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ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012 ECONOMY OF THE SETTLEMENT IN JIYEH
© IAE PAN and Mariusz Gwiazda, 2014 Archeologia 62-63, 2011-12, 31 44
MARIUSZ GWIAZDA
ECONOMY OF HELLENISTIC, ROMAN AND EARLY BYZANTINE
SETTLEMENT IN JIYEH (PORPHYREON), LEBANON
ABSTRACT. Regular excavations of the ancient settlement in Jiyeh on the Phoenician coast, carried out by the
Polish-Lebanese mission since 2008, as well as results of some earlier archaeological investigations there,
allowed to discuss various aspects of economic activity of the local population in the Hellenistic, Roman and
Early Byzantine times. The obtained materials justify putting forward several hypotheses concerning the agri-
culture, crafts and trade carried out by the inhabitants of the settlement. It seems that olive oil and wine,
together with the locally manufactured coarse pottery vessels and other products, sold within the territory of
the neighbouring towns (Sidon and Berytus), could have been the main source of profit allowing the inhabitants
to purchase imported goods, such as fine pottery and marbles coming from different parts of the Mediterra-
nean. Moreover, the settlement in Jiyeh, due to its favourable geographical location, may have played an
important intermediary role in the trade exchange between the villages located to the east, on the slopes of
Mount Lebanon, and urban centres along the Mediterranean coastline.
The settlement in Jiyeh, tentatively identified as
ancient Porphyreon,1 is located on the Phoenician
coast, at the foot of Mount Lebanon, at a distance
of ca. 25 km from Beirut (ancient Berytus) and
ca. 12 km from Saida (ancient Sidon) (Fig. 1).
The site has been excavated at intervals since 1997
by the Polish-Lebanese archaeological mission di-
rected by Tomasz Waliszewski as part of a larger
project which aims at studying the settlement his-
tory in the hinterland between Sidon and Berytus.2
The research is exceptional for Lebanon where for
many years mainly the principal ancient urban cen-
tres were intensively investigated, and only rarely
there have been attempts at determining their rural
hinterlands. The aim of this paper is to reconstruct
the basic elements of the economy of the investi-
gated settlement from the Hellenistic until the Early
Byzantine period. Since the research is now in prog-
ress, and the archaeological material has not been
fully analysed, the conclusions presented below are
of a tentative character. They are meant as a basis
for further investigations focused on obtaining a more
complete picture of the transformations that occurred
in the discussed region.
The archaeological materials discussed below
were obtained mainly during the Polish-Lebanese
excavations in 1997, 2004 and 200812, the earlier
Lebanese excavations carried out in 1975 by Roger
Saidah, and the rescue operation aimed at saving mo-
saic floors exposed in the Christian basilica by the
local population in 1988.3 Ancient written sources
are of secondary importance for the discussion as
1Cf. E. LIPIÑSKI, Itineraria Phoenicia (OLA 127, Studia
Phoenicia XVIII), LeuvenParis Dudley 2004, 20 21, 289 (see
Abbreviations, p. 44).
2On the archaeological research in the area of Jiyeh, see
T. WALISZEWSKI, Introduction, in: WALISZEWSKI et al. 2006,
79. On other archaeological research carried out as part of this
project, cf. WALISZEWSKI et al. 2002, 5 105; K. JAKUBIAK,
Eshmoun Valley preliminary report after the third season of the
Polish-Lebanese survey, PAM 20, 2011, 295 301, with further
references.
3R. SAIDAH, Porphyréon du Liban: une Pompéi byzantine
enfoui sous le sable, Archéologia 104, 1977,38 43. The objects
from R. Saidahs excavations are currently stored in the Beirut
National Museum. Mosaics and other objects from the rescue
excavations in 1988 were moved to the Beit ed-Dine Palace
Museum. Most of the materials from the recent Polish-Lebanese
excavations are stored in the excavation houses at Jiyeh and
Chhim, while some selected finds were handed over to the Beirut
National Museum.
