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Understanding Language Learning Strategies in Context: An Innovative Complexity-based Approach

Authors:
Rebecca Oxford at University of Alabama at Birmingham
Rebecca Oxford
Roberta Z. Lavine
Roberta Z. Lavine
Roberta Z. Lavine
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Carmen M. Amerstorfer at Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt
Carmen M. Amerstorfer
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Abstract

Some language learners see learning strategies merely as tricks for learning and miss the depth and meaning of these strategies. This chapter overturns any such limited views. It opens with characteristics of language learning strategies, explains contexts and complexity in relation to strategies, and discusses the value of imagination for understanding strategies. It offers procedures and guiding questions for helping language learners imaginatively grasp learning strategies via visually captivating photographs (e.g., a person on the moon, building blocks, a flower). The authors describe the strategy-awareness sessions they conducted in Poland, Turkey, Austria, and the U.S. Qualitative findings indicated positive participant responses and meaningful growth in strategy awareness. Interested teachers and researchers can use the same procedures, questions, and photographs, all of which are included on the homepage related to this book, and can add new images as well. The chapter ends with creative ideas for related research and for additional strategy awareness activities.
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Understanding Language Learning Strategies in Context: An Innovative,
Complexity-Based Approach
Rebecca L. Oxford, Roberta Z. Lavine, and Carmen M. Amerstorfer
Outline
This chapter presents an innovative, complexity-based approach to understanding LLS. They
are complex systems embedded in systems that are even more complex (Oxford 2017).
Understanding LLS in all their richness and complexity calls for imagination. The
contextualized, complex nature of LLS is the topic of part 1. Part 2 briefly focuses on the
importance of imagination in strategic learning. Part 3 introduces imaginative, strategy-related
photographs, provides guidelines for using them to help learners develop their strategy
awareness, and presents descriptions of several such sessions. Part 4, the conclusion, includes
a summary, a list of ideas for future research, and possible activities for the future.
Reference
Oxford, R. L., Lavine, R., & Amerstorfer, C. M. (2018). Understanding Language Learning
Strategies in Context: An Innovative, Complexity-Based Approach. In R. L. Oxford & C.
M. Amerstorfer (Eds.), Language Learning Strategies and Individual Learner
Characteristics: Situating Strategy Use in Diverse Contexts (pp. 5–29). London:
Bloomsbury.
... All chapters in Oxford's (1996c) books or in other co-edited books were excluded (e.g., Bedell & Oxford, 1996;Dreyer & Oxford, 1996;Hajer et al., 1996;Oxford, 1990dOxford, Lavine, Felkins et al., 1996;Oxford & Leaver, 1996;Oxford & Shearin, 1996). All chapters in peace books by Oxford (2013dOxford ( , 2014a Oxford (2023b) and Lin, McHugh et al. (2023) in Oxford and Olivero (2023), Oxford (2018c) in Oxford and Pawlak (2018) and Oxford, Lavine & Amerstorfer (2018) in were all excluded from the study. 2 Some research works (books, book chapters, and journal articles) were excluded from the study despite their innovativeness, differences in subject, and high quality, as we could not tabulate their full version from our online search. ...
Rebecca Oxford’s 50 Years of Contributions to Language Education and Related Fields: A Systematic Review
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2024
This article systematically reviews the quantity and quality of Rebecca L. Oxford's publications over five decades of research and publication in language education and related fields. The first section portrays Oxford's contributions in four thematic areas: language learning strategies, language teaching, psychology, and peace. For each theme, many of Oxford's publications and ideas are presented. The second section is an overview of her career achievements, such as books published, courses taught, and academic honors. The third and the fourth sections present the systematic review. Specifically, the third section explains in detail the methodology used by Panahi and Mohebbi for their systematic review of Oxford's work, while the fourth section presents results of the systematic review across 338 of her works (journal articles, book chapters, and books). Oxford's personal response is the last section. 1 Introduction Rebecca L. Oxford's achievements in research and publication over her 50-year career can be categorized according to four key themes: language learning strategies, language teaching, psychology, and peace. In each of these areas, Oxford has influenced the field of foreign and second language education and related fields. The quality and quantity of her work have attracted the attention of other scholars, who have expanded upon her work with their own
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... Language learners are often not completely aware of the practicality of language learning strategies, and they cannot exploit their full potential unless they receive proper instruction and utilize them appropriately and more widely (Dervić & Bećirović, 2019;Nyikos & Oxford, 1993;Oxford, 1990). Hence, strategies-based instruction has also captured research attention (Gunning & Oxford, 2014;Rubin et al., 2007) and some new instructional models have been proposed (Chamot & O'Malley, 1996;Cohen, 1998).However, although teachers play a prominent role in the process of strategy instruction, the learning process starts with the learners themselves, and varies according to learners' individual differences, such as age, gender, education, and other factors that have been proven to affect strategy usage and the learning process (Oxford et al., 2018). ...
