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Coaching Effectiveness: The Coach-Athlete Relationship at its Heart
Abstract
Coaching has been often viewed as a context within which coaches operate to largely bring about changes in athlete’s performance and wellbeing. One key factor to successful outcomes in coaching is the quality of the relationship between coaches and athletes. In this article, I propose that the coach-athlete relationship is at the heart of coaching. Moreover, the aim is to describe and explain how the quality of the relationship coaches and athletes develop and maintain over the course of their sporting partnership alongside coaches and athletes’ knowledge and outcomes, form a system that is capable of defining coaching effectiveness and success.
... Therefore, the present results on the scale must be interpreted cautiously. In addition, coaching efficacy represents a coach-centered approach to assess coaching quality (e.g., Abraham et al., 2006), approaches can be drawn from literature integrating the athlete perspective (Jowett, 2017). Thus, 360 � -questionnaires would have been appropriate and should be used in future research (Jowett, 2017). ...
... In addition, coaching efficacy represents a coach-centered approach to assess coaching quality (e.g., Abraham et al., 2006), approaches can be drawn from literature integrating the athlete perspective (Jowett, 2017). Thus, 360 � -questionnaires would have been appropriate and should be used in future research (Jowett, 2017). ...
... In addition, we replicated previous results showing a positive correlation between EI and coaching efficacy (Hwang et al., 2013;Thelwell et al., 2008). We encourage future research to expand the present findings and enhance the understanding of the association of EI and coach-athlete interaction by including the athlete perspective via 360 � -questionnaires (Jowett, 2017). In addition, to ensure its effect on EI as a trait, long-term effects should be investigated with follow-up questionnaires. ...
... The teacher-student relationship is acknowledged as the heart of performance coaching (Van Rossum, 2004;Gaunt, 2011;Jowett, 2017), and a good quality relationship is proposed to be essential to enhance wellbeing and performance (Jowett, 2017). To establish such a quality relationship, a shared reality of mutual understandings, interests, and goals, as well as established trust and good communication are needed (Gaunt, 2011;Jowett, 2017;Vigário et al., 2020). ...
... The teacher-student relationship is acknowledged as the heart of performance coaching (Van Rossum, 2004;Gaunt, 2011;Jowett, 2017), and a good quality relationship is proposed to be essential to enhance wellbeing and performance (Jowett, 2017). To establish such a quality relationship, a shared reality of mutual understandings, interests, and goals, as well as established trust and good communication are needed (Gaunt, 2011;Jowett, 2017;Vigário et al., 2020). ...
... The teacher-student relationship is acknowledged as the heart of performance coaching (Van Rossum, 2004;Gaunt, 2011;Jowett, 2017), and a good quality relationship is proposed to be essential to enhance wellbeing and performance (Jowett, 2017). To establish such a quality relationship, a shared reality of mutual understandings, interests, and goals, as well as established trust and good communication are needed (Gaunt, 2011;Jowett, 2017;Vigário et al., 2020). A few relevant studies have shown that there seems to exist a gap between the ideal case and the daily reality in dance teaching (Van Rossum, 2004;Rafferty and Wyon, 2006). ...
The purpose of the present study was to explore perceptions of shared reality in teacher-student partnerships in ballet, and how these perceptions were related to experiences of quality in the relationship and well-being. A longitudinal qualitative study design was adopted, with three female ballet students and their teacher participating in three semi-structured interviews each over an eight-month period. Data were analyzed using a combination of thematic and narrative analysis. Findings indicated that across the teacher-student relationships there were perceptions of a shared reality only on the professional and distanced level and not on a relational and personal level. This was achieved by a common experience of what matters in the world of ballet education as well as students finding their teacher as trustworthy. Furthermore, it appeared that the authoritarian apprenticeship culture in ballet, where the teachers give clear instructions and feedback, and where the student role is to listen and adapt to the teacher’s instructions, was a barrier to fully achieving a shared reality on a personal and deeper level. In turn, this influenced the quality of the relationship and the wellbeing of both teacher and students. The present study offers critical reflections on the cultural backdrop of teaching and learning in ballet and highlights the importance of teachers to facilitate a supportive, unconditional, and trustworthy relationship so that they can work together in a more productive manner.
... Therefore, the present results on the scale must be interpreted cautiously. In addition, coaching efficacy represents a coach-centered approach to assess coaching quality (e.g., Abraham et al., 2006), approaches can be drawn from literature integrating the athlete perspective (Jowett, 2017). Thus, 360 � -questionnaires would have been appropriate and should be used in future research (Jowett, 2017). ...
... In addition, coaching efficacy represents a coach-centered approach to assess coaching quality (e.g., Abraham et al., 2006), approaches can be drawn from literature integrating the athlete perspective (Jowett, 2017). Thus, 360 � -questionnaires would have been appropriate and should be used in future research (Jowett, 2017). ...
... In addition, we replicated previous results showing a positive correlation between EI and coaching efficacy (Hwang et al., 2013;Thelwell et al., 2008). We encourage future research to expand the present findings and enhance the understanding of the association of EI and coach-athlete interaction by including the athlete perspective via 360 � -questionnaires (Jowett, 2017). In addition, to ensure its effect on EI as a trait, long-term effects should be investigated with follow-up questionnaires. ...
Competitive sport has the potential to increase chronic stress and hence the risk of burnout. The aim of this paper was first to examine the relationship of athlete burnout to trait emotional intelligence (TEI), and second looking at a mediation effect of coping strategies between TEI and athlete burnout. In two samples of athletes (N1 = 290; N2 = 144), we conducted correlation analyses linking dimensions of TEI with athlete burnout and found negative correlations. We then tested a structural equation model in the second sample hypothesizing an indirect link between TEI and athlete burnout via the path of coping strategies. Results showed a mediation effect of emotion-focused to problem-focused coping between TEI and athlete burnout. Avoidance coping showed a positive direct effect to athlete burnout. Further research should investigate effective coping strategies and clarify whether emotional intelligence training may favor their use to protect athletes from developing burnout symptoms.
... Coaching competency view from the Myers et al. (2006) proposal, is known as the coach's ability to teach and train players' skills, direct and make decisions, as well as positively influence the disposition of athletes and motivate them to maintain the right energy and confidence in their abilities (Balaguer et al., 2012;Cassiano Neto et al., 2018;Fernández-Espínola et al., 2016;Myers et al., 2011). However, literature suggest that it is not enough to be a well-trained coach in the physical, technical, and tactical development of his or her athletes (Isoard-Gautheur et al., 2016;Jowett, 2017;Jowett & Shanmugam, 2016). In this sense, researchers have pointed out the positive influence of the coach's support of athletes' basic psychological needs in increasing satisfaction during sport activity, commitment, motivation and performance, as well as team cohesion in team sports (García-Calvo et al., 2014;González et al., 2016;Pulido et al., 2020). ...
... Last but not least, the result of the direct effect (ƥ = 0.277; p < 0.01) of athletes' perception of their coaches' competence in supporting BPN and as well as the moderate-high Spearman's Rho coefficient (0.58; p < 0.01) represents further evidence to previous related findings. Although this is a relationship that has been extensively studied, it is important to note that in our study, the players' perception is consistent with previous literature reports ( González-Ponce et al., 2018;Isoard-Gautheur et al., 2016;Jowett, 2017;Myers et al., 2011) which suggest the relevance and influence that good coaching competence has on the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. According to this explanation, athletes tend to feel more motivated to work because they perceive themselves as autonomous and competent to practice their sport as a consequence of their coach's ability to teach, motivate and direct them. ...
The present study aims to determine the mediating effect that authentic coach leadership has on the interaction between coach competence and athletes' perceived support for basic psychological needs (BPN). A cross-sectional study was conducted with 115 team sports players (17.96 ±2.85 years of age; 8.18 ±4.67 years of experience) using the Basic Psychological Needs Support, Perceived Authentic Leadership, and Athletes' Perceptions of Coach Competence questionnaires. Correlation and mediation analyses (Coach Competence → Authentic Leadership → BPN Support) were performed. The results show a positive and significant indirect effect (ƥ = 0.288; 95% CI = 0.167, 0.415) of authentic leadership on the direct interaction between coach competence and BPN support (ƥ = 0.277; p < 0.01), increasing the total model effect (ƥ = 0.555; p < 0.01) to aid athletes' perceived BPN support when their coaches are competent and authentic leaders. In conclusion, it is not enough to be a well-prepared coach, he/she must also have the ability to lead, motivate and make decisions taking care of his/her interrelationships with athletes and promoting the satisfaction of basic psychological needs.
... On the other hand, interpersonal conflicts between coaches and athletes were shown to predict athlete ill-being and negative affect (Davis & Jowett, 2014). The keys to a healthy and strong coach-athlete relationship lie, in part, on perceptions of closeness (Jowett, 2017). Coaches' efforts to work with athletes holistically, as well as athletes' efforts to find common ground with their coaches, can enhance well-being (Davis et al., 2023). ...
... These negative experiences with coaches did not appear to discourage girls from continuing to play sport, but made those sport experiences negative, sometimes leading to poor performances. Such instances have been cited in literature on negative coachathlete relationships, where poor connections with coaches can negatively impact athletes' performances (Jowett, 2017). ...
This new report examines the relationship between girls’ sport participation and mental health. The data provides strong evidence that in high quality sport settings, playing sports can help lower depression and anxiety and enhance peer relationships and meaning and purpose. The study helps to identify the aspects of the sport setting that drive these outcomes, including levels of autonomy, coach relationships and more. The report also explores the unique qualities of sport relative to other extracurricular activities as well as the connection between them. Findings from the report are integrated into policy and practice recommendations that demonstrate how they can be applied in the field.
... Currently, the interdependence 3Cs model of Jowett and colleagues [13] represents the most frequently used model to study the coach-athlete relationship in sport psychology [14]. The coach-athlete relationship is conceptualized as a social situation, in which a mutual and causal interconnectedness and interdependence exist between the athlete and the coach, as this relationship is continuously shaped by interpersonal emotions, thoughts, and behaviors [15]. Depending on the personal experience of this interdependence, the coach-athlete relationship can have both positive or negative ramifications [6]. ...
... We also did not distinguish between same-versus other-gender coach-athlete dyads, although same-gender dyads appear to perceive higher levels of relationship quality [57]. We also acknowledge thatbeyond mental toughnessother personality factors such as anxious or avoidant attachment styles or neuroticism may affect perceptions of the coachathlete relationship [15,58]. Finally, we have neither assessed history of mental health disorder prior of the baseline data assessment nor did we systematically assess other external stressors that adolescents may have been exposed to during the study period. ...
Introduction: Social and contextual factors play an important role for elite athletes’ mental health. In the present study, we examined how young elite athletes’ coach-athlete relationship appraisals are associated with and longitudinally predict general and athlete-specific burnout symptoms and whether mental toughness moderates the association between the coach-athlete relationship and burnout symptoms. Methods: In this prospective study, data were collected twice within a 6 to 10-month interval. The sample consisted of 295 athletes attending Swiss Olympic Partner Schools (186 boys, 109 girls), with a mean age of 16.73±1.38 years. The following instruments were applied: Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ), Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure (SMBM), and Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ). Cross-lagged panel analyses were performed to examine reciprocal relationships across time. Interaction effects were tested via hierarchical regression analyses. Results: Cross-sectionally, athletes who perceived their coach-athlete relationship as negative reported more general and athlete-specific burnout symptoms. Burnout symptoms were relatively stable across time, which made it difficult to explain further variance via coach-athlete relationship appraisals in the prospective analyses. While higher mental toughness scores were associated with fewer burnout symptoms in the cross-sectional analyses, higher mental toughness did not moderate the association between the coach-athlete relationship and burnout symptoms. Conclusion: The coach-athlete relationship plays an important role in athletes’ mental health. Therefore, coaches need the ability to develop effective relationships with their athletes, including thoughtful and respectful communication about issues specific to sport and life generally.