32
MARIUSZ GWIAZDA ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012
they provide only fragmentary information on the
site.4
Although the earliest phase of the settlements
occupation goes back to the late Bronze Age,5 the
majority of archaeological evidence is dated from
the Persian period until the Early Byzantine times,
with a clear predominance of the Roman and later
architectural remains. This is due to the fact that
subsequent structures were erected on the earlier
ones. As a result, the earliest remains are in some
places covered by cultural layers and structures the
total thickness of which amounts to ca. 4 m, and
thus they can only be reached by trial pits. The set-
tlement was abandoned during the 7th century AD,
as indicated by coins, ceramic tableware and other
archaeological materials.6
Today, the most intensively excavated part of the
settlement is located on the plot belonging to the
Lebanese Ministry of Culture (Fig. 2). In the eastern
part of this area there are relatively well preserved
remains of some residential buildings which can be
4Cf. LIPIÑSKI, op. cit. (n. 1), 2021.
5T. W ALISZEWSKI, K. JUCHNIEWICZ, M. GWIAZDA, Prelimi-
nary report on the 2008 and 2009 excavation seasons at Jiyeh
(Porphyreon), PAM 21, 2012, 431 437; U. WICENCIAK, A lo-
cal Hellenistic Phoenician-type amphora and other pottery
from excavations in Jiyeh (Porphyreon)(Season 2008 2009),
PAM 21, 2012, 447 449.
6SAIDAH, op. cit. (n. 3),40, 43. Information on the dating
of the fine pottery was obtained from K. Dom¿alski who is re-
sponsible for publishing these finds from Jiyeh.
Fig. 1. Map of Lebanon (by U. Wicenciak)
33
ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012 ECONOMY OF THE SETTLEMENT IN JIYEH
dated to the 4th mid-7th century (Sector D), and
in its western part there is a large Christian basilica
erected in the 5th or 6th century, with unidentified
buildings adjacent from the north and south, covered
by dunes (Sector Q). Ca. 130 m to the north of the
settlement there was a potters quarter active between
the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD (Sector B).
Next to it, a necropolis with Hellenistic, Early Ro-
man and Early Byzantine graves was situated (Sec-
tor A). Currently, this part of the site is largely dam-
aged or inaccessible due to the fact that a holiday
resort has been built there since 2004.
Some traces of settlement between the residential
quarter with the adjacent basilica and the necropolis
have been discovered as well. During the construc-
tion work carried out by the landowner in 1998, re-
mains of a house were uncovered, with a mosaic
featuring a Nilotic scene, dated on the basis of its
iconography to the late 5th 6th century.7 Moreover,
in 2005 an 84 m long section along the western edge
7R. ORTALI-TARAZI, T. WALISZEWSKI, La mosaïque du Nil
découverte à Jiyé, BAAL 4, 2000, 165 177.
Fig. 2. Ancient settlement in Jiyeh with excavated sectors (by M. Puszkarski)
34
MARIUSZ GWIAZDA ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012
of this area (Sector C) was uncovered during an-
other construction works, revealing remains of houses
and layers containing materials dated from the Per-
sian times until the Early Byzantine period.8 All these
structural remains and features indicate that the set-
tlement was rather large, with a surface of at least
77,000 sq.m. As the area beyond its southern and
eastern borders is covered by modern buildings, it
is difficult to establish the extension of the ancient
settlement there.9
In 200812, only a small part of the settlement
has been investigated stratigraphically. The best pre-
served architectural remains were uncovered in 1975
by R. Saidah, and a large part of the archaeological
materials used in the discussion below comes from
heaps formed as a result of these excavation works,
as well as the robbery which followed later. Some
of these secondary deposits were finally removed by
the Polish-Lebanese mission. They contained mixed
materials which, however, provide important data on
local crafts, trade exchange, agriculture and fishing.
The most impressive craft activity of the settle-
ment in the discussed periods is production of ce-
ramic objects. Although no pottery kilns have been
found to date, this type of production is confirmed
by the finds of coarse pottery wasters (Fig. 3) and
plaster moulds for manufacturing terracotta oil lamps.
