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Inclusive education
Lorna Dreyer
Chapter
26
Introduction
‘Inclusive education’ has become a commonly used buzz phrase. Inclusive education
specically focuses on inclusion in education and educational institutions. The two
most fundamental concerns in education today are:
1. the quest for excellence in teaching
2. the intensive eort to oer equal opportunities for all learners.
It is clear that the traditional understanding of teaching is becoming obsolete in
the face of increasing numbers of learners from diverse cultural and linguistic
backgrounds with dierent abilities and educational needs in today’s classrooms.
Teachers are challenged to grow and adapt to the demands of schooling for the 21st
century and beyond.
This chapter covers the evolution of the theoretical and philosophical
underpinning towards inclusive education to demonstrate the relationship between
rhetoric and paradigm shift. This chapter also discusses a framework for establishing
inclusive schools as well as strategies to provide meaningful access and participation
in an inclusive classroom. This chapter discusses:
the historical roots of inclusive education
the evolution of the theoretical and philosophical underpinning towards inclusive
education
the relationship between rhetoric and shifting paradigms
how one can plan for inclusive education at a whole-school level as well as within
a class.
Inclusive education and inclusive schools
In The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, the
concept of an inclusive school is described as follows:
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The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children should learn
together, wherever possible, regardless of any diculties or dierences they may
have. Inclusive schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their
students, accommodating both dierent styles and rates of learning and ensuring
quality education to all through appropriate curricula, organizational arrangements,
teaching strategies, resource use and partnerships with their communities. There
should be a continuum of support and services to match the continuum of special
needs encountered in every school. (UNESCO & MES, 1994: 11–12)
The following case study provides the context for understanding inclusive
education and its practical implementation in today’s classrooms.
Perseverance Primary School is situated between a low- and a middle-class residential area.
Since about 2005 the school has accepted learners from different socio-economic and linguistic
backgrounds and with different types of learning needs. Recently, there has been an increase of
learners from neighbouring countries. The school has an itinerant learning support teacher that
they share with a nearby school. Because the closest special school is located over 200 km away,
the Department of Education (DoE) established a unit class to cater for learners with high support
needs.
The language of learning and teaching (LOLT) is English. However, for almost 65% of the learner
population, English is a second or third language. The learner population further consists of
various cultural, racial and religious groupings. In all the classes there are learners who are on
different levels of cognitive development. Most of the teachers are well trained. While some staff
members are in favour of the inclusive ethos and character of the school, some still struggle with
their own biases and prejudices.
The typical classroom at Perseverance Primary is quite diverse. The following are descriptions of
some of the learners:
• Sandy, in Grade 3, needs space for her wheelchair. She was left paralysed from her waist
down after a motorcar accident when she was in Grade 1. The occupational therapist at the
local hospital gave her mother a programme to follow at home. Her parents were very happy
when the school made adjustments to accommodate Sandy after the accident.
• Peter, in Grade 2, has epilepsy. Although he uses medication that controls the disease, there
are times that he experiences grand-mal seizures.
• Thembi and Ronaldo, both in Grade 1, have visual impairments.
• Anna, currently in Grade 4, developed a hearing impairment as result of meningitis as a baby.
She has a cochlea implant to support her hearing.
• Also in the Grade 4 class is Sipho, who was diagnosed with ADHD.
• Neo has recently immigrated from Zimbabwe to South African with his parents. He joined the
school at the beginning of the second term. English is his second language and he does not
speak or understand Afrikaans, which is the school’s first additional language (FAL). He is a
friendly but shy 12-year-old who did well at school in his home country.
Case study: An inclusive school
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Chapter 26 Inclusive education
The school requires every teacher to complete a learner profile for each learner and identify the
learner’s needs. If necessary, the teacher, in collaboration with the school-based support team
(SBST) has to conduct a holistic assessment using the Screening, Identification and Support
(SIAS) document. An individual support plan (ISP) is then developed to suit each learner’s specific
strengths and needs.
A historical overview
In order to respond appropriately to the challenges teachers are faced with in an
inclusive education system, it is important to understand the historical roots and the
evolution of inclusive education both at international and national level.
