and some extent practical guideline for educational practitioners to apply reflective research and practice in their educational engagements to gain a multidimensional understanding for promoting active learning. On the whole, the authors attempted to explore TP as a mode for fostering AL.
The story of this chapter spans two oceans, two regions, one continent, and twenty years, and it critiques the journey of an academic as she first explores teacher professional development in Small Island Developing States. For as long as I can remember, I have always been committed to ideas of social justice, diversity, and creating opportunities in developing world spaces, but, on reflection, I may also have been an idealist. I am black (mixed race) and have never had a problem with this identity in the space from which I lived and worked from the 1990s onwards. For most of my academic journey, my work has been underpinned by Freirean philosophy because notions such as ‘the culture of silence’, ‘banking education’, and so on spoke to the post-colonial experiences of people, like myself, from the Caribbean.
This chapter argues that semiotics—the theory of signs and symbols—is at the heart of the representation and transmission of information and meaning, and is thus central to communication and information systems, but especially in their contemporary, more virtualised forms. The chapter is distinctive in eschewing post-structuralist uses of Saussurian semiotics, and recent theorisations of sociomateriality. Instead, it develops an integrative framework grounded in Habermasian concepts, Peirceian semiotics and an underlying, integrating critical realist philosophy. We develop a semiotic framework to help analyse the complex interactions between three different worlds—the personal, the social and the material. Here semiosis relates to the personal world through the generation and interpretation of signs and messages. It relates to the material world in that all signs must have some form of physical embodiment in order to be signs, and must also be transmitted through some form of physical media. Semiosis relates to the social world in that the connotative aspects of sign systems are social rather than individual—they exist before and beyond the individual’s use of signs. The personal, social and material worlds between them bear relationships of sociation, sociomateriality and embodiment. The framework draws on fundamental concepts of information, meaning and embodied cognition.
In the first two chapters we teased out the basis for a theory of information and meaning. In this chapter we advance theorising by arguing the case for embodying information systems (IS), that is, for recognising the fundamental position that the body plays in human cognition. We then explores the implications of embodied cognition for information systems and artificial intelligence (AI).
For Seyla Benhabib, a fixation on labor distorts Hegel’s account of reason and Marx’s account of capitalist society. Discourse ethics recovers the normative dimension supposedly missing from classical critical theory by appending the messy interactions of the lifeworld to the technical sphere of labor. A Hegelian response to discourse ethics eludes Benhabib. She settles for a legend where Hegel separates fact from value, system from lifeworld, and labor from social activity. Discourse ethics presupposes a generic, non-social conception of labor akin to instrumental reason. Hegel does use labor as a model for thinking but not labor as instrumental. Labor—like reason—possesses determinate historical and social forms. The notion of work as technical problem-solving without any specific social goal disguises the actual purpose of capitalism: the endless accumulation of capital. The problem that discourse ethics sets out to solve—a lack of normative foundations—is misconceived from the start.
Throughout its history, Operational Research has evolved to include a variety of methods, models and algorithms that have been applied to a diverse and wide range of contexts. This encyclopedic article consists of two main sections: methods and applications. The first aims to summarise the up-to-date knowledge and provide an overview of the state-of-the-art methods and key developments in the various subdomains of the field. The second offers a wide-ranging list of areas where Operational Research has been applied. The article is meant to be read in a nonlinear fashion. It should be used as a point of reference or first-port-of-call for a diverse pool of readers: academics, researchers, students, and practitioners. The entries within the methods and applications sections are presented in alphabetical order.
The authors dedicate this paper to the 2023 Turkey/Syria earthquake victims. We sincerely hope that advances in OR will play a role towards minimising the pain and suffering caused by this and future catastrophes.
Informed by postcolonial theories, this research presented critical investigations on Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall, the ordination hall at Niwet Thammaprawat Temple, and Munthatu Rattanaroj Villa. Aside from examining the three hybrid Siamese-European buildings beyond stylistic analyses and antiquarian mode of historiography, the upcoming discussions unveiled that the case studies – which were commissioned at the height of Western colonial expansions in Southeast Asia – testified for the Siamese’s: (1) reinterpretations, reappropriations, and recreations of European cultural artifacts; (2) active and authoritative roles in generating, combining, and projecting their versions of contested meanings upon the immediate world and beyond; (3) assertions of a newly acquired self-image by conspicuous consumptions of Western material culture; and (4) long established tradition of mediating power through built forms. In addition, by utilizing the politics of representations as a mode of problematization, these eclectic palatial structures were perceived as representational tools to create a civilized identity and discursive devices for power mediation, as opposed to unskilled or kitschy copies of Western precedents. In conclusion, the inquiries essentially argued that although Siam was among few places in Asia that did not succumb to a direct colonial rule by any Western power, the kingdom was a de facto crypto-colony.