The finds of the pottery wasters are concentrated in
two parts of the site (Sector B and C). The first evi-
dence was discovered during the rescue excavations
in 2004 05, connected with the construction of the
above mentioned holiday resort to the north of the
settlement (Sector B), where large amounts of broken
and deformed pottery were found, as well as traces
of ash and burning, probably left by their firing in
kilns. The available dating material (mainly some
imported fine pottery fragments) allowed to deter-
mine that the coarse ware vessels, such as cooking
pots (the most common form), casseroles, bowls,
pans, pot stands, jugs, juglets, flasks and amphorae,
were produced there between the 2nd century BC
and the 1st century AD. The scarcity of finds con-
nected with domestic activities, such as animal bones,
indicates that the place was used exclusively for pro-
duction purposes. The structures used by the potters
were most likely destroyed in a later period by en-
largement of the necropolis which was located
nearby.10
Basing on the form and fabric of Late Hellenistic
and Early Roman amphorae and kitchen vessels
found in the test trenches in the residential quarter
(Sector D) and in the potters quarter (Sector B),
U. Wicenciak suggested that there was a relation-
ship between the workshop in Jiyeh and those in
Berytus and Sidon. However, it is not clear whether
the vessels produced in Jiyeh would be used in Bery-
tus, or imitations of forms from Berytus were pro-
duced in Jiyeh for local needs.11 The distribution of
Hellenistic and Early Roman amphorae produced in
Berytus and Jiyeh is very limited and the finds come
mainly from the production centres themselves. A few
examples are also known from Sidon,12 Chhim,13 and
8U. WICENCIAK, M. EL TAYEB, Section C Jiyeh, 2005
season, in: WALISZEWSKI et al. 2006, 67 79.
9The second largest settlement in the vicinity of Jiyeh, dated
mainly to the Roman and Early Byzantine periods, with a total
surface of 27,000 sq.m, is located at Chhim, ca. 6 km to the
east. This mountain village, consisting of houses, olive oil and
wine presses, a pagan temple, a Christian basilica and a necro-
polis, was investigated in 19962009 by the Polish-Lebanese-
French archaeological mission; cf. WALISZEWSKI et al. 2002.
10 K. DOM¯ALSKI et al., Late Hellenistic and Early Roman
Pottery Production Center at Jiyeh: Rescue Excavations 2004,
PAM 16, 2004, 429439; U. WICENCIAK et al., Preliminary Re-
port on a Salvage Campaign at Jiyeh, 2004: The Pottery Pro-
duction Area, wiatowit 46, fasc. A, 2003, 129 133; M. EL TA-
YEB, Preliminary Report on Salvage Excavations at Jiyeh, 2004:
Pottery Production Area B, in: WALISZEWSKI et al. 2006, 40 47;
K. DOM¯ALSKI, Imported Fine Wares from the Trial Pits B1 3
and Well B4, in: WALISZEWSKI et al. 2006, 48 50; U. WI-
CENCIAK, Coarse Pottery Production at Jiyeh in Sector B1B3,
and Local Coarse Pottery Material from Well B4 at Jiyeh, in:
WALISZEWSKI et al. 2006, 54 59, 66.
11 WICENCIAK, op. cit. (n. 5), 450; D. FRANGIÉ, U. WICEN-
CIAK, Beyrouth et Jiyeh au sein des productions céramiques,
Dossiers dArchéologie 350, 2012, 38 43. On the production
of amphorae in Berytus: A. ALA EDDINE, The Development of
Beirut Amphorae. A General Approach, in: CH. MORHANGE,
M. SAGHIEH-BEYDOUN, La mobilité des paysages portuaires an-
tiques du Liban (BAAL Hors-Série II), Beyrouth 2005, 187 188.
On the pottery production centre in Sidon and its affinity with
the Jiyeh workshop, see the unpublished doctoral thesis by
U. WICENCIAK, Hellenistic and Roman pottery in Phoenicia and
the activity of potters workshop at Jiyeh-Porphyreon (Lebanon)
(in Polish), University of Warsaw, 2012.
12 Personal communication from U. Wicenciak.
13 U. WICENCIAK, Local Roman Coarse Ware from Chhim
(Southern Lebanon), in: S. MENCHALLI et al. (eds.), LRCW3
Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the
Mediterranean. Archaeology and Archaeometry. Comparison be-
tween Western and Eastern Mediterranean, vol. II (BAR Inter-
national Series 2185), Oxford 2010, 887.
Fig. 3. Late Hellenistic pottery wasters
(by M. Kisielewicz)
35
ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012 ECONOMY OF THE SETTLEMENT IN JIYEH
from the vicinity of Kamid el-Loz in the Beqaa Val-
ley on the eastern side of Mount Lebanon.14 After
Phoenicia had been conquered by Alexander the
Great, this area was controlled by Sidon,15 so the
distribution of products transported in this type of
amphora was generally limited to the territories be-
longing to Berytus and Sidon.