... Relationships with coaches were also important influences on para-athlete well-being. The coachathlete relationship has a key role in facilitating or inhibiting positive well-being (see Jowett, 2017), and relationships characterized by acceptance, listening, and open communication have been demonstrated as beneficial for performance and well-being in nondisabled, competitive and elite sporting groups (Jooste et al., 2019;Jowett, 2017;Poucher et al., 2018). To date, limited research has explored the nature or impact of the coach-athlete relationship on para-athlete well-being. ...
... Relationships with coaches were also important influences on para-athlete well-being. The coachathlete relationship has a key role in facilitating or inhibiting positive well-being (see Jowett, 2017), and relationships characterized by acceptance, listening, and open communication have been demonstrated as beneficial for performance and well-being in nondisabled, competitive and elite sporting groups (Jooste et al., 2019;Jowett, 2017;Poucher et al., 2018). To date, limited research has explored the nature or impact of the coach-athlete relationship on para-athlete well-being. ...
The well-being of elite athletes has been an important focus of research in recent years, with a view to identifying the specific stressors they experience and thus inform effective mechanisms of support for those competing at an elite level. However, para-athlete well-being has been comparatively underresearched, and the nuances that may contribute to or inhibit well-being in this population are still poorly understood. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to explore elite para-athlete experiences of well-being and to understand the unique aspects of the elite para-athlete environment that may impact upon their well-being. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 21 current U.K. para-athletes (13 Paralympians and eight internationally competitive para-athletes; from 12 different summer para-sports; median age: 28.8 years, range 22–47). Data were inductively thematically analyzed. Four key themes were developed: (a) understanding of para-athlete well-being, (b) a need for specialized support, (c) navigating conflicting identities, (d) access to (some) opportunities. Para-athletes highlighted a need for more specific, tailored support from within the elite sport context (e.g., in relation to transitions into centralized programs and the day-to-day support offered by athlete support personnel). Classification processes were experienced as highly stressful events, which many para-athletes felt underprepared to navigate. Para-athletes struggled to manage their identity as an elite sports person, fighting against media “superhuman” discourses and pressures from national governing body (NGB) staff that failed to acknowledge them as “person first, athlete second”. Our study emphasizes the importance of the provision of tailored support to protect and enhance well-being in this specific population.
... Lip Stretcher (risorius w/ platysma) AU 23 Lip Tightener (orbicularis oris) AU 24 Lip Pressor (orbicularis oris) AU 25 Lips Part (depressor labii inferioris, or relaxation of mentalis or orbicularis oris) AU 26 Jaw drop (masseter; relaxed temporalis and internal pterygoid) AU 27 Mouth Stretch (pterygoids and digastric) AU 43 Eyes Closed (relaxation of Levator palpebrae superioris) ...
... Moreover, the results indicate that a dominant smile by a coach has the potential to upset an athlete and potentially will affect the coach-athlete relationship. Given the importance that has been attributed to the coach-athlete relationship, 43 the present research can contribute to this literature as it indicates that even subtle facial expressions by a coach can have an impact on the athletes. Although this remains speculative at present, it seems likely that dominant smiles by a coach might have the potential to negatively impact the behaviour, motivation, and performance of athletes. ...
Nonverbal expressions from other people play an important role in everyday life. We tested the psychological and physiological effects of different nonverbal facial expressions given by a coach to athletes in a performance context. In a study with 60 athletes, we tested how dominance vs. reward smiles shown by a coach after various performances affected athletes’ subjective affective state, stress levels, and their own facial expressions. Results showed that athletes who perceived dominant smiles after their performances had higher heart-rates than those who received rewarding smiles. Athletes receiving dominant smiles also reported feeling less happy after their performances than athletes receiving rewarding smiles. No effects were evident on subjective stress levels and facial expressions of emotion measured by Noldus FaceReader. The present results are the first to show that subtle differences in facial expressions of coaches can affect an athlete’s heart rate and affective state in an evaluative performance context. The results join research on the interpersonal effects of nonverbal behavior between athletes and their coaches. They provide evidence that the facial expressions of coaches have communicative content that is perceived by the athletes and influences them on different levels.
... Without technological assistance, this cumbersome task leaves little room for active coaching and bolstering the coach-athlete relationship. 3 Compared to other sports such as cycling, 4 swimming has been trailing in the direct measurement of performancedetermining factors in the daily training practice due to the complexity of measuring in an aquatic environment and the absence of a connection with a mechanical device from which relevant performance data can be readily obtained, such as in cycling. However, recent sensor developments have provided the opportunity to collect a large amount of data simultaneously. ...
Swim coaches routinely monitor the performance and performance determining variables of their athletes to optimize training programs in an individual-specific manner with the ultimate aim to swim faster and win races. To interpret the collected data, they require a suitable, and practically useful, conceptual framework, which can be found in the power balance of swimming. For coaches a heuristic model for training and performance optimization based on the power balance has been proposed. We build on this model and illustrate how it can be employed in the training practice using data of an exemplary sub-elite swimmer (700 FINA points), which was collected continuously during two training sessions. Variables that are used in daily swim training practice, such as heart rate (HR), stroke count (SC), stroke rate (SR), and lap time (LT), were measured. By combining external load variables (e.g. LT) and internal load variables (e.g. HR) with technical variables (e.g. SR), the degree to which the swimmer complies with the training program can be determined. The measured values of these variables are presented using a traffic light feedback system indicating the degree of compliance. The traffic light system enables coaches to adjust the program if deemed necessary. It is thus shown how the model and commonly measured variables can assist swim coaches in the design and evaluation of training sessions in their pursuit of personal performance improvement leading to greater athletic success.
... The study of Bowles & O'Dwyer (2020) delves into the methodologies used by the coach-researchers to create an athlete-centered coaching environment based on a positive culture, affirmative pedagogies, and shared learning. The quality of the interaction between coaches and athletes, which is at the heart of coaching and capable of determining success, defines coaching effectiveness (Jowett, 2017). Three recommendations for applying an athlete-centered approach to coaching were presented by Souza & Oslin, (2008). ...
This study aims to investigate basketball coaches' self-reported use and value of teaching methods, affinity to technology, and technology integration self-efficacy by age, educational level (lycée, undergraduate, graduate), and coaching certification categories (Mini Basket vs. Level 1-2-3 Coaching Certificates) in Moroccan context. To this end, a digital survey including scales related to teaching methods, Affinity to Technology Interaction (ATI), and Technology Integration Self-Efficacy (TISE) was sent to 884 basketball coaches. A total of 153 coaches (24 women and 129 men)
completed the survey. The self-reported use and value of teaching methods data was analyzed by MANOVA, and the ATI and TISE data were analyzed by ANOVA (p<0.05). Findings indicated that the value given to productive athlete-initiated teaching methods with 18-24 and 25-34 years old coaches was higher than coaches
with 55-65 years old (p<0.05). There were no significant differences among the coaches with respect to the use of teaching methods by coaches' ages (p>0.05). Descriptive data indicated that coaches use productive athlete-initiated teaching methods less than reproductive and productive problem-solving methods. According to the ATI findings, 18-24 years old coaches compared to 55-65 years old coaches and coaches with undergraduate and graduate degrees as compared to lycée degree had a higher affinity to technology (p<0.05). Moreover, compared to lycée degree, coaches with undergraduate and graduate degrees had higher technology integration self-efficacy (p<0.05). These findings indicated that coaches need continuing professional development programs for autonomy supportive athlete-centered teaching methods regardless of age. Affinity of technology and technology integration self-efficacy professional development programs should specifically
target older coaches and coaches with lower educational levels/background.
... These occupations, such as, but not exclusively, fire and rescue, law enforcement, and elite sport, require individuals to work together effectively to produce optimal, predictable performances in often highly abnormal, unpredictable environments (Ungureanu & Bertolotti, 2020). Dyadic relationships influence performance by affecting intrapersonal feelings, interpersonal stability, and dyadic cohesion (Jowett, 2017), resulting in individuals having an intense desire to be victorious over others, exceed expectations, and/or experience heightened success above the norm. Therefore, high-performance environments can often attract people with the propensity to feel superior, be ruthless in pursuit of winning, and have a heightened belief they can influence others for their own success (Pegrum & Pearce, 2015;Schiffer et al., 2021;Vaughan & Madigan, 2021). ...
The Dark Triad is highly relevant in high-performance environments as it offers explanation for feelings of superiority , opportunities to be ruthless in the pursuit of victory, and a heightened belief of influence over others for individual success. High-performance dyads focus on achieving a collective goal to achieve additional individual glory. The aim of this study was to investigate how levels of these traits and (dis)similarity in them was associated with relationship quality of 316 high-performance dyads. Greater dissimilarity in narcissism resulted in higher relationship quality for both dyadic members. Actor effects indicated that higher levels of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism were related to a reduction in coaches' own perceptions of relationship quality, whilst only higher levels of Machiavellianism were associated with a reduction in athletes' own perceived levels of relationship quality. Partner effects showed higher levels of athlete Machiavellianism reduced the relationship quality of coaches.
... 40,43,50,51,57,58,61,64,68,75,76 These findings further support the conclusion by Jowett that one key factor to successful outcomes in coaching is the quality of the coach-athlete relationship. 94 These findings also challenge the predominant narrative that emphasises a quantitative dominant approach to athlete monitoring in sports science suggesting coaches and support staff employ a more balanced approach where objective, quantified subjective and non-quantified subjective information all have their place. ...
Objectives
To map and summarise the sports coaches’ and support staff's perspectives on athlete monitoring to explore the breadth of literature, identify knowledge gaps and inform future research.
Design
Scoping review based on the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology.
Methods
SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE, APA PsycInfo, and Embase databases were searched in English until 6 September 2022. The inclusion criteria were (1) coach(es) and/or support staff were explicitly questioned about their knowledge, perceptions, understanding, opinions, and/or applied practice of athlete monitoring; (2) results could be directly attributed to coach(es) and/or support staff; (3) primary research projects that are available as full-text. Exclusion criteria were applied for grey literature. The data were extracted into a custom-made data charting spreadsheet.
Results
From the 4381 identified records, 42 met the eligibility criteria. Almost all the studies were conducted within the Anglosphere and at the national or international level. The main reasons for coaches and support staff to implement athlete monitoring were to reduce injury and illness, inform the training program, and improve or maintain performance. While training load monitoring is generally seen as valuable the coaches and support staff acknowledged that there was no perfect scientific approach to monitoring athletes and believed it should be part of the bigger picture, emphasising communication.
Conclusions
There has been a recent surge in research demonstrating that athlete monitoring extends beyond quantitative information and encompasses non-quantified subjective information. This further substantiates that coaches and support staff will remain central to athlete monitoring, even amidst the anticipated technological progress.