Over the past half-century, the word “andragogy” has migrated from the fringe vocabulary to the standard lexicon of adult education. It has identified common psychological traits in “non-traditional” students and distinguished its methods from “pedagogy,” the teaching of children. This chapter will explore andragogy's apparent strengths and arguable weaknesses in terms of its socio-economic assumptions and the social class interests it may wittingly or unwittingly serve. It will conclude with a critique.
Current society’s obsession with innovation, entrepreneurship, and economic growth is superficial and unsustainable. It has little to do with real innovation, which is a process involving hard work and long-term devotion. Instead, innovation today is a catchword that has evolved into an ideology and a myth mobilized to underpin current society’s striving for constant economic growth for its own sake. The chapter outlines this problem, anchors it in a theoretical foundation of organizational sociology, and states the aims and purpose of the book.
In this article, we offer a critical realist conception of curriculum that aims to cultivate critical thinking (CT) and liberate students from egocentric rationality. We first examine egocentric rationality as a problem emerging from the technicist paradigm of cultivating CT in higher education, exemplified by issues arising from the pedagogical activity of debate. We then examine existing approaches to cultivating CT, focusing on the extent to which their goals and conceptions of CT could liberate students from egocentric rationality. Drawing on Roy Bhaskar’s stratified conception of being and principle of immanent critique, we offer a critical realist conception of curriculum, explaining its definition of CT as the capacity for self-critique. We shall illustrate, in the context of an undergraduate debate course, how such capacity can be developed in order to liberate students from egocentric rationality. Curriculum is thus a critical praxis, a created space where student’s CT develops in a way that is intrinsically entwined with their being and becoming. This article extends the philosophical basis for integrating CT with curriculum and offers pedagogical implications.
Background and Context
Using a transformative learning framework, this qualitative study examines the perspectives and practices of 70 middle and high school content area teachers who attended two or more summer professional development workshops.
Objective
This study describes how teachers’ disciplinary perspectives and backgrounds influence their understanding of CT infusion and their implementation of CT-infused lessons.
Method
Data sources for this qualitative comparative case study analysis included: retrospective video reflections, implementation surveys, post-PD surveys, and instructional materials.
Findings
Analysis revealed differences in terms of disorienting dilemmas teachers faced, shifts in their frames of reference, the form of classroom CT infusion, and their integration of specific CT concepts.
Implications
This study contributes a comparative analysis of how teachers from different content areas come to understand CT infusion and implement CT-infused pedagogical practices to support their disciplinary teaching. Findings indicate the importance of including all teachers, STEM and non-STEM, in CT infusion efforts.
In the production of knowledge about social life, two social contexts come together: the context of investigation, consisting of the social world of the investigator, and the context of explanation, consisting of the social world of the actors who are the subject of study. The nature of, and relationship between, these contexts is imagined in philosophy; managed, rewarded, and sanctioned in graduate seminars, journal reviews, and tenure cases; and practiced in research. Positivism proposed to produce objective knowledge by suppressing the nonlogical and non-observational aspects of the contexts. Attacks on positivism disputed the effectiveness and rationality of this strategy. Thus “postpositivism” can be understood as a series of attempts to reconstitute the relation between the contexts as the basis for accurate social knowledge. Two of the most important of these attempts—grounded theory and postmodern anthropology—are considered, and a synthesis, which draws from the insights of cultural sociology, is proposed.
The human sciences have often found themselves subject to fierce debate about core terms and epistemological commitments; the term itself has, since the nineteenth century, encoded dissent and dispute about the purpose and scope of research in the social sciences and humanities in distinction to the natural sciences. This book, Sociology as a Human Science, contains a series of essays that subject the knowledge project of sociology to critical examination from this perspective. The arguments in these essays are introduced by imagining research in the human sciences to travel along a spectrum from minimal interpretation to maximal interpretation. This latter distinction—between minimal and maximal interpretation—is introduced and provides a different way to frame disputes about concept and method in sociology; it is intended to operate upon earlier distinctions between objectivism and relativism and between facts and values. Framed in this way, the chapters of the book are grouped into three different sections—on the metatheoretical frames that orient the very idea of sociological knowledge, on the dispute over whether the search for social mechanisms can properly organize sociological research, and on the interpretive reconceptualization of core sociological goals such as the development of causal explanations of social phenomena and the investigation of social power.