The international movement towards inclusive education
Inclusive education has its roots in the disability movement. Table 26.1 is a summary
of some key declarations and conventions that recognise the right to education for all
and, as such, form key milestones in the journey towards inclusive education.
Table 26.1: Key international milestones towards inclusive education
Year Milestone declarations and conventions
1948 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 26)
1966 The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
1982 The World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons
1989 The Convention on the Rights of the Child
1990 The Jomtien World Conference on Education for All (EFA)
1993 Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities
1994 The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education
2000 The World Education Forum, Dakar
2006 The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO
& MES, 1994), which was adopted at an international conference in Salamanca,
Spain, in 1994, is a culmination of several incentives to recognise the human rights
of persons with disabilities. It is a strategy to include learners with special educational
needs in mainstream education by responding to the needs of individual learners.
Therefore the focus, particularly in the more auent countries, is on the provision of
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a continuum of support services (Dreyer, 2008). It specically states that ‘[i]nclusion
and participation are essential to human dignity and to the enjoyment and exercising
of human rights’ (UNESCO, 1999: 7). It further recognises (UNESCO & MES,
1994):
the right to education as a universal and fundamental human right
that schools with an inclusive orientation are more inclined to combat
discrimination and achieve education for all
that prioritising inclusive education policies will ensure greater eort is invested
in education for all.
Internationally, inclusive education has had a signicant impact on policy, research
and practice. Debates on inclusive education have consequently generated diverse
interpretations, denitions and responses across the world. According to Mitchell,
‘inclusive education exists in historical contexts in which vestiges of older beliefs co-
exist with newer beliefs’ (2005: 13). Nonetheless, inclusive education has grown to
be much more than the mere acceptance of learners with disabilities into mainstream
schools. It is accepted that there may be other barriers, such as age, gender, ethnicity,
language, class or HIV status, that impact on learners’ access to education. This broader
understanding of inclusive education has a signicant impact on the transformation
of entire educational systems (Artiles, Harris-Murri & Rostenberg, 2006).
Education for All
The rst world conference on EFA was held in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990. The
focus was on acknowledging that ‘large numbers of vulnerable and marginalized groups
of learners were excluded from education systems worldwide’ (Miles & Singal, 2008:
5). It is thus not just children with disabilities that are considered here, but also children
marginalised as a result of poverty, geographic location, culture, war, and so forth.
In the year 2000, the Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting our
Collective Commitments was adopted by the World Education Forum held in Dakar.
The goal was to provide every child with primary school education by 2015. This
international commitment to provide quality primary education to all is grounded
in a human rights perspective. It is also based on the commonly held belief that
education is essential to individual well-being and national development. Inclusive
education has consequently become a strategy to provide EFA (Peters, 2004).
The South African move towards inclusive education
The debate on inclusive education in South Africa is intricately linked to the
processes of democratisation and social restructuring. The post-apartheid era has
been characterised by a strong aspiration to establish a democracy in which human
dignity, freedom and equality are recognised. The international move towards
inclusive education has inevitably profoundly inuenced educational transformation
in South Africa.
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Chapter 26 Inclusive education
Following the international trend, the move towards inclusive education in South
Africa too started within the special needs debate. The National Commission on
Special Needs in Education and Training (NCSNET) and the National Committee
on Education Support Services (NCESS) were appointed by the Ministry of
Education in 1996. Their mandate was to conduct intensive research with a view
to provide services that would benet all South Africans. These two bodies joined
forces to research ways to address the diverse needs of learners within the whole
education system.
The work of the NCSNET and NCESS culminated in a report entitled Quality
Education for All: Overcoming barriers to learning and development (DoE, 1997b). In this
report it is recognised that the former separate education systems (‘special’ and
‘ordinary’) needed to be integrated to provide one unied education system in
order to acknowledge and respond to the diverse needs of all learners (DoE, 1997b).
However, inclusive education, as part of the broader political reform in the South
African context, is much more than the restructuring of special education. Inclusive
education is regarded as a moral issue of human rights and values and therefore an
integral part of creating an inclusive society as a whole. Evidently this also meant that,
in addition to the unication of special and mainstream education, the racially and
ethnically segregated education systems of the apartheid era had to be unied too.