... The coach-athlete relationship is inherently interpersonal and interactive as coaches can develop sport skills (Chan et al., 2011), positively encourage academic performance (Hicks et al., 2016), and serve as a platform for athletes to seek advice and guidance (Miller et al., 2002). The implications of connections between coaches and athletes were described by Jowett (2017) as "instrumental because [these connections] can activate important processes of coaching such as influencing, supporting, helping, guiding, instructing, as well as listening, willing, following, accepting, and so on in order for both coaches and athletes to develop, grow, achieve, and succeed" (p. 11). ...
Early sport specialization (ESS) is a popular pathway for athletic development with implications for enhanced skill acquisition but also adverse mental and physical outcomes (LaPrade et al., 2016). As such, adolescent athletes may face a dilemma regarding whether to play multiple sports or immediately narrow the focus to one. Coaches are positioned to influence motivational climates and sport-specific skill development (Amorose & Anderson-Butcher, 2007), making it important to understand their perceptions of ESS. Interviews were conducted with thirteen coaches of girls’ volleyball and basketball teams to gain an understanding of ESS as it pertains to athletes and programs at the interscholastic level. Participants identified influences and impacts of ESS, specifically how it can affect participation and competitiveness of interscholastic sports.
... Foreign coaches are required to perform their daily coaching work with different social groups that can impact their way of doing that work-administrators, officials, athletes, parents, and many others. Jowett (2017) reported that "coaches and athletes are inseparable entities within the context of coaching whether it is participation or performance" (p. 6). Facilitating effective coach-athlete relationships, designing a quality learning environment, and preparing athletes to succeed in competitions have been described as challenging and, at times, ambiguous and chaotic (Rynne & Mallett, 2012). ...
Sport coaching has become globalized. Finnish ice hockey is an example of this globalization of a coaching workforce. Indeed, the success of Finnish ice hockey teams in the international arena has been fueling the demand for coaches and players from this country worldwide. Yet, despite the increasing trends of migration of the workforce in sports, there is limited research that is conducted on the experiences of foreign coaches. Thus, in this study, we aimed to expand our understanding of the work of high-performance coaches in the globalized sports context. A case study design was adopted. The participants were 14 Finnish high-performance head coaches with transnational career experiences across 11 nations. Qualitative data were collected via semistructured interviews. Reflexive thematic analysis guided how the authors made sense of these data. Three major themes were (a) preparation practices, (b) acculturation, and (c) emerging learning experiences. The findings provide helpful insights for (a) coach developers when preparing practitioners to work in different cultural settings, (b) club administrators to further inform their decisions when recruiting and working with foreign coaches, and (c) sports’ governing bodies to develop policies to support coaches’ acculturation in the new country.
... One of the most important components of effective coaching results is the quality of the relationship between coach and athlete. Coaching is frequently seen as a setting in which coaches function to bring about significant improvements in athlete performance and wellbeing (Jowett 2017). So, in this case the coach needs to have an understanding that an athlete is an individual who has a life other than his professional career in sports. ...
The coach relationship is one of the keys to success for an athlete. This relationship will be good if each person has the communication skills to accept and understand each other. This research aims to explore the role of a coach in understanding an athlete's condition in order to maximize the role of communication in that relationship. To conduct this research on the coach's role in understanding athletes' condition and maximizing communication functions, a selective study approach will be employed. The research sample was 173 (124 men, 49 women) from various sports (accuracy; martial arts; games; measurable) who participated in this research. The average age of participants was 20.07. The research results obtained were then analyzed using simple linear regression. This research uses the Coach Confirmation Instrument (CFI) with a value of α = 0.95. The calculation results of the three data (gender, sports involvement and type of sport) obtained a value of > 0.05, which means there is no significant relationship between gender, sports involvement and type of sport on coach confirmation. This means that gender has no impact on coach confirmation. Likewise with sports involvement and type of sport on coach confirmation. The conclusion of this research is that the coach's communication skills play an important role in understanding the athlete's condition, regardless of gender (male; female), sports involvement (individual; team), type of sport (accuracy; martial arts; games; measurable). Keywords: The role of the coach, relationship between coach and athlete, type of sport, gender, communication function.
... No entanto, não existe um modelo eficaz específico para o treino de atletas com condição de deficiência (Burkett, 2013;Rangeon, Gilbert, & Bruner, 2012 ). Perante este pressuposto Bloom e investigadores (2014), sugerem a utilização do modelo 3 + 1 Cs (Jowett & Lavallee, 2007;Jowett, 2017), visto que a finalidade é a adaptação do treinador às necessidades especificas dos atletas. Em termos conceptuais, este modelo visa medir as relações entre treinadores e atletas a um nível emocional, cognitivo e comportamental. ...
Coaches have a fundamental role in the holistic development of their athletes, and when we talk about adapted sports, this prerogative gains more relevance, since sports are a transforming vehicle in the athletes' lives. However, the theme of the leadership behaviors of coaches of athletes with intellectual disabilities is little scientifically explored. The main purpose of this study is to identify the coaches' self-perception and the athletes' perception about the leadership behaviors of the Special Olympics Portugal coaches. It is also intended to examine the relationship between self-perception and perception with the formal training of coaches. The research is descriptive and cross-sectional, with a sample consisting of 50 coaches and 94 athletes from the universe of Special Olympics Portugal. The sport leadership scale was the instrument used in the study, in the self-perception and perception versions. The results showed that, in the versions analysed, the coaches of athletes with intellectual disabilities showed more leadership behaviours in the dimensions of reinforcement, training, instruction and social support. The coaches with specific training in the area of disability have more appropriate behaviours to the specific characteristics and needs of the athletes.
... The quality of the coach-athlete relationship, encompassing closeness, commitment, and complementarity, is a central element in effective coaching (Jowett, 2007). This relationship is mutually beneficial for both coach and athlete, promoting growth and success in sports and beyond (Gosai et al., 2021;Jowett, 2017, Jowett & Slade, 2021. Research spanning two decades has shown that a strong coach-athlete relationship is linked to factors such as satisfaction, motivation, team cohesion, and sports performance. ...
This study was to examine the prospective associations between coach-athlete relationship (CAR) and life skills development in youth handball players. This study employed a longitudinal research design. A total of 78 male handball players completed the Life Skills Scale for Sport and the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire over three waves of data collection: start of the season; midseason and end of the season. Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of variance Pearson's Correlation and Linear Multiple Regression (p<.05). The findings indicated the three dimensions of CAR seem to have higher effect on life skills subscales as the season progressed (i.e., higher effect on life skills at T3 compared to T2 and T1). Commitment and Complementarity were positively associated with several life skills subscales at all three timepoints. Results suggest that the quality of the CAR is an important determinant for the development of life skills in youth handball players across the sports season.
... The role of the coach is to help the patient focus on his/her targets, decide on a strategy to attain them and keep up motivation all the way through the process. 41 The coaches have received training in sport-inspired onco-coaching. 37 63 Nutrition programme The patients receive nutritional support that is adapted according to change in oral intake. ...
Objectives
Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) and high-risk myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) are often treated with intensive chemotherapy followed by allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT). The pretransplant treatment results in a general deterioration of the patient’s health and quality of life. Furthermore, allo-HSCT can be responsible for significant toxicity with risks of graft-versus-host disease (GvHD). Developing strategies to prevent physical deconditioning, undernutrition and psychological distress could help maintain a satisfactory general state of health before transplantation and thus limit these deleterious effects. This protocol evaluates the feasibility and adherence to a personalised prehabilitation programme, which can be modulated and assisted by connected objects, provided from the diagnosis to the allo-HSCT.
Methods and analysis
This multicentre interventional study will include 50 patients treated for AML or high-risk MDS with intensive chemotherapy and eligible for allo-HSCT. The intervention consists of a coached, supervised or self-directed physical activity programme, organised during the hospitalisation phases and periods at home. At the same time, patients will receive a weekly dietary follow-up. The whole intervention is controlled and modulated through the use of a dedicated application and connected objects allowing adaptation and individualisation. The rate of participation in the prescribed physical activity sessions will assess the feasibility of this study. In addition, the evolution of physical capacities (Short Physical Performance Battery, grip and quadriceps strengths), psychosocial parameters (Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy - Leukaemia, Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy - Fatigue, subjective well-being, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, self-efficacy, Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, interviews) and clinical status (weight, lean body mass, survival rate, number of infections, days of hospitalisation, GvHD) will be evaluated.
Ethics and dissemination
The study procedures have been approved by the National Ethics Committee (21.00223.000003). Consent is given in person by each participant. The information collected on the participants contains only a non-identifiable study identifier. The results of this protocol will be published in a scientific paper and communicated to the medical staff of the medical centre.
Trial registration number
NCT03595787.
... The coach-athlete relationship is central to the sporting environment, with coaches playing an influential role in the professional and personal development of the athletes, and the achievement of intrapersonal, interpersonal and group objectives. 16 The coach-athlete relationship can be described through the interrelated dimensions of athletic success (successful vs. unsuccessful) and athlete care (effective vs. ineffective), where the ideal relationship, i.e. effective and successful, promotes athletic goals while ensuring the health and well-being of the athlete. 17 The integrated coach-athlete relationship model provides the most comprehensive means to observe and analyse this relationship, expanding on and combining preceding frameworks. ...
Menstrual function is an integral component of the overall health and well-being of cyclically menstruating athletes, impacted by and affecting their participation in sport and athletic training. This review used the coach–athlete relationship to examine the sport environment for factors that facilitate or hinder healthy sport participation for cyclically menstruating athletes with respect to their menstrual cycles. Four databases were searched until June 30, 2023, for studies that explored the experiences, perceptions and knowledge related to the menstrual cycle among athletes training under a coach and coaches of cyclically menstruating athletes. The search produced 2511 studies, which, following screening for relevance and eligibility, resulted in 34 studies of moderate-to-high quality. Thematic synthesis and integration of qualitative and quantitative data from 7558 athletes and coaches from elite to amateur level uncovered 4 main themes pertaining to the coach–athlete relationship and the menstrual cycle that constituted barriers (menstruation taboo, lack of knowledge and awareness, and lack of communication among stakeholders) and facilitators (presence of female coaches, positive experiences of communicating about the menstrual cycle, and trust) to healthy sport participation. A final theme summarised the needs of athletes and coaches related to the menstrual cycle. Greater education, representation of females in sporting roles, and improved collaboration among the various stakeholders emerged as the primary factors for driving a culture-shift in the sporting environment, in order to abolish the taboo against menstruation and promote healthy sport participation for cyclically menstruating athletes.
... For example, visual methods have the potential to capture the richness and diversity of lived experience of marginalised (e.g., non-heterosexual) individuals, and narrative methods can achieve audience resonance through evocative writing (Armitage & Ramsay, 2020;Tracy, 2010). Therefore, creative methods could be beneficial for coaching-focused research that thus far has captured limited insights and experiences of diverse, intersectional voices (Jowett, 2017). For participants to have agency in the research process, it is an accepted practice in PR to provide a variety of data production options. ...