Exploring the Relationship Between Language Learning Strategies, Academic Achievement, Grade Level, and Gender
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2021
Learning efficacy can be substantially improved through the frequent use of learning strategies, whose practicality has been confirmed through extensive research. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to contribute to this wealth of research by determining whether learning strategies are significant predictors of students' achievement in learning English as a foreign language (EFL) as well as by exploring strategy awareness and variations in strategy use by gender, grade level, and overall grade point average (GPA) among 206 high school students. The results indicated that cognitive strategies are significant positive predictors, while memory and affective strategies are significant negative predictors of students' achievement in foreign language learning. Moreover, the findings revealed a significant impact of overall GPA and an insignificant impact of gender and grade level on the use of strategy subtypes, with the most frequently used strategies being metacognitive and the least frequently used being affective strategies. Furthermore, this research highlights the importance of incorporating strategies-based instruction methods into foreign language curriculums in the Bosnian context and also aims to raise teachers' awareness of the importance of their application in the classroom milieu.
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... The findings from this study underscore the complexity of strategy use, especially given that the literature has tended to paint a rather simplistic picture (for exceptions, see also Amerstorfer, 2020;Cohen & Wang, 2018;Griffiths, 2018;Oxford et al., 2018). Fortunately, in the last few years, studies have begun to appear with a focus on learners' efforts to fine-tune their comprehension of vocabulary (Cohen & Wang, 2018. ...
Investigating Learner Engagement in Strategy Instruction Focused on Vocabulary for Academic Writing: A Case Study
Article
  • Apr 2021
  • System
This paper describes a close-up investigation of one advanced language learner’s interaction with strategy instruction (SI) materials specially designed to enhance efforts to fine-tune comprehension of academic writing vocabulary. The learner provided introspective and retrospective verbal report data, log entries, and completed a measure of learning style. The results showed that engaging in eight SI sessions heightened the learner’s awareness of (1) the benefits of being strategic in accessing available resources to assist her in fine-tuning academic vocabulary, (2) the moment-by-moment fluctuation of strategy functions (i.e., metacognitive, cognitive, social, affective), and (3) how her learning style preferences came into play when using selected strategies. In particular, the data underscored the value of the practical suggestions and tips provided by SI materials for enhancing her ability to plan and reflect on strategy use. The data also revealed that her awareness of both style-matching and style-stretching informed her selection and use of strategies. The implications for individualized approaches to the implementation of SI are discussed.
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... The findings of this meta-analysis show an overall medium effect size of English language teaching practices on language outcomes. Language learning strategies have the largest effect size on language outcomes since they are purposeful mental actions that the learner creatively employs to meet learning-related needs, used consciously, and can be taught to help learners to develop self-regulation, complete L2 tasks and move toward L2 proficiency (Oxford et al., 2018). When learners are encouraged to use cognitive, metacognitive, and sociocognitive strategies, they begin to think about thinking, plan, monitor and evaluate their learning. ...
Evidence-Based Practices of English Language Teaching: A Meta-Analysis of Meta-Analyses
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2020
This meta-analysis aims at investigating the impact of English language teaching practices on language outcomes. The literature search yielded 90 meta-analyses that were published between January, 1995 and December, 2019. The current study analyzed 90 meta-analysis and these studies comprised 3496 studies, 7870 effect sizes and nearly 700,000 students. Three moderator variables were examined: year of publication, setting and educational level. The results showed that a) language learning strategies had medium impact on language outcomes in general and generated the largest impact on speaking (d=0.90), b) technology-based language learning had medium impact on language outcomes in general and generated the largest impact on vocabulary (d=0.98), c) explicit instruction had medium impact on language outcomes in general and generated the largest impact on grammar (d=1.26), d) mobile-based language learning had small impact on language outcomes in general and generated the largest impact on listening (d=0.73), and e) setting and educational level significantly moderated the impact of teaching practices on language outcomes. The findings were discussed and implication and future research were proposed.
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... Much like Murray and Lamb's (2018) argument for complexity thinking regarding learning spaces and learning systems, the field of learning strategies has begun to move in a similar direction, embracing complexity (e.g. Oxford, 2017;Oxford, Lavine, Amerstorfer, 2018). This view conceptualizes strategies as nested systems, with strategy usage affecting and being affected by individual differences and contextual factors. ...