Table 26.2: A synopsis of some policy and policy-shaping documents toward inclusive education
in South Africa
Year Documents/developments
The
period
before
1994
The country’s education systems were governed by separate pieces of legislation
based on education services for the four population groups as defined under the
1950 Population Registration Act.
The schooling system was further fragmented by separate legislation governing a
‘mainstream’ system and a secondary, ‘specialised’ system.
1993 The National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI) (1992): Framework Report and Final
Summaries. A project of the National Education Co-ordinating Committee.
1995 The White Paper on Education and Training (DoE, 1995):
provided a comprehensive framework for the transformation of the education
system into single system
outlined principles based on fundamental human rights and non-discriminatory
practices in education
recognised the inequalities experienced by learners with special needs and the
importance of providing education support services.
1996 The South African Schools Act, 84 of 1996, ended the system of separate schooling
on the basis of race and created a single system for all learners.
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Year Documents/developments
The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa:
recognised basic human rights for all citizens, such as the right to basic
education, including adult basic education
also included an equality clause that recognises the need for measures to address
previous inequalities and protects citizens from unfair discrimination on a number
of grounds, including disability.
1997 The Integrated National Disability Strategy (DoE, 1997a):
rejected the traditional ‘medical model’ of disability and argued for a social model
which recognises disability as a human right and development issues
provided a framework for the changes needed in all areas of government
responsibility, including the provision of education support services and
employment and training opportunities for learners with disabilities
Quality Education for All: Overcoming barriers to learning and development, a report by
the NCSNET and NCESS (DoE, 1997b) outlined steps towards the restructuring of the
education system to meet the full range of diverse needs within a single system.
2001 The Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education — Building an inclusive
education and training system (DoE, 2001):
provided a framework for the building of an inclusive education and training
system
provided conceptual and operational guidelines for the implementation of inclusive
education.
2005 Various working documents (published by the Department of Basic Education [DBE])
transpired from The Education White Paper 6, including:
Conceptual and Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of Inclusive
Education:
district-based support teams
full-service schools
Draft National Strategy on SIAS
Guidelines for Inclusive Learning Programmes.
2009 Guidelines for Full-service/Inclusive schools
2010 Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Learning
2014 Policy on SIAS
The Education White Paper 6 is the policy on which inclusive education in South
Africa is built. The national vision for building an inclusive education and training
system is stated as follows:
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Chapter 26 Inclusive education
[T]he education and training system should promote education for all and foster the
development of inclusive and supportive centres of learning that would enable all
learners to participate actively in the education process so that they could develop
and extend their potential and participate as equal members of society. (DoE, 2001: 5)
According to the Education White Paper 6, the principles that guide the establishment
of an inclusive education system are:
[…] acceptance of principles and values contained in the Constitution and
White Papers on Education and Training; human rights and social justice for all
learners; participation and social integration; equal access to a single, inclusive
education system; access to the curriculum, equity and redress; community
responsiveness; and cost-eectiveness. (DoE, 2001: 5)
It is further acknowledged that dierent learning needs may arise from intrinsic
as well as systemic and societal factors. According to the Education White Paper 6,
barriers to learning and development in education are identied as the following:
negative attitudes to and stereotyping of dierence
an inexible curriculum
inappropriate languages or language of learning and teaching
inappropriate communication
inaccessible and unsafe built environments
inappropriate and inadequate support services
inadequate policies and legislation
the non-recognition and non-involvement of parents
inadequately and inappropriately trained education managers and educators.
(DoE, 2001: 7)
Theoretical underpinnings
Internationally, paradigms (shared worldviews) on learners who experience learning
and developmental diculties have undergone major changes in the past decades.