Participatory research is “with”, “for” and “by” participants, rather than “on” or “to” them, thereby moving away from a traditional subject-researcher relationship towards a cooperative approach. Participatory research seeks empowering and equitable ways to conduct research with participants, which is pertinent with marginalised groups that have historically been side-lined by traditional methods. This article explores the value of participatory research with non-heterosexual coaches, and the importance of centralising participants’ lived experience and knowledge in research. Given the limited use of creative methods within coaching
research, attention will be focused on the realities of deploying such methods. We argue that coaches in research should have the opportunity to authentically express their experiences, and insights through methods of their choosing. In doing so, diverse, intersectional knowledge may be shared, and opportunities created to support the exploration of sensitive, complex topics that exist within coaching practice.
... Accordingly, in collaboration with the athlete, an SMM could be created to work from, and individualised goals agreed upon. In more simple terms, the coach and athlete cannot do it alone (Jowett, 2017) and both need each other to achieve in sport (Jowett & Shanmugman, 2016). ...
... Coaches, similar to athletes, need to balance data-driven performance enhancement with nurturing athletes' holistic experiences. They play a crucial role in recognising and addressing athlete motivation and their emotional and psychological aspects [64,85]. ...
The field of Sports Human-Computer Interaction (SportsHCI) investigates interaction design to support a physically active human
being. Despite growing interest and dissemination of SportsHCI
literature over the past years, many publications still focus on solving
specific problems in a given sport. We believe in the benefit of
generating fundamental knowledge for SportsHCI more broadly to
advance the field as a whole. To achieve this, we aim to identify the
grand challenges in SportsHCI, which can help researchers and practitioners in developing a future research agenda. Hence, this paper presents a set of grand challenges identified in a five-day workshop with 22 experts who have previously researched, designed, and deployed SportsHCI systems. Addressing these challenges will drive transformative advancements in SportsHCI, fostering better athlete performance, athlete-coach relationships, spectator engagement, but also immersive experiences for recreational sports or exercise motivation, and ultimately, improve human well-being.
... This relationship is a mutual and causal interpersonal association between coach and athlete where their cognitions, perceptions and behaviours are interconnected. This association is not static, as it changes over time in response to the dynamic quality of human cognitions, emotions and behaviours formed through the interaction of the members (Jowett, 2017). Through this relationship, the athlete also contributes to the F I G U R E 13 MLX framework for personalised running training. ...
Training to run is not straightforward since without proper personalised supervision and planning, people will not improve their performance and will increase the risk of injuries. This study aims to identify the different factors that influence running training programmes, examining the benefits, challenges or limitations of personalised plans. Moreover, this study explores how multimodal, immersive and artificial intelligence technologies can support personalised training. We conducted an exploratory sequential mixed research consisting of interviews with 11 running coaches from different countries and a survey of 12 running coaches. Based on the interviews and survey analysis, we identified and extracted relevant factors of the training process. We identified four relevant aspects for running training: physical, technical, mental and body awareness. Using these aspects as a reference, we derived a framework using a bottom‐up approach. This framework proposes multimodal, immersive and artificial intelligence technologies to facilitate personalised running training. It also allows coaches to personally guide their athletes on each aspect.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Running is a popular sport that provides health benefits and is practised by many people around the world.
Training is a process that enables athletes to improve their development in various aspects of their sport; in the case of running, it helps them to increase their speed and endurance.
Personalised training supports the needs and abilities of athletes, by helping them to achieve their potential through individualised activities or programmes.
Sports science research indicates that personalised training can be improved by applying technology to tackle its challenges and limitations.
What this paper adds We show that personalising the training requires not only focusing on the runners' physical condition but also on their mental, technical and body awareness aspects, where each of them has a different adaptation to training.
We show that multimodal and immersive technologies offer suitable and portable ways to measure and target the mental and body awareness aspects during running training.
Implications for practice and/or policy This paper presents a list of factors, measures and devices that coaches can use to plan and design their training sessions in a more personalised manner.
This study can serve as a foundation for future research that aims to identify and target the various factors that influence the learning and training of sports.
... increased introversion). Since the coach-athlete relationship is argued to operate at the heart of coaching [122], further research is needed to explore how mental health outcomes could affect ways in which both coaches and athletes function. Given the multiple confounding variables that may influence a subjective construct like coaching effectiveness, it would also be valuable for future research to utilise validated measures to examine this relationship in further detail (e.g. the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport; see Côté et al. [123] and Mallett and Côté [124]). ...
Background
Elite-level coaches are exposed to multiple performance, organisational and personal stressors which may contribute to reduced mental health and wellbeing. This systematic scoping review examined the current body of evidence to explore what is known about the mental health of elite-level coaches (i.e. wellbeing and mental ill-health), the risk and protective factors that influence coach mental health, and the relationship between mental health and coaching effectiveness.
Methods
The review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. A systematic search was undertaken and updated in September 2022 using six electronic databases.
Results
12,376 studies were identified and screened, with 42 studies satisfying the inclusion criteria. Despite the paucity of high-quality research, findings indicated that 40% of the included studies examined themes connected to wellbeing, with 76% assessing the nature or prevalence of mental ill-health in elite-level coaches. Among studies exploring mental ill-health, coach burnout was the primary focus, while scant research examined symptoms associated with clinical disorders (e.g. anxiety and depression). Overall, psychological outcomes for elite-level coaches were shaped by risk and protective factors operating at the individual, interpersonal, organisational and societal level. Preliminary evidence was also found to suggest that poor mental health may contribute to reduced coaching effectiveness. It is proposed that coaching effectiveness could therefore be employed as a ‘hook’ to engage elite-level coaches in greater consideration of their mental health needs.
Conclusion
Alongside the development of methodologically robust research, there is a need to examine dynamic individual (e.g. psychological skills), interpersonal (e.g. strong social supports) and organisational (e.g. workload) factors that aim to preserve the mental health and optimise the efficacy of elite-level coaches.
... It is well established that coaches play a key role in the holistic development of the athlete and at the heart of that development is the relationship they establish with their athletes (Jowett, 2017). A coach-athlete relationship is dyadic and has shown to be most effective when the dyad is coach-athlete centred (Griffin et al., 2018), an orientation that demon-strates an inclusive and mutually beneficial approach. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the attachment orientations of coaches within the competitive and elite youth coaching community with the aim of understanding their possible impact on the coach-youth athlete relationship. 107 participants were recruited (level 2 or higher qualified UK based youth coaches) across multiple sports. Data was collected using the Experience in Close Relationships – Relationship Structure questionnaire (ECR-RS) to determine participants’ attachment orientation. Results found that 51% of youth coaches presented as securely attached, while 13% presented as dismissive, 25% as preoccupied, and 11% as fearful-avoidant. This suggests that a large proportion of the coaching community have the potential to struggle with their emotional regulation under emotional stress. Research within sports psychology suggests that to improve an athlete’s wellbeing and to help create positive coach-athlete relationships coaches need to demonstrate secure attachment behaviours (secure base, safe haven, and close proximity). This paper highlights the disparity between these two positions – the expectation of ideal coaching affective behaviour and the innate capability of coaches to deliver such behaviours. This understanding suggests that any intervention aimed at strengthening the affective element within the coach-youth athlete relationship needs to consider the attachment nature of the coaching community.
... The coach and the athlete are both involved in coaching (1). These two parties will form a oneof-a-kind relationship that will enable them to achieve common objectives (2). Athletes and coaches rely on one another to achieve success in sports. ...
... Ao considerar que as equipes esportivas têm apresentado equilíbrio nos níveis de desempenho, no que tange aos aspectos físicos, técnicos e táticos do treinamento esportivo, este estudo lança seu olhar na perspectiva dos aspectos psicológicos, uma vez que se tratam de habilidades que podem ser chaves para o sucesso esportivo. Isso pelo fato de que cada vez mais a literatura tem reportado a relevância de ambientes de treinamento que promovam o desenvolvimento humano, os quais sejam focados no ensino das habilidades técnicas, físicas e táticas, mas que também promovam o crescimento pessoal (JOWETT, 2017). Nesse sentido, a psicologia do esporte tem sido considerada uma área emergente de estudo, principalmente quando aborda os aspectos psicológicos positivos e virtudes do ser humano, superando a visão tradicional de abordagem dos fatores disfuncionais como estresse e ansiedade. ...
O presente estudo objetivou investigar as habilidades para vida e as experiências esportivas positivas de jovens futebolistas. Foram avaliados 104 jogadores das categorias Sub-15, Sub-17 e Sub-19 de um clube de futebol filiado à Federação Paranaense de Futebol, que compete a nível regional e estadual. Foram aplicados o Questionário da Experiência de Jovens no Esporte e a Escala de Habilidades Para a Vida no Esporte. Na análise dos dados foram empregados os testes U de Mann-Whitney, Coeficiente de Correlação de Spearman e Análise Correlacional de Redes. Não foram verificadas diferenças significativas na comparação das habilidades para vida e experiências esportivas positivas por tempo de experiência, nível competitivo e categoria (p > 0,05). As dimensões de experiências esportivas positivas e habilidades para vida apresentaram associações fracas (p < 0,05). Os jogadores avaliados relataram que o futebol contribui para as experiências esportivas positivas e também para a aquisição de habilidades para vida. As dimensões de habilidades para vida “Solução de Problemas” e “Liderança” são fatores centrais que contribuem para o desenvolvimento das demais dimensões.
... Coaches are, in addition to parents, partners and friends, a close caregiver for their athletes, in some cases for many years. Moreover, coaches and athletes are mutually interdependent, developing a unit relationship over the course of a common athletic career (Jowett, 2017). Therefore, they are in an ideal position to know and understand the thoughts of athletes. ...
... The coach and the athlete are both involved in coaching (1). These two parties will form a oneof-a-kind relationship that will enable them to achieve common objectives (2). Athletes and coaches rely on one another to achieve success in sports. ...
... On the other hand, interpersonal aspects in sports may include communication, cooperation, and collaboration with coaches, teammates, opponents, and spectators. Thus, to increase performance, the development of interpersonal variables such us coach-athlete relationship would be essential Fonteyn et al., 2022;Jowett, 2017;Jowett & Chaundy, 2004;Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004;Vella et al., 2013). The social environment that exists in the coach-athlete relationship is what is used to identify, describe and operationalize the quality of the interaction between them Jowett, 2007). ...
This study had a twofold purpose: (a) to create an Arabic version of the Coaches-Athletes Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) and (b) to assess its psychometric qualities in the context of Tunisia, as well as its sensitivity in other sports populations. The researchers conducted an online survey of 594 amateur athletes from different sports clubs in Tunisia. For the exploratory factor analysis, 157 athletes aged 22.72 ± 3.78 years were randomly selected, while confirmatory data were collected from 482 athletes aged 22.74 ± 7.63. The study found a three-factor structure through principal component and confirmatory factor analyses. CFA fit indices showed acceptable results for both second-order and first-order. The scale had excellent internal consistency for all three factors and total score, but only partially established sensitivity for the complementarity dimension. Gender and type of sport showed significant differences for the complementarity dimension. Cronbach’s Alpha, McDonald’s ω, and Guttmann’s λ6 coefficients were all high at 0.88, 0.89, and 0.94, respectively. Overall, the results suggest ACART-Q is a valid instrument for assessing the coach/athlete relationship in the Tunisian context. The study provided valuable insights into its psychometric qualities and the questionnaire could be used by coaches, researchers, and athletes to improve their relationships and performance.
... The coach and the athlete are both involved in coaching (1). These two parties will form a oneof-a-kind relationship that will enable them to achieve common objectives (2). Athletes and coaches rely on one another to achieve success in sports. ...