Exploring Facilitative and Debilitative Spaces: A Shift in Focus from Classrooms to Learning Systems
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2019
This is a work-in-progress paper published in Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, "Special Issue: Papers from the Third Psychology of Language Learning Conference". It presents an updated account of my ideas regarding learning spaces as presented at the PLL3 conference in Tokyo, June 7-10, 2018. I discuss my original thought process and then how my thinking has changed since the original presentation. I also describe where I see this line of work going, if, as is the nature of most side projects, it goes anywhere at all.
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... 424). This theoretical development is also supported by Oxford (2017) and Oxford, Lavine, and Amerstorfer (2018). ...
Conceptual issues in strategy research: Examining the roles of teachers and students in formal education settings
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2019
This article provides an overview of the field of language learning strategies, focusing on definitional and conceptual issues as they relate to strategy use in formal education settings. The article first provides evidence of the conflation of language learning strategies with concepts related to self-directedness. It provides evidence via a corpus-based analysis of published papers over time to illustrate that the field has moved away from instructed settings and towards a view of learner agency and self-regulation. We argue that this is a dangerous trend for language education researchers, as current definitions minimize the role of the teacher and classroom contexts in influencing strategic behavior in their students. A conceptualization and subsequent definition that does not stigmatize or exclude learners who are not self-directed, for whatever reason(s), is crucial to advance the field. As a solution, we propose that self-regulation be defined as a dynamic characteristic of learning strategies in order to allow for other-regulated strategies in research. Theorizing the interplay of the self and strategies on a continuum helps to emphasize the dynamic processes of strategic development, and the roles teachers and students in instructed settings can play in this process.
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On the Role of English as a Foreign Language Learners’ Individual Differences in Their Use of Grammar Learning Strategies
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2022
As the use of strategies facilitates the tedious process of language learning, a multitude of studies have been conducted on language learning strategies and their educational consequences. Nonetheless, grammar learning strategies (GLSs) have not been widely studied. Moreover, no review study has been carried out to illustrate the role of individual differences in the use of GLSs. To address the existing gaps, the present review study intends to explain the role of English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ individual differences (i.e., desire to learn a second language, motivation, and willingness to communicate) in their employment of GLSs. The favorable impact of individual difference variables on grammar learning strategy use was proved using the theoretical and empirical evidence. Future research directions and pedagogical implications are also discussed.
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Investigating language learning strategies: Prospects, pitfalls and challenges
Article
  • Sep 2019
  • LANG TEACH RES
Major advances have been made in research on language learning strategies (LLS) since it was triggered by good language learner studies (e.g. Rubin, 1975). Numerous accounts of strategy use have been compiled, key classifications have been proposed, some progress has been made towards furthering our understanding of the complex relationship between LLS use and attainment, an array of factors impacting strategy use has been investigated, some evidence has been gathered for the beneficial role of strategies-based instruction, and new data collection tools have been developed (see e.g. Cohen, 2011; Cohen & Griffiths, 2015; Cohen & Macaro, 2007; Griffiths, 2018, 2019; Griffiths & Oxford, 2014; Oxford, 2017; Oxford & Amerstorfer, 2018; Pawlak, 2011; Pawlak & Oxford, 2018). While acute problems related to the definition of LLS, their characteristics, their separation from regular learning activities or their actual utility have surely not disappeared, some promising solutions have been proposed (Griffiths, 2018; Oxford, 2017) and calls to abandon the concept have been countered (Dörnyei, 2005). This said, a question arises as to what can be done to move the field forward. Following a brief overview of existing research, the article tackles this issue with respect to the following areas: (1) foci of future research, (2) methodological choices, and (3) consideration of how research findings can inform pedagogy.
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Past its expiry date? The SILL in modern mixed-methods strategy research
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2018
Has the Strategy inventory for language learning (SILL) passed its expiry date? The SILL (Oxford, 1990) was designed as a self-evaluation tool to measure the frequency of language learning strategies used by foreign and second language (L2) learners. With simple mathematics, learners can analyze their strategy preferences overall and in six categories (i.e., memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies). Diverging from its original purpose, the SILL became the most popular instrument in LLS research, which brought widespread acclaim but also criticism. This article explains what makes the SILL an extraordinary tool for learners, teachers, and researchers and how it can be adapted to suit specific contexts and the demands of a modern world. An example of how the SILL can be integrated into mixed-methods research demonstrates how the instrument can fulfil additional purposes to those originally intended. Despite its naturally quantitative orientation, the SILL contributed to the acquisition of rich qualitative information, which enabled a holistic view of five individual L2 learners. In addition to new insights about strategic L2 learning, the study attests that the SILL has not expired yet, but perhaps needs a modern touch, for instance, in the form of adaptation or combination with other research methods and the inclusion of strategies for learning language with technology.
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