These conicting paradigms progressed from a segregated, medical model approach
to an inclusive, social model, where human rights and social justice are central in
education and support:
The medical model focuses on the individual decit theory. It categorises and
locates decits (problems) within the learner and prescribes curative interventions
such as therapy, medicine, surgery or special treatment (such as adapting the
curriculum), which is then delivered within a separate class (Peters, 2004). It
follows a typical patient-diagnosis-treatment sequence in order to get the learner
to function ‘normally’. This paradigm professionalises disability and ‘dierence’
to the extent that ordinary mainstream teachers do not perceive themselves as
competent or qualied to teach learners with diverse educational needs (Dreyer,
2008). However, it must also be acknowledged there are intrinsic barriers (such as
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poor eyesight) that medical intervention can cure or provide support for (by, for
example, spectacles).
The social model suggests that barriers to learning and participation are created
by society and constructed to serve the interest of the majority, thereby limiting
accessibility for ‘others’ (Booth et al, 2000). People who do not conform to the
expectations of the majority’s expectations of appearance, behaviour and/or
economic performance are thus penalised (McLaughlin & Jordan, 2005). This
paradigm recognises the reality of systemic barriers to learning and development.
Within an inclusive education system it is thus important to identify and
remove these barriers to allow individuals equal participation and to eliminate
discrimination (DoE, 1997b).
Although inclusive education has its roots in the drive to improve the status of
persons with disabilities and other marginalised groups, it is also linked to
fundamental democratic reforms. South Africa is an example of a country where
inclusive education plays a crucial role in the creation of a better society for all and
in building a democracy. The shift toward a human rights and social justice paradigm
is thus vested in the wider social awareness of the needs of people who experience
oppression in general. In contrast to the medical model, the human rights model
focuses on equal opportunity, self-reliance and independence. It inextricably links
inclusive education to the broader transformation of educational systems with a clear
social justice character (Artiles, Kozleski et al, 2006).
The development of rhetoric (‘Finding the right words’)
As paradigms have changed, the concepts (terminology) used have also changed
over time in search of politically correct language. It is important to be cognisant
of this as, historically, discourses and practices have contributed to the segregation
and exclusion of people who do not t the ‘norm’. Mittler argues that the ‘constant
use of words that create or maintain mind-sets that perpetuate segregation’ (2000: 8)
contradicts the very notion of an inclusive education system.
The dierent terms are not always sharply demarcated from each other and
should rather be seen as developing (as paradigms are changing) towards a clear focus
on educational transformation.
Table 26.3: The evolution of terminology in inclusive education
Terminology Clarification
Normalisation Kochhar, West and Taymans define normalisation when they state that
‘individuals with disabilities […] entitled to the same freedoms, life
choices, circumstances, and opportunities as their non-disabled peers’
(2000: 12).
Normalisation means that disability can no longer be seen as a reason to
segregate people from mainstream society.
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Terminology Clarification
Normalisation can also refer to an attempt to eliminate terminology that
has been increasingly experienced as offensive and inappropriate.
Mainstreaming This term is often used interchangeably with ‘integration’.
Lewis and Doorlag describe mainstreaming as ‘the inclusion of special
students in the general educational process for any part of the school
day’ (1995: 557). Mainstreaming refers to the selective placement of
learners with disabilities in one or more mainstream classes. However,
the learners must be able to demonstrate that they have the ability to
keep up with the work expected in the mainstream classroom.
The Education White Paper 6 discusses mainstreaming and integration as
one, and defines it as:
[…] giving some learners extra support so that they can ‘fit in’ or
be integrated into the ‘normal’ classroom routine. Learners are
assessed by specialists who diagnose and prescribe technical
interventions, such as the placement of learners in programmes.
(DoE, 2001: 17)
Integration Integration refers to encouraging more extensive participation by learners who
experience learning and developmental barriers, in order for these learners to
learn with their peers.
The following illustrates the general international understanding of integration as a
precursor of what we now understand it to be (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995: 4):
There was no attempt to adapt the curriculum or transform the education
system to allow for meaningful participation.
Individual or small groups of learners were identified for whom the
curriculum has been adapted by a special education teacher.
Learners who needed support were withdrawn from the mainstream
classroom to receive additional instruction and support from a special
educator in a special class.
Inclusive
education
This concept focuses on supporting all learners, educators and the
system to address the full range of learning needs.
It aims at increasing the learning and participation of learners and
minimising the effect of barriers to learning and participation.
It implies a radical restructuring of the school in terms of curriculum,
assessment and pedagogy.