Background. In order to be successful in sports, coaches and athletes must work together. As a result, they play an important role in maintaining their relationship. Objectives. This cross-sectional study determines the athletes' relationship toward coaches in Malaysia. Methods. This study included 168 male athletes and 195 female athletes. Archers made up the majority of the participants (12.4%), followed by athletes in athletics (8.8%), petanque (8.8%), and pencak silat (8.5%). An online survey was used, with two measures included: (a) demographics and (b) the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). Results. According to the findings, the athletes have a stronger bond with their coaches. Furthermore, it is revealed a significant difference in commitment between males and females and years of experience with a coach. Male athletes are more committed to their coaches than female athletes (t = 2.39, p = 0.02). Athletes who have trained with a coach for more than ten years are found to be more committed to their coach. (t =-2.52, p = 0.01). It reveals a significant difference in complementarity to training time per week (11-20 hours and 21-35 hours) between groups of athletes (F2, 360 = 3.03, p < 0.05). Conclusion. Findings suggest that additional assessment, monitoring, and treatment plans be developed for athletes, particularly female athletes, and young athletes, to ensure that their psychosocial support is prioritized in the process of building a good social network in a relationship that involves processes to influence each other.
... People often value collective peace and conformity in collectivist countries like China, which might affect the dynamics of coach-athlete interaction. Without expressing, their feelings aloud, athletes may be more likely to comply with instructions, and collaboration with coaches may be shown by compliance and adherence to set rules (Jowett, 2017). While deference to authority is important, coaches must also provide a loving and encouraging atmosphere where players feel free to express themselves and offer suggestions. ...
The study examines the complex interactions between coaches and athletes in federative basketball in two different cultural contexts: China and Spain. The paper examines the interpersonal psychological dimensions from a direct viewpoint and a meta-perspective, drawing on the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) and guided by the 3Cs model (Closeness, Commitment, and Complementarity). The CART-Q was translated and modified for use in both nations’ federative basketball organizational systems to guarantee cross-cultural applicability. Careful translation techniques were used to achieve semantic homogeneity between the Spanish and Chinese versions of the questionnaire, including talks with knowledgeable linguists. The translated versions improved response comparability and kept the same item numbers as the original 2012 instrument. Out of the 771 distributed questionnaires, 763 legitimate answers were gathered via online surveys conducted using secure platforms (Google Forms for Spain and Wenjuanxing for China). The research included a three-step mediation study using structural equation modeling, which allowed for a thorough investigation of the concurrent validity of the modified CART-Qs. The findings indisputably support the reliability and validity of the CART-Qs translated into Chinese and Spanish. The research shows small but significant cultural disparities in the comprehensive perspective of coach-athlete interactions. These results have extensive ramifications for the sport and highlight how crucial it is to consider cultural differences when coaching and developing athletes.
... increased introversion). Since the coach-athlete relationship is argued to operate at the heart of coaching [122], further research is needed to explore how mental health outcomes could affect ways in which both coaches and athletes function. Given the multiple confounding variables that may in uence a subjective construct like coaching effectiveness, it would also be valuable for future research to utilise validated measures to examine this relationship in further detail (e.g. the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport; see Côté et al. [123] and Mallett and Côté [124]). ...
Background: Elite-level coaches are exposed to multiple performance, organisational and personal stressors which may contribute towards reduced mental health and wellbeing. This systematic scoping review examined the current body of evidence to explore what is known about the mental health of elite-level coaches (i.e. wellbeing and mental ill-health), the risk and protective factors that influence coach mental health, and the relationship between mental health and coaching effectiveness.
Methods: The review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. A systematic search was undertaken and updated in September 2022 using six electronic databases.
Results: 12,376 studies were identified and screened, with 42 studies satisfying the inclusion criteria. Despite the paucity of high-quality research, findings indicated that 41% of the included studies examined themes connected to wellbeing, with 76% assessing the nature or prevalence of mental ill-health in elite-level coaches. Among studies exploring mental ill-health, coach burnout was the primary focus, while scant research examined symptoms associated with clinical disorders (e.g. anxiety and depression). Overall, psychological outcomes for elite-level coaches were shaped by risk and protective factors operating at the individual, interpersonal, organisational and societal level. Preliminary evidence was also found to suggest that poor mental health may contribute towards reduced coaching effectiveness. It is proposed that coaching effectiveness could therefore be employed as a ‘hook’ to engage elite-level coaches in greater consideration of their mental health needs.
Conclusion: Alongside the development of methodologically robust research, there is a need to examine dynamic individual (e.g. psychological skills), interpersonal (e.g. strong social supports) and organisational (e.g. workload) factors that aim to preserve the mental health and optimise the efficacy of elite-level coaches.
... Building a strong and trusting relationship between athletes and coaches is an essential component of developing a successful team [1,2]. A team led by a coach who fails to provide adequate support, direction, and motivation to their players may struggle to function cohesively, resulting in poor performance. ...
Athletes’ perceptions of fairness toward coaching behaviors and decisions can play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of a strong coach–athlete relationship. However, scholars have given limited attention to athletes’ perceptions of fairness. Therefore, the current study aimed to explore the relationship between coaches and athletes by applying the concept of organizational justice based on met-expectation theory. The primary objective of the study was to empirically examine the direct and indirect relationships between the met-expectation of athletic justice and athletes’ attitudinal outcomes, such as athletic satisfaction and organizational commitment, through leader–member exchange (LMX). Data were collected from 289 elite athletes (238 men and 51 women) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia using a mixed-mode approach (paper-and-pencil and online surveys). The results of Structural Equation Modeling indicated that when athletes perceive that their expectations of fair treatment are met, it positively affects their satisfaction. This relationship is partially influenced by the quality of their relationship with their leader. However, the findings also suggest that while the athletes’ met-expectation of athletic justice has a positive effect on their satisfaction, it does not have a significant impact on their commitment to the team. The findings provide insight about important work-related outcomes by validating the coach–athlete relationship based on met-expectation of athletic justice. The findings can be utilized to improve athlete satisfaction and commitment, leading to positive team and individual outcomes.
... This deficiency notably impacted their performance, especially during the Olympics and the preparatory phase leading up to it. Given the well-documented influence of the coach-athlete relationship on performance, as noted by Jowett (2017), the lack of a strong bond with a coach (as in the case of Olympian 1) and frequent changes in coaching staff without involving the athlete in discussions (as experienced by Olympian 4) are matters sport governing bodies should consider when strategizing and framing support mechanisms for the Olympics. In this respect, the role of coaches extends beyond enhancing athletic performance to influencing the overall well-being of the athletes. ...
Objectives
This study explores the experiences of Olympian judokas, examining both their pursuit of excellence to compete at the Olympics and their subsequent transition out of judo. The aim is to offer empirical evidence regarding the challenges they face in realizing their Olympic dreams, and to shed light on the transitional challenges, available resources, and needs they face as they move toward post-athletic lives.
Methods
We conducted semi-structured interviews with eight Olympian judokas: five males and three females, all of whom have retired from competitive judo. These participants are from Portugal ( n = 1), Republic of Korea ( n = 2), and the United Kingdom ( n = 5). We employed thematic analysis, which led to the identification of five main themes: (a) From Dreams to Olympic Reality, (b) Facing the Void: Loss of Goals and Identity, (c) The Crucial Role of Social Support, (d) Dual Aspects of Pre-Retirement Planning, and (e) The Double Edge of Organizational Support.
Findings
The findings highlight the significant challenges faced by Olympian judokas, including goal and identity loss post-retirement, and the need for comprehensive and accessible organizational support, particularly psychological assistance, to assist in their transition to post-athletic life.
Implications
The findings not only enhance our understanding of judokas’ experiences during transition but also offer insights that could guide the development of tailored support programs. It is critical for sport governing bodies and practitioners to apply these insights in creating comprehensive and easily accessible support systems, which will ensure a smoother transition to post-athletic life for high-performance athletes.
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the implementation of the novel Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework (CEF) on coach–athlete interactions and perceptions. Participants were coaches (n = 4) and athletes (n = 54) from two rugby union teams. Coaches were observed pre-intervention and post-intervention of an education workshop based on the CEF and had nine training sessions video-recorded and analysed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS). Their perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviours were measured using the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport (CBS-S). CAIS results revealed coaches increased the use of ‘Management’ and ‘Feedback’ behaviours ( p < 0.05) post-CEF, without altering prominent high-volume behaviours (e.g. ‘Instruction’). Coaches utilised similar time proportions for CAIS ‘Practice’, ‘Playing’ and ‘Management’ states, respectively, with no significant change post-CEF. CART-Q and CBS-S results revealed predominantly positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for both pre-CEF and post-CEF. Coach education is a non-linear learning process requiring consistent application over long periods of time, however, the alteration in coach behaviours post-CEF, coupled with the largely positive perceptions of both agents of the coach–athlete dyad, is an encouraging step forward for the further implementation of the CEF.
Employees with mental illness are often the first to be unable to cope with increasingly complex psychosocial work demands. But people without mental illness can also suffer from, for example, high workload. This study compares a short coaching to stabilize work ability for employees with and without mental illness regarding coaching topics, effects on work-related resources, goal attainment, and unwanted events. Individual coaching of three sessions (problem exploration by behavior analysis, practice of new behavior, reflection) was conducted with employees from different professional fields. A medical history was taken to determine whether participants are affected by a mental disorder. All coaching was conducted by the same behavior therapist in training (L.P.W.) under the supervision of an experienced behavior therapist (B.M.). Two hundred and three coachings with three sessions were completed. In total, 103 participants did not have a mental illness (51%), and 100 participants reported a mental disorder (49%). The coaching participants with mental illness had lower initial levels of work-related capacities (more severe impairments) and coping behavior as compared to the participants without mental illness. In the pre–post comparisons, both groups achieved significant improvements in work-related coping after the coaching. There were no differences in goal attainment between both groups. While participants without mental illness reported more unwanted events in parallel to the coaching (30% reported negative developments in life), participants with mental illness reported coaching-related unwanted events (20% felt to be dependent on the coach). Coaching with an individual focus on one topic can improve work-related resources in participants with and without mental disorders. Since participants with and without mental illness experience different unwanted events in coaching, psychotherapeutic expertise is needed in order to set the right focus.
The coach and athlete relationship is interaction in which the thoughts, feelings and behavior of the coach and athlete are causally linked. The quality of the relationship between coach and athlete affects the achievement and psychological well-being of athlete. It is desirable that the relationship between coaches and athletes is based on respect, understanding, acceptance, tolerance and cooperation. The quality of the relationship between coach and athlete affects interpersonal and intrapersonal outcomes through communication. Communication is a process that depends on its participants. It implies a circular process of influence. The athlete's behavior affects the coach's behavior, and the coach's behavior in turn affects the athlete's behavior. The article presents guidelines for improving communication and constructively resolving conflicts between coaches and players.
Despite a growing interest in emotions in sport psychology, little has been written about the contextual elements triggering athletes’ emotional experience. This single case study aimed to analyze the inducers of an elite table tennis player’s emotional experience throughout his career. He was ranked among the 15 best players in the world, and his career spanned more than 20 years. Inspired by the critical-incident method, we conducted a lengthy interview with the player, during which he related the most significant moments of his career. The categorization of the 96 critical incidents collected highlighted four inducers of positive emotions and five inducers of negative emotions, emerging over five periods (exponential progression, first difficulties, major difficulties, second career, and end of career). These findings contribute to the development of an innovative single-case-study design, allowing an understanding of the contextual origin of athletes’ emotions over the long term. Finally, highlights are discussed and recommendations for the practice of sport psychology are formulated.