Mechanisms are ubiquitous in sociological explanation. Recent theoretical work has sought to extend mechanistic explanation further still: into cultural and interpretative analysis. Yet it is not clear that the concept of “mechanism” can coherently unify interpretation and causal explanation within a single explanatory framework. We note that sociological mechanistic explanation is marked by a crucial disjuncture. Specifically, we identify two conflicting mechanistic approaches: “modular mechanism models” depict counterfactual dependence among independent causal chains, whereas “meaningful mechanism models” depict relational interdependence among semiotic assemblages. This disjuncture, we argue, is grounded in incompatible causal foundations and entails mechanistic models with distinct and conflicting evidentiary standards. We conclude by proposing a way forward: a sociological pluralism that is attentive to the productive incongruity of our distinct explanatory models.
In the context of calls for “postpositivist” sociology, realism has emerged as a powerful and compelling epistemology for social science. In transferring and transforming scientific realism—a philosophy of natural science—into justificatory discourse for social science, realism splits into two parts: a strict, highly naturalistic realism and a reflexive, more mediated, and critical realism. Both forms of realism, however, suffer from conceptual ambiguities, omissions, and elisions that make them an inappropriate epistemology for social science. Examination of these problems in detail reveals how a different perspective—centered on the interpretation of meaning—could provide a better justification for social inquiry, and in particular a better understanding of sociological theory and the construction of sociological explanations.
This chapter reconsiders the opposition between explanation and understanding, and uses a creative reinterpretation of Aristotle’s four causes to provide an anatomy of “interpretive explanation” and to provide a philosophical grounding for a distinction between forming and forcing causes. The possibility that this rendering of explanation can serve as the basis for a hermeneutic understanding of the human sciences is then explored via a reading of sociohistorical research on the French Revolution. Inflected by insights from cultural sociology and science studies, the chapter expands upon Donald Levine’s reading of Aristotle for modern social science and extends the insights of the hermeneutic work of Wilhelm Dilthey into a framework for hermeneutic sociohistorical research.
Sub-degree education is one of the key higher education sectors in Hong Kong. With the effect of managerialism, tertiary institutions tend to transition from a collegial toward a managerial model, and have shifted from teaching-intensive institutions to research-intensive ones. In this study, two key research questions are addressed: to what degree can managerialism influence organisational change? To what degree and how will an exogenous force generate organisational development? To answer the research questions, we present a case study at “Hong Kong College” via 15 face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with the administrative staff, academic staff, department head, and a visiting scholar. The key research findings identified the difficulties or obstacles experienced in carrying out research or scholarly activities, the long-term impacts on the workplace of staff and sub-degree institutions changing from teaching to research, the advantages of the staff and institutions regarding their working areas in the process of new research directions, and the driving forces for enriching a research culture in sub-degree institutions. Academic and managerial implications are also provided in the paper.
Critical mathematics education arose from the idea that education has a political role to play. Education is part of the struggle against all forms of oppression and atrocity. The first formulations of critical education were made in the late 1960s, and from the beginning of the 1970s, one finds initial formulations of critical mathematics education, in particular in Germany and Scandinavia. A guiding idea was that any form of mathematics brought into action needed a profound critique, and furthermore that mathematics could be used for identifying and critically addressing any form of real-life problem. Now, critical mathematics education is in a powerful development stage, where young researchers from Brazil play an important role.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is viewed as one of the technological advances that will reshape modern societies and their relations. While the design and deployment of systems that continually adapt hold the promise of far-reaching, positive change, they simultaneously pose significant risks, especially to already vulnerable people. This work explores the meaning of AI, and the important role of critical understanding and its phenomenological foundation in shaping its ongoing advances. The values, power, and magic of reason are central to this discussion. Critical theory has used historical hindsight to explain the patterns of power that shape our intellectual, political, economic, and social worlds, and the discourse on AI that surrounds these worlds. The authors also delve into niche topics in philosophy such as transcendental self-awareness, post-humanism, and concepts of space-time and computer logic. By embedding a critical phenomenological orientation within their technical practices, AI communities can develop foresight and tactics that can better align research and technology development with established ethical principles - centering vulnerable people who continue to bear the brunt of the negative impacts of innovation and scientific progress. The creation of a critical-technical practice of AI will lead to a permanent revolution in social, scientific, and political communities. The years ahead will usher in a wave of new scientific breakthroughs and technologies driven by AI research, making it incumbent upon AI communities to strengthen the social contract through ethical foresight, a capability which only phenomenology can deliver, ultimately supporting future technologies that enable greater well-being, with the goal of delivering practical truths. A Critical Understanding of Artificial Intelligence: A Phenomenological Foundation is an essential read for anyone interested in the complex debate and phenomenology surrounding AI and its growing role in our society.