It emphasises overcoming barriers within the system to help all learners
achieve their full potential.
The Education White Paper 6 states that ‘an inclusive education and
training system is organised so that it can provide various levels and
kinds of support to learners and educators’ (DoE, 2001: 16).
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Terminology Clarification
The former DoE gave the following broad, all-encapsulating definition of
an inclusive learning environment as one that:
[…] promotes the full personal, academic and professional
development of all learners irrespective of race, class, gender,
disability, religion, culture, sexual preference, learning styles
and language. It is one which is free from discrimination,
segregation, and harassment and which intentionally tries to
facilitate an atmosphere of mutual acceptance and respect. It
is an environment which respects learners and values them as
partners in teaching and learning. It respects the rights of all
learners and enables them to participate fully in a democratic
society. (1997b: vi–vii)
Full inclusion This term refers to a situation where all learners, ‘regardless of
handicapping condition or severity, [are] in a regular classroom/
programme full time. All services [are] taken to the child in that setting’
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000: 21).
This term indicates a call for the reform of practices that exclude
and segregate individuals who experience barriers to learning and
development.
According to Lewis and Doorlag, the mainstream classroom is the most
appropriate full-time placement for all learners experiencing barriers to
learning, including those with high-level support needs (1995).
South Africa recognises inclusive education as a moral and human rights issue in
the Constitution and the South African Schools Act, 84 of 1996. Viewed from the
historical context of the country, the former DoE opted for a systemic approach to
ensure that all learners benetted from inclusive education. The provision of support
for inclusive education is categorised according to three divisions, namely:
1. low-intensive support in mainstream schools
2. moderate support in full-service schools
3. high-intensive support in special schools and resource centres.
This categorisation is an attempt to addresses barriers to learning and development
by providing adequate learning support structures which will enable all learners
to participate and achieve their full potential. It is clear that the third category still
acknowledges the need for special schools as the needs of learners with high-
intensive support requirements may go unmet in the current system. This requires
additional infrastructure, material and human resources. Some authors refer to this
response to inclusive education as ‘responsible inclusion’.
In the quest for continuous evolvement and advancement of inclusive education
it has become important that all learners have full participation in and derive
meaningful benet from schooling. The focus should thus be on the transformation
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of the entire education system in order to respond to diverse needs of learners (not
just disability) in a constructive and positive way.
A systemic approach
As mentioned above, South Africa decided on a systemic approach to implement
inclusive education. District-based support teams (DBSTs) and institutional-level
support teams (ILSTs) were established (DoE, 2001). In some provinces the ILST
is referred to as an SBST. DBSTs are based at the district oces and comprise
curriculum advisors, learning support advisors, therapists, psychologists, other health
and welfare professionals such as a school social worker as well as administrative
specialists (DoE, 2001). According to the Education White Paper 6 the purpose of
DBSTs are to: support ‘all learners, educators and the system as a whole so that
the full range of learning needs are met’ (DoE, 2001: 19). They have to focus on
teaching and learning strategies that will benet all learners, and on the adaptation
of support systems (DoE, 2001). Accordingly, the DBST must provide a full range
of educational support services, such as the professional development of curricula as
well as assessment procedures, to the ILST.
In addition to the DBSTs, the DoE introduced inclusive education teams (IE
teams). These teams consist of a school counsellor, a learning support teacher and a
therapist (occupational or speech therapist). These teams are based at special schools
identied to be developed into resource centres. They are responsible for providing
support services to their base school and, in addition, they have to provide specialist
support to the neighbouring schools (Mfuthwana, 2016).
ILSTs are established at school level and should include a learning support
teacher, referring teacher, member of the school management team (SMT), co-
ordinator, representatives from the behaviour committee and the social committee,
as well as a member from the literacy and numeracy committee (Mfuthwana, 2016).
The main focus of the ILST is to co-ordinate learner and teacher support at school
level. The ILST has to provide specic support by identifying and addressing learner,
teacher and institutional needs (DoE, 2001). This requires that the SMT changes
its traditional response to learners who are experiencing barriers to learning. The
systemic approach requires teachers to determine the nature and level of support
required by learners by using the SIAS documents before making any decisions.