Challenging situations and interactions are necessary and unavoidable in sport. From deselection to injury, burnout, and mental health issues, coaches and athletes will face challenging situations throughout their sporting career. The aims of this research study were to (a) introduce a conceptual model of challenging situations and subsequently to (b) explore a range of challenging situations that occur in high-performance sport, and (c) discover how such challenging situations are managed and perceived by high-performance coaches. In this study, challenging situations in coach–athlete dyads are defined as organisational, performance, interpersonal, and personal stressors that can push or pull one or both the coach and athlete, and subsequently their relationship into a state of indeterminacy (i.e., the Grey Zone) that may cause stress, strain, conflict, or resolution and understanding depending on how the challenging situations are managed. A total of 11 current high-performance and World Class Performance coaches ( M = 41.64 years old, SD = 10.69 years; female = 4, male = 7), took part in a semistructured interview aided by vignettes to explore and discover the process by which coaches deal with challenging situations. Using a pragmatism approach, a content analysis guided by the conceptual Grey Zone Model was utilised to analyse the obtained qualitative data. Results indicated that coaches regularly experience challenging situations and use a variety of techniques to manage them. The Grey Zone Model is proposed as a practical tool to help coaches, athletes, and other practitioners, such as sport psychology consultants and coach developers to analyse the various phases of challenging situations.
The coach–athlete dyad is complex where both parties can often have contrasting perceptions of each other. The purpose of this research was to examine coaching behaviors and perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship across different age grades of rugby football union. Coaches ( n = 5) and athletes ( n = 78) from three separate rugby union teams (Child, Adolescent, and Adult) had their training sessions ( n = 3) analyzed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System. Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviors were measured via the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport, while coach perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. Prescriptive coaching styles were observed in all coaches as Coach Analysis and Intervention System results showed high levels of explicit behaviors: “instruction,” “direct management,” and “feedback.” All coaches utilized similar time proportions within sessions for Coach Analysis and Intervention System “Practice,” “Playing,” and “Management” states, respectively. Questionnaire results revealed positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for all teams. Despite positive bidirectional relationships, the prescriptive coaching style displayed by all coaches may not align to best coaching practice. Development of a coach’s behaviors, training content, and perceptions through coach education has the potential to enhance their athletes’ sporting experience, athletic development, and sport-specific competencies.
While important for athletic development and well-being in youth sport, knowledge remains limited around the processes underpinning triadic relationships between parents, athletes, and coaches. This study aimed to examine the relational processes that drive the functioning of parent–athlete–coach triads across three developmental stages of youth tennis. Using a collective-case-study design, 10 players, 10 coaches, and 9 mothers completed preinterview tasks and semistructured interviews and provided conversational history. Reflexive thematic analysis led to the generation of two higher order themes: foundations of relationship quality and factors enabling team effectiveness. Findings highlighted how specific relationship qualities (i.e., commitment, trust, respect, and parent–coach proximity) and team effectiveness constructs (i.e., shared goals, collaborative and adjusted roles, support, and role-specific communication) served to facilitate the tennis experience for triads. Scholars are encouraged to consider integrating small-group principles (e.g., team building) into tailored support programs that address the psychosocial needs of the triad.
This study investigated the perceptions of players and football club staff regarding de-selection from the youth international football environment. Prior research into youth football de-selection focuses on players’ experiences of being released from their club environment; however, research is yet to understand the effect of de-selection from international football. The authors completed semi-structured interviews with 11 current youth international footballers and nine members of leadership staff from English Premier League youth academies, including academy directors, technical directors and heads of coaching. It was found that players had a strong identity as an international footballer and that once de-selected, it could be difficult to adapt to a change in status within their group at the club. The club staff also suggested that clubs do little to support the player once de-selected as although they perceive the player as being part of their development programme, they viewed international football as an area that was not their responsibility. Practical applications are discussed, including the need for clear justifications of de-selection and ‘after-care’ solutions.
The aim of this study to examine the relationship between the perception of success and coaching behavior of 14-18 age swimming athletes living in Aegean region. A total of 114 swimmers participated voluntarily. The "Children’s Version of the Perception of Success Questionare" (POSQ-CH) and “Coach Behavior Scale for Sport” (CBS-S) was used. The analysis of the data was evaluated with the SPSS. POSQ-CH score was 49.03 (very high); sub-dimensions, "Ego Orientation" (EO) score is 22.17 (high) and the "Task Orientation" (TO) score is 26.85 (very high). CBS-S score is 262.35 (quite high); sub-dimensions scores are between 23.43 (very low)-50.95 (very high). According to gender, a significant difference in POSQ-CH and GO sub-dimension and TS, PR and NR sub-dimension scores of CBS-S (p<0.05). Similarly, a significant difference in the EO sub-dimension according to coach gender, in the POSQ-CH and GO according to swimming style and in the EO and TS according to sport age (p<0.05). No correlation between POSQ-CH and CBS-S and its sub-dimensions; however, a positive and moderate relationship between the closeness to team captain score and CBS-S. It was determined that the swimmers in the relevant age range had high perception of achievement and perception of coach behavior, and the athletes were more goal-oriented. It can be said that the coach's physical-mental preparation, positive behavior, providing technical skill learning, directing the athlete correctly in terms of goal expectation, helping to provide appropriate and optimum competition strategy and negative behavior are not related to the swimmers' perception of success.
Developing high-quality athlete–coach (A–C) relationships improves both athlete performance and well-being. However, content relating to the A–C relationship has been underrepresented within coach education. The study evaluates how coaches completing the English Football Association’s Union of European Football Associations A and B licenses develop knowledge of the A–C relationship. It does so by drawing on the perspectives of those who design and deliver the courses. Semistructured interviews were completed with nine experienced Football Association coach developers alongside a document analysis of seven key course documents. Data were analysed through an inductive thematic analysis and five themes were generated: (a) coach developers understand that the A–C relationship is built on trust, care, and hard and soft interpersonal approaches; (b) the triad of knowledge impacts on the A–C relationship, not just interpersonal knowledge; (c) the A–C relationship is not meaningfully addressed in the formalised course content; (d) in situ visits provide an effective medium to develop knowledge of the A–C relationship; and (e) the assessment framework does not align with the formalised course content. Findings demonstrate, despite a diversification in content, the A–C relationship is introduced in a superficial manner. Future research should clarify the knowledge coaches require to develop high-quality A–C relationships within a high-performance footballing context.
The purpose of this research was to describe and interpret the processes of developing the coach-athlete relationship in a women's university sports team across one competitive season. Data were generated from observations of 19 team practices and 11 games, and two individual interviews with the coach and three athletes. Participants' unique perspectives of developing the coach-athlete relationship were examined through the use of Jowett's (2007) 3+1Cs model. Findings highlight the ambiguous and often contradicting ways that participants understood and interpreted the processes of their coach-athlete relationship, due in part by the performance and social agendas at play. This research makes a contribution to knowledge about the processes of the coach-athlete relationship in a team environment and application of the 3+1 Cs model by primarily attending to its processes rather than outcomes. In doing so, we showed some of the complexities in these processes and the challenges this offers to coaches and athletes.
The interpersonal dynamics of the parent/coach-child/athlete relationship were explored in the context of family change as this pertains to the athlete's transition into and through adolescence. A single dyad participated in the study whose parent/coach-child/athlete relationship commenced approximately at the onset of the athlete's adolescence and experienced performance success during a period of seven years of partnership. Data were collected utilising two parallel interview schedules and analysed employing a combination of content and narrative analyses. The dyad described both the coach-athlete relationship and the parent-child relationship in positive terms. However, analysis revealed that the dyad experienced difficulties in co-ordinating their dual roles and expressed a sense of dislike toward each others behaviours. The child/athlete reported conflict more often than her parent/coach. The results of this study are discussed considering relevant theory and research on parent-child relationships during adolescence.
Drawing on ideas from social psychology, in particular those associated with relational schemas and complexity theory, the purpose of this paper is to present an alternative perspective of coaching. Following the introduction, current conceptualizations of coaching are critiqued as being inadequate. The case is then made that such work could alternatively profit from an examination of coaches' agency within their structurally created relational schemas to better understand the nature of the activity. Recent empirical work on coaches is subsequently drawn upon to support the theoretical position proposed, which postulates practitioners as working near or on "the edge of chaos." Finally, a conclusion draws together the main points made, particularly in relation to the value of the position taken for coach education.
This paper presents a study that aimed to explore the rules of the coach–athlete relationship. Using semi-structured interviews, data were obtained from a sample of British athletes (n = 15) and an independent sample of British coaches (n = 15). Content analysis was employed to analyse the data. Results indicated that athletes’ and coaches’ perceptions of relationship rules were corresponding. Rules appeared to guide the conduct of the ‘professional relationship’ (e.g. by respecting one another) and the conduct of ‘business’ (e.g. by being prepared to instruct and learn skills). The main functions of relationship rules were to minimize interpersonal conflict (e.g. arguments) and provide rewards (e.g. happiness). It was also evidenced that interpersonal dimensions that define the quality of the coach–athlete relationship served as rules that increased reward and reduced conflict.
To be a technically good coach is one thing, but what gives the coach the “edge” (i.e., the extra effectiveness) in this unforgiving and relentless competitive sport environment, is the connection developed between the coach and athlete (see Figure 1). It is this connection that makes a difference to technical coaching because it supplies coaches with the key to opening the door to their athlete’s capabilities, capacities, and potential. The best athletes in the world (following success in World, Olympic Championships) often state that their coaches have been instrumental to their success. In contrast, it is rare to hear athletes who have won gold medals and broken records attacking and criticising their coaches. This is neither random nor coincidental. This unique partnership or relationship developed between a coach and an athlete, we call relational coaching. Relational coaching is the ways coaches and athletes connect to bring about performance success and personal satisfaction.(...)
The present preliminary study aimed to develop and examine the psychometric properties of a new sport-specific self-report instrument designed to assess ath-letes' and coaches' attachment styles. The development and initial validation comprised three main phases. In Phase 1, a pool of items was generated based on pre-existing self-report attachment instruments, modified to reflect a coach and an athlete's style of attachment. In Phase 2, the content validity of the items was assessed by a panel of experts. A final scale was developed and administered to 405 coaches and 298 athletes (N = 703 participants). In Phase 3, confirmatory factor analysis of the obtained data was conducted to determine the final items of the Coach-Athlete Attachment Scale (CAAS). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed acceptable goodness of fit indexes for a 3-first order factor model as well as a 2-first order factor model for both the athlete and the coach data, respectively. A secure attachment style positively predicted relationship satisfaction, while an insecure attachment style was a negative predictor of relationship satisfaction. The CAAS revealed initial psychometric properties of content, factorial, and predictive validity, as well as reliability.
Background: The goals of participation youth sports are primarily concerned with the facilitation of positive youth development as opposed to outright success. Consequently, there are strong theoretical and empirical links between sports coaching and athlete development. Transformational leadership behaviours, in particular, have been theoretically linked to positive developmental outcomes within a youth sport context, while the coach–athlete relationship is a key tool used by coaches who aim to teach life skills to young athletes. Outright team success has also been shown to correlate with important developmental variables such as a mastery climate and athlete perception of youth sports coaches.