Various theories of truth have been developed in philosophy, such as the correspondence theory, the coherence theory, the pragmatic theory of truth and the deflationary theory of truth, which give different answers to the question of what truth is. All these theories have their strengths and weaknesses, but they cannot counter post-factualism. With perspectival realism I will present a theory that combines elements of perspectivism and realism and promises to be an effective antidote to post-factualism.
This chapter explores the influence of three of distance education’s classic theorists—Otto Peters, Börje Holmberg, and Michael Moore—on its subsequent conceptualization and practice. The classic theorists’ understanding of theory and theorizing is discussed critically in the context of the articulation of each’s particular theory. This is then contextualized in terms of the history of the development of distance education and its institutions, from Pitman’s correspondence courses on shorthand, through correspondence schooling and higher education external studies, to the rise of the United Kingdom Open University in the 1960s. The latter’s subsequent powerful influence on the theory and practice of open and distance education internationally is described as stimulating a fertile context for the classic theorists’ endeavors. Finally, consideration is given to more recent scholars’ interpretations and adaptations of the classic theories of distance education. This leads to a concluding reflection on the authors’ engagement with distance education theorizing and the prospects for the future of distance education’s theorizing and practice.
This chapter examines the role of accounting in the public sphere. The aim is to create an informed polity where issues of corruption and environmental preservation are kept firmly on the agenda. The public sphere is analysed through the lens provided by communitarian, interpretivist, liberal and postmodern perspectives. The examination concerns the role accounting can perform as a steering medium in the public sphere. I argue that the public sphere is the arena where different values are examined and explored. This chapter examines the role of accounting in the public sphere.
Dr. Michael Apple is one of the most influential and important thinkers in critical educational studies around the world. This chapter begins by tracing his biography and educational history, outlining how his commitment to a politics of social and educational justice has been a core part of his identity for his life and the entirety of his academic career. It then moves on to describe Apple’s role as one of the founding voices of critical education theory and practice, including some descriptions of his more influential work in curriculum studies, democratic education, and critical analyses of Rightist educational movements. This chapter concludes by discussing Apple’s legacy as a critical educational scholar, which includes his important and powerful “tasks of the critical scholar/activist in education.”
Structural competency is an emerging paradigm for both the training of health professionals and the creation of a common language addressing structural processes that determine health disparities. However, its application to the field of epidemiological design and research is absent. Based on our previous proposal of a tool for Structural and Intercultural Competency in Epidemiological Studies, the SICES guidelines, in this article we analyse the possibilities and challenges of a ‘structural turn’ in epidemiology. In terms of possibilities, we recognise the value of paradigms from multiple parts of the world, such as social and sociocultural epidemiology, critical epidemiology and collective health, in facilitating a structural turn in epidemiological studies. In this framework, structural competency would provide a new angle by focusing not only on what to research (e.g. inequalities), but with what skills and attitudes (e.g. cultural and epistemic humility). The challenges lie in the inclusion of reflexivity and a comprehensive view in the context of a positivist epidemiology oriented towards obtaining evidence from a biomedical, but not social, perspective.
This chapter further develops an exemplar of a critical field of study history by focusing on critical theory with an educational emphasis. Because critical theory comes in many strips and colors, this chapter emphasizes educational critical theory coming out of the United States (ECT or by ECTs). This history begins with the Frankfurt School of Social Research, including the way this school utilized Marxism and made a turn toward cultural critique. From the Frankfurt School, the chapter moves on to Antonio Gramsci and his concept of hegemony. Gramsci’s work created a space for education, and therefore the ECT, in that culture and education in particular could participate in the making and remaking of hegemony (i.e., the construction of dominant class interests seen as societies interests) and counter hegemony (i.e., where hegemony is challenged such that subaltern groups emerge that resist hegemony. From there, the chapter moves to Habermas and his work on democracy and the issue of instrumental rationality. Continuing on this time line, this critical history focuses on Pablo Freire and his pedagogy of the oppressed. At this point, the chapter moves to the two most central figures in directing the ECT, that being Michael Apple and Henry Giroux. Both scholars’ major works are detailed and critiqued.
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