Screening, identification, assessment and support
The SIAS strategy was developed to enable South African schools to respond
systemically to diverse needs within an inclusive education system (DBE, 2014).
The SIAS strategy is based on a collaborative response to provide holistic support
to learners, teachers and schools systematically and systemically through four stages
(Dreyer, 2015):
1. The class teacher gathers background information regarding the learner in
order to understand her or his basic needs, talents and aspirations. The teacher
completes the learner prole.
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2. The teacher identies the barriers to learning and development that the learner
might experience. The teacher does this through:
reecting on teaching (methodologies and strategies) and classroom practices
and -arrangements
identifying and responding to learner support needs (eg dierentiation,
language and culture)
identifying and responding to contextual barriers (eg seating arrangements)
involving and consulting with parents
reviewing the impact of the support provided
referring the learner to the ILST if the support provided makes little to no
impact on learner achievement and participation.
3. The third stage comprises the ILST meeting and the actions that ow from it:
The teacher’s intervention strategies are reviewed.
Collaborative brainstorming is done to strengthen the teacher’s eorts.
Whole-school changes and support strategies are reviewed.
Community resources are identied.
An ISP is developed.
The teacher implements the ISP.
Tracking support is provided and a follow-up date is set.
The case is referred to the DBST if necessary.
4. The DBST determines the level and nature of support required and does the
action planning:
A consultation takes place with the ILST, the teacher and the parents.
The ILST’s assessment is veried.
The impacts on the school’s and the teacher’s work are reviewed.
An analysis is done of the school’s capacity, considering its existing resources,
to meet the learner’s needs and achieve improvement.
Community resources are identied.
An in-depth assessment of the learner’s support needs is carried out.
The support package is determined.
Additional support and resources are applied for and provided.
The learner’s eligibility for access to alternative specialised programmes is
determined.
Training, counselling and mentoring is provided to the school, teacher and
parents.
The provision of support is monitored.
Inclusive schools
The terms ‘full-service schools’ and ‘inclusive schools’ are used interchangeably in
departmental documentation. The DBE envisages building the capacity of schools
identied as full-service schools. The DBE describes the concept as follows:
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A full-service/inclusive school understands that barriers to learning are not only
intrinsic to learners, but can also be cultural and systemic. Intrinsic barriers refer
to factors within learners, such as impairments, psycho-social problems, dierent
abilities, particular life experiences or socio-economic deprivations. Cultural and
systemic barriers on the other hand, refer to factors from a learner’s environment
that could include negative attitudes and stereotyping of learners, inexible
teaching methods and practices, inappropriate language and/or communication,
inaccessible or unsafe environments, a lack of support from or non-involvement of
caregivers or a lack of leadership in the school. (2009: 9)
A whole-school approach
It is important that inclusive education not be seen as an add-on in mainstream
schools. Implementing inclusive education should be done within a whole-school
approach. As mentioned previously, inclusive education is about implementing
change to improve the educational system for all learners. Therefore, it should be
part of the vision and mission statement of the school and form an intrinsic part of
the practices and activities in the whole school.
Although the move towards inclusive education originated within disability
discourse, it is currently viewed from a human rights and social justice perspective.
Inclusive education is thus much broader than special education, and should
therefore not be limited to learners who have disabilities. It is now acknowledged,
both internationally and nationally, that barriers to learning may be intrinsic and/or
extrinsic. Inclusive education should consequently not be seen as a change in the way
special education is provided, but rather as an opportunity to transform the whole school
as a system. It is accordingly essential that this transformation is addressed through
the development of a whole-school policy for inclusive education (Stakes & Hornby,
2000: 117)
A useful tool to guide schools in this transformation is the Index for Inclusion,
developed by Booth et al (2000). This index consists of a set of materials to support
schools in developing inclusive practices ‘through a collaborative process of review,
planning and implementation’ (Rustemier & Booth, 2005: 5). It provides schools
with strategies to systematically plan, prioritise, implement and assess the development
towards creating an inclusive school.