Aims: The purpose of this study was to test the relationship between coach transformational leadership behaviours, the perceived quality of the coach–athlete relationship, team success, and the positive developmental experiences of adolescent soccer players.
Method: Cross-sectional data were taken from 455 adolescent athletes aged between 11 and 18 years. Each participant was competing in a local soccer competition that is classified as a participation sport. Thus, the theoretical focus is on developmental and skill gains. Each participant completed the Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory for Youth Sport, the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, and the Youth Experience Survey for Sport. Team success was measured by the total number of competition points accumulated during the season.
Findings: The results show that coach transformational leadership behaviour and the coach–athlete relationship have a moderate positive correlation with developmental experiences. Team success has no relationship with overall developmental experiences. The best predictor of developmental experiences is a combination of coach transformational leadership behaviour and the quality of the coach–athlete relationship. The most influential leadership behaviours are individual consideration, intellectual stimulation, and appropriate role modelling.
Discussion: Transformational leadership and the quality of the coach–athlete relationship may work synergistically to influence positive athlete outcomes within youth sports. Importantly, coaches who practise within the youth sport context are able to facilitate positive developmental outcomes from both team success and team failure by taking advantage of naturally occurring teachable moments. The best way to take advantage of these may be to engage in intellectual stimulation, individual consideration, and positive role modelling, in addition to facilitating positive, developmentally appropriate coach–athlete relationships. Future coach education programmes should incorporate relevant interpersonal and intrapersonal skills that allow youth sports coaches to engage in these behaviours. Longitudinal work is needed in order to make causal inferences between transformational leadership behaviour, the quality of the coach–athlete relationship, and positive youth development through sports.
The purpose of this study was to examine whether collective efficacy can mediate the association between (a) coach-athlete relationship and athlete satisfaction and (b) team cohesion and athlete satisfaction. The sample consisted of 135 Greek-Cypriot athletes who participated in interactive sports and responded to four questionnaires including the Collective Efficacy Questionnaire for Sport, Greek Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, Group Environment Questionnaire and three subscales of the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire. The results from a series of regression analyses indicated that dimensions of collective efficacy have the capacity to explain the association between the quality of the coach-athlete relationship and athlete satisfaction as well as between team cohesion and athlete satisfaction. Unity, preparation, and ability were dimensions of collective efficacy that appeared to be the best mediators. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
The purpose of the current paper is to present an integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise that is both specific and conceptually grounded in the coaching, teaching, positive psychology, and athletes' development literature. The article is organized into six sections. The first section is used to situate the proposed definition in the predominant conceptual models of coaching. The second, third, and fourth sections provide detailed discussion about each of the three components of the proposed definition of coaching effectiveness: (a) coaches' knowledge, (b) athletes' outcomes, and (c) coaching contexts. The proposed definition is presented in the fifth section along with a clarification of common terminology and guiding postulates. The final section includes implications for practice and research.
The purposes of this paper are twofold. First, we argue that the rationalistic assumptions on which dominant conceptions of the coaching process rest are rather unrealistic. We therefore hold that they have relatively limited potential either for a theoretical understanding of coaching or for guiding practitioners. Second, we tentatively offer the alternative metaphor of ‘orchestration’, derived from research on the management of complex change, as one starting point for developing a more realistic conception of coaching. We assert that this way of thinking about coaching has greater potential as a basis for future research and theorising, with the longer-term aim of informing efforts to improve the practice of coaching and of coach education.
The present study explored the construct validity of a Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level. Three hundred and nine club standard ultimate Frisbee players in the United Kingdom (mean age = 24.30 years, SD = 3.90) completed an adapted version of Hardy, Arthur, Jones, Shariff, Munnoch, Isaacs, and Allsopp et al.'s (in press) Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and the Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1985). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed evidence for the factorial and discriminant validity of the leadership inventory. Furthermore, results demonstrated that the leadership behaviors of fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting team work, high performance expectations, and individual consideration significantly predicted task cohesion; and fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting teamwork significantly predicted social cohesion. Performance level moderated these relationships. These results are discussed with reference to the conceptualization and measurement of transformational leadership, and how coaches’ leadership behaviors may influence cohesion depending on the level of athletes’ performance.
The study investigated the association between coach–athlete relationship inter-dependence and satisfaction level as a function of competition level, relationship length, and gender composition. A series of multilevel modelling analyses found that the associations between relationship interdependence and sport-related satisfaction were weaker for lower-level competitors than they were for higher-level competitors, as well as for short-term relationships compared to long-term relationships. We also found that all female dyads were more satisfied with training and instruction than other gender combinations. Moreover, the associations between relationship interdependence and sport-related satisfaction were weaker for female coach-male athlete dyads than they were for other gender combination dyads. The findings and their implications for theory and practice are discussed.
In an attempt to investigate the nature of the coach-athlete relationship in a systematic way, Jowett and colleagues (e.g., Jowett & Cockerill, in press; Jowett & Meek, 2000a) employed the interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Coorientation, and Complementarity (3 Cs) to reflect coaches’ and athletes’ emotions, cognitions, and behaviors respectively. This study utilized the 3 Cs in order to examine the nature of a single typical coach-athlete dyad that experiences interpersonal conflict. The dyad was interviewed and their responses were content analyzed. The analysis revealed a marked difference in the coach’s and athlete’s perceptions about their athletic relationship and areas of emotional isolation, disagreements, and incompatibility. The findings are discussed within the 3 Cs model.
In light of the paucity of research addressing the critical concerns of social interaction at the micro level of the coaching process, this study aimed to generate an in-depth understanding of the coaching behaviours utilized by a top-level English football coach. A mixed-method approach was used to not only identify the pedagogical behaviours used by the subject in the practice environment, but to also generate an in-depth insight into the rationales that underpinned their use. Using the concepts of 'social role', 'power' and 'the presentation of the self' [E. Goffman (1959) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, Doubleday)] to analyse the data, it is suggested that the subject's coaching practice was influenced by his perceived need to establish a strong social bond between himself and his players; a bond founded on the players' respect for his professional knowledge and personal manner.
Background: Despite an increasing recognition of the existence of a process of coaching, and a resulting increase in research activity, there remains a lack of a clear conceptual base for sports coaching. This situation has left coaching without a clear set of concepts and principles that reflect coaching practice. Purpose: The aim of this paper is to critically examine current conceptualisations of the coaching process, principally in terms of how they have been generated and their contribution to coaching knowledge. By exploring models for (idealistic representations) and of (empirically based) the coaching process, this paper examines the model's nature and conceptual underpinnings, in an attempt to position them within a broader framework of understanding coaching and the coaching process. Conclusions: The analysis suggests that the current set of models result in a representation of the coaching process that is often reduced in complexity and scale, and the essential social and cultural elements of the process are often underplayed. This is particularly illustrated through examining in-situ models of coaching practice, which identify coaching as a complex, interrelated and inter-dependent process that is firmly embedded within specific social and cultural contexts. Contribution of Research: Because of the inherent complexity of the coaching process, it is argued that the contextual purpose, particularities, and subjectivities of coaching must be examined before guidelines of recommended practice can be made.
Rosenbaum's (1986) interesting attempt to demonstrate the irrelevance of similar attitudes is unsuccessful for several reasons. In three of the four attraction experiments he conducted, similar-attitude conditions were not compared with neutral control conditions as required, but instead they were compared with positive trait adjective conditions. In addition, it is not possible to create a no-attitude "control" condition because people assume a high level of self–other similarity even when the other person has relatively negative characteristics. Thus, the comparison of a similar-attitude condition with an assumed similar-attitude condition does not provide an adequate test of his hypothesis. Further, the quantitative aspects of similar and dissimilar attitudes, physical attractiveness, occupation, trait descriptions, and political affiliation have been ignored. When the quantitative aspects are considered, it is shown that Rosenbaum's obtained values do not differ from those predicted by the attraction model. Altogether, his attraction experiments and those using a learning paradigm do not contain the conditions necessary to test the proposition that similarity has no important consequence. Appropriate designs are suggested in order to provide such tests. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The coach–athlete relationship has been purported to be shaped by coaches’ and athletes’ self-perceptions (e.g., I trust my coach/athlete) and metaperceptions (e.g., My coach/athlete trusts me) of closeness, commitment, and complementarity (3Cs). The development of the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q; S. Jowett & N. Ntoumanis, 2004) has enabled the assessment of coaches’ and athletes’ self-perceptions of the relationship as defined by the 3Cs. The author conducted 2 studies to examine the factor structure and criterion-related validity of the CART-Q when its items are worded to express metaperceptions. In the 1st study, confirmatory factor analyses employing a sample of athletes (n = 201) supported the validity of a 3-dimensional model in which the factors were separate but correlated for metacloseness, metacommitment, and metacomplementarity. The 2nd study provided further evidence of validity when the 3 factors were examined relative to criterion variables with 2 independent samples: athletes (n = 189) and coaches (n = 138). These results highlight that the conceptual model from which the CART-Q was developed captures the relationship quality through athletes’ and coaches’ feelings (closeness), thoughts (commitment), and behaviors (complementarity). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Used an expert system approach to identify and conceptualize the knowledge of 17 Canadian expert high-performance gymnastic coaches. The knowledge elicitation process consisted of open-ended questions and various questioning methods to unveil, explore, and prove important information about coaching. Data were analyzed following the procedures of grounded theory. The inductive analysis process allowed the meaning units of the interview transcripts to be regrouped into properties, categories, and components. The components emerging from the analysis consisted of (1) competition, (2) training, (3) organization, (4) coach's personal characteristics, (5) gymnast's personal characteristics and level of development, and (6) contextual factors. These components were further developed into a model representing coaches' knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined the extent to which athletes' perceptions of their relationship with their coach add to the prediction of team cohesion beyond what is predicted by perceptions of coach leadership. Four self-report instruments that measure perceptions of group cohesion, coach leadership, and the nature of coach-athlete relationships were completed by 111 university athletes. Multiple regression analyses revealed the variance accounted for by the hierarchically ordered sets of variables in task and social cohesion. Overall, the results revealed that leadership variables predicted more variance in task and social cohesion when relationship variables were included. Moreover, leadership and relationship variables were shown to be better and stronger predictors of task cohesion (R² = .34) than social cohesion (R² = .15). Limitations and future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
abStract The quality of the coach-athlete relationship can be affected by multiple factors. These factors include physical in terms of performance, psychological in terms of motivation, social in terms of "significant others," and environmental in terms of cul-ture. This study explores the impact of race/ethnicity on the coach-athlete relation-ship by utilizing a qualitative research design. A semi-structured interview schedule was developed to examine the meaning twelve (12) black soccer players ascribe to the athletic relationship with their respective white coaches. Analysis revealed that a number of participants viewed the ethnic background as a meaningful and influential factor for the relationship which they had developed with their coaches in two ways: content and intensity of bond. Participants' narratives revealed that the opportunity to be coached by a black coach would have allowed a higher degree of communication exchange and empathy. The results are discussed in relation to previous literature.