Figure 26.1 is a conceptual framework from Peters (2004: 14) that can be used to
implement inclusive education and monitor progress within a school. It is developed
to take into account the Index for Inclusion as well as various learnings from the
literature, particularly from the developing countries in the global south (Peters,
2004). Making the establishment of inclusive school contextually responsive is
imperative. Too often developing countries take on plans and strategies from the
more auent countries, only to have these plans and strategies fail as a result of not
taking the context into consideration (Dreyer, Engelbrecht & Swart, 2012).
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An input-process-outcome-context framework for inclusive education
Inputs
Process
Outcomes
School School climate
curriculum content
textbook & learning
materials
teacher qualifications,
training
morale & commitment
accessible facilities
parent/community support
braille/sign language support
action plans & needs
assessments
evaluation plan
high expectations/
respect
guiding Philosophy/
mission
participation/choice
positive teacher attitude
safe and supportive
environment
flexible curriculum
incentives for participation
integrated whole-school
system
collaborative support teams
Achievement
literacy, Numeracy
good citizenship
personal development
positive attitude
towards learning
self-determination/
advocacy
self-esteem
social & independent
living skills
Attainment
Student characteristics formal completion
diplomas/
qualification
preparation for adult life
diverse characteristics
valued and supported
disability, gender, at-
risk, refugee children,
minorities, low-income
Standards
Family/community
characteristics
Teaching/learning official learning
objectives (desired
outcomes)
school-level
objectives
impact on family &
community
supportive government
policy
parental attitudes/training
household income
economic confiditions
cultural/religious factors
multi-sector co-ordination
& collaborations
sufficient learning time
active teaching methods
integrated systems for
assessment & feedback
appropriate class size
adapted curriculum to
meet individual needs
active student participation
appropriate supports
clear roles & responsibilities
Contextual factors
macro-economic and
fiscal policies
political stabiltiy,
decentralization
international coordination
data collection & analysis
national goals & standards
for inclusive education
sources of funding &
allocation
systematic knowledge
transfer
education system
management
parental & community
participation
community sensitization
& awareness
Figure 26.1: An input-process-outcome-context framework for inclusive education
(Source: Peters, 2004: 14)
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Chapter 26 Inclusive education
According to Peters (2004), an open system such as this framework accounts for
external factors that have an inuence on inclusive education, such as policy,
legislation, cultural and socio-economic conditions. It also considers that these
external factors are integral components of the development of inclusive education
as a whole.
The principal and senior management team play an important role in ‘establishing
and maintaining an on-going focus on school improvement and support for change
has been well established in theory and practice’ (Salisbury & McGregor, 2002: 260).
There are several reasons why the active involvement of the school leadership is
so crucial. Consult the source mentioned above and the Guidelines for Full-service/
Inclusive Schools (DBE, 2009: 13–14) for more information on the role of the principal
and senior management team.
Providing and ensuring access and participation in class
Central to the development of inclusive schools is how access and participation
are provided. The educational needs and requirements of learners are as diverse as
the learners themselves. Some learners may need a ‘highly structured environment
with considerable individual attention, others benet from access to sophisticated
equipment or specialist sta, while yet others need little more than minor adjustments
to normal schooling’ (Hegarty, 2002: 166). However, as inclusive education is much
broader than disability or cognitive functioning, it has become imperative to make
race, ethnicity, language, socio-economic status and other aspects part of the debate.
Two good examples of factors impacting on inclusive education are the 2015 #Fees-
must-fall student movement and the issue of restrictive language policies at South
African universities.
Internationally, countries have implemented various ways to organise and
provide support in schools. Traditionally, this support primarily focuses on a narrow
understanding of inclusive education and thus favours support of disabilities and
cognitive disabilities. Current trends, however, point to the need for schools to
consider and implement various strategies to address needs related to learners’ socio-
economic status and racial, linguistic, cultural or ethnic minority populations in
schools. Peter’s framework for inclusive education (see Figure 26.1)can be used as a
tool to identify and address the needs within the school.
Schools, at the centre of this contentious and multidimensional debate, are faced
with the challenge of how to provide support to learners in an inclusive classroom.
A learner having access to a school does not automatically translate into that learner
having access to the curriculum. Morrow (2007) refers to this as ‘epistemological
access’. Subsequently, some authors refer to ‘meaningful access’ (Jansen, 2009). In
order to provide epistemological or meaningful access, teachers need to be reective
of their own practices and how they respond to learners. They therefore need:
an awareness of the diverse needs of learners within the classroom
knowledge of the learners’ backgrounds, needs, existing knowledge of the topic,
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misconceptions they may hold and possible intrinsic and extrinsic barriers to
learning
a strong content knowledge base about teaching and learning processes
(pedagogical knowledge)
knowledge of classroom management and organisation
the ability to think and reect on the impact of their own teaching, methodologies,
techniques and strategies
the ability to reect on their own prejudices and attitudes toward dierence,
including language, race, socio-economic status and disability.
Universal design for learning
The inclusive classroom of today requires careful and comprehensive planning to
be able to address the needs of all the learners in class and at the same time provide
epistemological access to all. The concept of universal design for learning (UDL) is
aimed at maximising access for all learners in the mainstream classroom. UDL should
not be seen as devising modications to accommodate learners with disabilities. It
should rather form an integral part of instructional planning for the whole class.
UDL is based on the following nine principles (Scott, McGuire & Foley, 2003):
1. Equitable use: Teaching is designed in such a way that it is useful and accessible to
all learners.
2. Flexibility: Teaching is designed to accommodate a wide range of individual
abilities.
3. Simple and intuitive: The teaching process is characterised by a straightforward and
predictable design.
4. Perceptible information: Teaching is designed in such a way that all learners have
access, regardless, for example, of sensory ability.
5. Tolerance for error: Instruction anticipates variations in individual learners’ learning
rate and prerequisite skills. Mistakes are seen as an opportunity to optimise
individual learning.
6. Low physical eort: Instruction is designed to minimise non-essential physical eort
in order to allow maximum attention to learning, for example using a computer
(or other assistive devices) if writing is a barrier.
7. Size and space for approach and use: Instruction is designed to allow learners to
participate regardless of body size, posture, mobility or communication needs. This
would refer to seating arrangements to assist learners with hearing impairments
or attention diculties to assure that they can see and face speakers during class.
8. A community of learners: The learning environment promotes interaction and
communication among learners and between learners and sta.
9. Instructional climate: This is perhaps the most important principle, as it is about
creating a welcoming and inclusive environment that promotes respect for and a
celebration of diversity.
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Chapter 26 Inclusive education
Essentially, the principles of UDL are based on exibility and allow for:
various methods of lesson presentation
various options for participation in class
various means of expressing and demonstrating what they know and can do
(assessment).
Conclusion
Inclusive education is a strategy to provide quality education for all learners through
meaningful access to education. In Table 26.2, a list of documents and events that
are signicant in the shaping of policy and support of practice is provided, and the
reader is encouraged to refer to Further reading to expand their knowledge of the
content in these documents. Although the debate on inclusive education originated
in disability discourse, it is increasingly viewed as part of social and educational
transformation.
This chapter therefore provided a synopsis of the historical roots of inclusive
education and the associated paradigmatic and rhetoric shifts that attempted to
respond to the diverse needs of learners in a constructive and positive way. Taking a
whole-school approach, a framework for establishing inclusive schools was presented
that schools can use as a guide for the implementation and monitoring of inclusive
practices. This chapter also presented the UDL as a strategy to plan for and ensure
that all learners have meaningful access to the curriculum presented in the classroom.
The content of this chapter is by no means exhaustive and should be supplemented
with additional reading.
Further reading
DoE (Department of Education). 1992. National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI):
Support Services. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
DoE (Department of Education). 1995. White Paper on Education and Training. Pretoria:
Government Printers.
DoE (Department of Education). 1997. White Paper on an Integrated National Disability
Strategy. Pretoria: Government Printers.
DoE (Department of Education). 1997. Quality Education for all: Overcoming barriers to
learning and development. Report of the NCSNET and NCESS. Pretoria: Government
Printers.
NEPI (National Education Policy Investigation). 1993. The Framework Report and Final
Summaries. Cape Town: Oxford/NECC.
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