During this study, 10 expert coaches were interviewed to examine their views on aspects of their individual coaching practice. Four themes emerged from the interviews: (a) the long-term approach, (b) the authentic coaching environment, (c) creating a learning environment, and (d) the quality and quantity of training sessions. These coaches were consistent in their attempts to facilitate learning experiences for the athletes, while setting high standards in both training and competition. The study's findings show that expert coaches have to orchestrate a large number of variables when planning and executing a training session, and their success depends on their coaching knowledge and their skill at contextualizing the necessary components for specific situations.
Increasingly the professional development literature in sports coaching encourages coaches to coach holistically. Yet the phrase holistic coaching is mired in ambiguity and has the potential to become meaningless. The aims of this article are to explore the relationship between holism, humanistic psychology, humanism and sports coaching, and to pose some challenges, which could support the field to move beyond the influence of humanistic psychology. Multi-Science Publishing
The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.
The purpose of the present study was to develop and validate a self-report instrument that measures the nature of the coach-athlete relationship. Jowett et al.'s (Jowett & Meek, 2000; Jowett, in press) qualitative case studies and relevant literature were used to generate items for an instrument that measures affective, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of the coach-athlete relationship. Two studies were carried out in an attempt to assess content, predictive, and construct validity, as well as internal consistency, of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q), using two independent British samples. Principal component analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were used to reduce the number of items, identify principal components, and confirm the latent structure of the CART-Q. Results supported the multidimensional nature of the coach-athlete relationship. The latent structure of the CART-Q was underlined by the latent variables of coaches' and athletes' Closeness (emotions), Commitment (cognitions), and Complementarity (behaviors).
Current research in coaching development infers that coaching is predominantly a decision-making process. The same and other research is not, however, informing the coaching development process due to a lack of a big picture approach. Consequently, there is a need for a model of coaching. In this paper, we offer such a model in the form of a schematic that reflects the coaching process from both a content and information-processing stance. To assess the validity of the schematic, 16 expert coaches were interviewed to elicit a complete description of their coaching process. The coaches were then shown a copy of the schematic and asked to comment on its design and content with respect to its accuracy in reflecting their coaching process. Following analysis of the interview, six general categories emerged: Roles, Goals, Typical Actions, Required Knowledge, Support for the Schematic, and Factors Influencing Development. The first four categories clearly displayed an implicit support for the schematic. Furthermore, all coaches offered explicit support for the schematic. Such strong support confirmed that the schematic was valid and could form the basis of focused interventions in coaching development.
The importance of the role of the relationship between the coach and the individual has been emphasised in the literatures of both sports coaching and executive coaching. Two relationship models from the sport psychology and coaching psychology domains respectively that share an assumption of the centrality of the relationship to the coaching process; that have been used in research to assess associations with important outcomes; and share similarities at conceptual, operational and measurement levels were compared and contrasted. Both models highlight affective ties of closeness and bond for effective coaching outcome, and reflected potential synergies in the area of co-operation, as well as possibly diverging on their emphasis on the chronological sequence of the development of bond in relation to other aspects of the relationship. It is concluded that cross-fertilisation of ideas across psychological disciplines and future work with both models may be useful in contributing to the extant literature in their own and the other’s domain in promoting our understanding of the purposive and collaborative work of coaching and in establishing, developing and maintaining effective and successful relationships.
Although social and personal relationships are vital for productivity, health and wellbeing, conflict is inevitable and is likely to cause upset and hurt feelings as well as anxiety and distrust. Despite the potentially central role of interpersonal conflict in sport, researchers have yet to pay concerted attention to exploring the nature of conflict, its antecedents and consequences. Following a thorough literature search 80 research papers were identified, of which only a small number (6) studied interpersonal conflict directly, most captured dysfunctional interpersonal processes such as breakdown of communication. The current review aims to provide a critical summary of the existing literature around the psychological construct of interpersonal conflict, including its antecedents, management strategies and outcomes within the context of coach–athlete relationships as well as other relational contexts in sport. Based on the relevant literature, a framework of interpersonal conflict is proposed, which includes a specific focus on a key dyad within sport coaching – namely the coach–athlete dyad. Future research directions and potential practical implications for sport psychology consultants, coach educators, coaches and athletes as well as other stakeholders are discussed.
The present study examined the influence of personality traits on the quality of the Chinese coach–athlete relationship and satisfaction through a dyadic research design. A total of 350 coach–athlete dyads completed a self-report instrument that assessed personality traits, as well as perceptions of relationship quality and satisfaction with training. Results revealed that: (a) actor effects (i.e., actor's personality will predict his or her own perceptions of relationship quality) of personality traits, namely, conscientiousness, extroversion, and neuroticism, on both coaches' and athletes' perceptions of relationship quality and (b) partner effects (an actor's own personality will predict his or her partner's perceptions of relationship quality) of only athletes' personality, namely, conscientiousness, extroversion, and neuroticism, on their coaches' perceptions of relationship quality. The findings suggested that each relationship member's personality trait contributed independently to relationship quality, and both actor and partner effects of the relationship quality on satisfaction with training were found to be significant. In Chinese sports culture, there presents a unique dynamics of personality and relationship quality among coach–athlete dyad.
This paper explores my "sense making" when a male cross-country runner I was coaching performed below expectation. My initial understanding of his poor performance was to blame him for "lacking" the appropriate mental toughness. As a result, I located the "problem" within him and subsequently ignored many of my own taken-for-granted coaching practices as perhaps contributing to his poor performance. In this paper, I provide an alternative reading of my judgement of this athlete's poor performance through Michel Foucault's theory of disciplinary power. I conclude by suggesting that many everyday coaching practices may have a number of "hidden" or problematic consequences attached to them that coaches should consider in an effort to evaluate the effectiveness of their coaching and to enhance their athletes' performances.
Grounded in self-determination theory, this study aimed to examine the links of the social environment, as defined by coach interpersonal behaviors and coach-athlete relationships, with athletes' psychological need satisfaction and indexes of well-being. Athletes (N = 300) completed a multi-section questionnaire assessing the study variables. Bootstrap mediation analysis highlighted significant indirect effects whereby the competence need mediated associations between the social environment of coaching and athletes' vitality, negative affect, and physical self-concept (defined as skillfulness and performance). Findings support theoretical assumptions and highlight that athletes' perceptions of what coaches do, and how they relate, are important to their psychological needs satisfaction and optimal functioning.
Background: A number of countries have heavily invested in the provision of large scale coach education programmes, often framed by elaborate qualification frameworks. Despite this investment, scant research has been conducted on coach education programmes. Given the limited amount of literature on coach education, and the relatively recent emergence of literature that foregrounds the educational aspect of the coaching process, it is probably not surprising that the concept of curriculum has received scant attention despite the increasing interest in pedagogy amongst members of the sport coaching community.Setting: In the middle of 2000, a Ministerial Taskforce on Sport, Fitness and Leisure was established to examine the structure of New Zealand sport. In 2001, one of the ‘actions’ stemming from the Ministerial Taskforce was the restructuring of the sport, leisure and fitness sectors, resulting in the establishment of Sport and Recreation New Zealand (SPARC). One mandate given to SPARC was to review and upgrade coaching practice and resourcing. Subsequently, SPARC published two policy documents: The New Zealand Coaching Strategy and the Coach Development Framework (CDF).Purpose: The purpose of the article is two-fold; first to report on an analysis of the language used in The New Zealand Coaching Strategy and the Coach Development Framework and second, to explain why particular language was used.Methods and analysis: The first method was a text analysis, which was used to analyse The New Zealand Coaching Strategy and the Coach Development Framework. The second method was interviewing, which was conducted with the members of the working party involved in designing the CDF to gain insight into why particular language was used.Findings: We provide examples that demonstrate how The New Zealand Coaching Strategy and the Coach Development Framework reflect, or not, a paradigmatic shift in the conceptualisation of educating coaches in the New Zealand context. The examples specifically focus on a shift from coach education to coach development, from generic courses for all coaches to coaching communities, and from formalised accreditation to the provision of learning opportunities and experiences.Conclusion: Drawing on empirical examples from the above documents, and the interview texts from the members of the working party, we contend there has been a paradigm shift in the coach education sector in New Zealand because there has been a move (at least at policy level) from an accredited and certified, standardised programme, to an ongoing professional development process informed by an applied athlete-centred philosophy.
In chapter 6, Ronald Smith and Frank Smoll present a cogent description of the work on the mediational model of coach leadership. The fundamental assumption of the model is that coaches' actual behaviors affect athletes' thoughts and feelings through the athletes' recall and understanding of their coaches' behaviors. The characteristics and processes that influence coaches' behaviors and mediate their effects on athletes are delineated in detail. The model has guided considerable research to date; research findings are discussed and suggestions for further research are put forward. Smith and Smoll conclude by highlighting potential practical implications of current research efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The study examined the independent and combined effects of coach leadership and coaching relationships on team efficacy. A total of 150 sport performers from football teams across a range of competitive levels completed a multisection self-report instrument to assess their individual perceptions of the level of collective efficacy, the type of coach leadership, and the quality of the coach-athlete relationship. Multiple regression analyses revealed that perceptions of both coach leadership and the coach-athlete relationship predicted variance in team efficacy. Overall, the findings suggest that the quality of coach-athlete relationships added to the prediction of individuals' collective efficacy beyond what was predicted by coaches' behaviors of leadership alone. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.
The purpose of this concept/review article is to critically discuss the application of sports coaching leadership models to coaching practice. The focus of the discussion will be on the coherence and impact of the numerous models in the current literature, and the accumulated impact that they have on practitioners. This discussion will be framed in current conceptions of sports coaching and expected athlete outcomes. This article can serve an important role in the continuing dialogue about the essence of sports leadership; particularly in relation to how it is defined, how it is measured, and how the leadership literature can be applied in the field.
This study investigated a motivational sequence hypothesizing relationships between athletes' meta-perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship, achievement goals, and intrinsic motivation. Participants (N = 194) completed a multi-sectional questionnaire assessing the targeted variables. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that athletes who viewed their coaches to be more cooperative, committed, and close in their relationships were more likely to endorse a mastery-approach goal, and less likely to adopt a performance-avoidance goal. Subsequent findings confirmed the hypothesized positive relationship between a mastery-approach goal and intrinsic motivation. Finally, a mastery-approach goal was found to partially mediate the link between athletes' meta-perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship and intrinsic motivation. The results are discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical utility.
Objectives: To investigate the nature and significance of the athlete–coach relationship within the context of the interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Co-orientation, and Complementarity (three Cs).Method: Participants were 12 Olympic medallists (three females and nine males). Each participant had achieved at least one medal in the Olympic Games held between 1968 and 1988. An interview schedule was utilised that prompted former athletes’ responses to open-ended questions about their athletic relationship with their coach.Results: Feelings of Closeness, such as trust and respect, thoughts of Co-orientation, such as common goals, as well as complementary roles and tasks, marked the athletic relationships of the Olympic medallists. Despite the prevalence of the positive relational aspects, negative relational aspects, such as lack of emotional closeness and complementary resources, also emerged. The impact of the athlete–coach relationship on the success achieved became evident through the former athletes’ narratives and recollections.Conclusion: The nature of the athlete–coach relationship has an important role to play in the athlete’s development both as a performer and as a person. It is recommended that coach education programmes provide information that will assist coaches to develop effective relationships with their athletes.
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It provides an alternative thinking or an expanded view about coach
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