Moreover, within the section created during con-
struction works between the basilica and the necro-
polis (Sector C), amphora wasters from the 3rd
4th century were discovered. Additionally, within the
same section, an unclear structure erected from mud
and rounded in shape (Feature F) was uncovered. It
was interpreted by the excavators as a probable pot-
tery kiln.16 There is also evidence of amphorae pro-
duction in Jiyeh in the Early Byzantine period, based
on the results of PIXE analyses comparing the fabric
of the amphorae from this period with earlier wast-
ers found at the site.17
Local production of terracotta oil lamps in the
settlement under discussion has been confirmed by
the finds of wasters of the so-called watch-shaped
lamps with an unpierced nozzle (Fig. 4) dated to
the 2nd and early 1st century BC,18 as well as by
much later finds, such as two plaster moulds for
manufacturing the so-called ovoid-type lamps from
the 6th 7th century. The first mould was discov-
ered in 1975 during R. Saidahs excavations in the
residential quarter (Sector D).19 The second mould
was found in the same area during the Polish-Leba-
nese excavations in 1997 (Fig. 5), in the fill created
during or after the above mentioned Lebanese works.
Therefore, both artefacts can be dated only by com-
paring them with ready-made lamps of this type,
found in southern Phoenicia, northern Palestine, Cyp-
rus and Cilicia.20
During the clearance of one of the streets within
the residential quarter (Sector D) in 2010, several
lumps of glass, glass threads and possible wasters
were found, which may be evidence of another type
of local craft activity production of glassware. The
secondary layer in which these objects were found
was probably created by R. Saidah in order to secure
14 A. ALA EDDINE, Hellenistic Stamped Amphorae from
Beirut (Site code Bey 004), Archaeology and History in the Leba-
non 17, 2003, 118.
15 M. SARTRE, DAlexandre à Zénobie. Histoire du Levant
antique, IVe siècle avant J.-C. IIIe siècle après J.-C., Beyrouth
2001, 148.
16 WICENCIAK, EL TAYEB, op. cit. (n. 8), 67, 70, fig. 83.
17 M. ROUMIÉ et al., PIXE characterization of Lebanese
excavated amphorae from Jiyeh archeological site, Nuclear In-
struments and Methods in Physics Research B: Beam Interac-
tions with Materials and Atoms 268(1), 2010, 87 91.
18 DOM¯ALSKI et al., op. cit. (n. 10), 433, fig. 7; T. WALISZE-
WSKI, Lamp-Mould from Jiyeh (Southern Lebanon). A Variant
of Ovoid Lamps in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Levant, in:
D. FRANGIÉ, J.-F. SALLES (eds.), Lampes antiques du Bilad es
Sham (Jordanie, Syrie, Liban, Palestine). Actes du Colloque de
Pétra-Amman (6 13 novembre 2005), Paris 2011, 358.
Fig. 4. Hellenistic lamps with an unpierced nozzle (by K. Dom¿alski)
Fig. 5. Early Byzantine lamp mould found
in the residential quarter (by M. Puszkarski)
19 SAIDAH, op. cit. (n. 3), 41, fig. 4.
20 WALISZEWSKI, op. cit. (n. 18), 357359, 365 367. Simi-
lar lamps are also known from the neighbouring site in Chhim,
cf. ibidem, 371.
36
MARIUSZ GWIAZDA ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012
the architectural remains after they had been uncov-
ered in 1975. Fragments of glass vessels found to-
gether with the lumps and wasters are dated to the
5th 7th century, what indicates time of activity of
the glass workshop.21
The locally manufactured coarse pottery discussed
above included transport amphorae which could have
been intended for agricultural products from the ru-
ral hinterland, such as olive oil, wine, fruits (dates,
figs) and fish sauces. The production of olive oil in
the investigated settlement in the Roman and Early
Byzantine periods is confirmed by the finds of stone
elements of presses especially counterweights with
openings in the shape of reversed letter T and ele-
ments of the trapetum (a type of basin for crushing
olives). Some of them were found in R. Saidahs
fills within the residential quarter (Sector D), there-
fore their dating is not certain. Another ones were
secondarily used as building material in the walls of
houses from the 4th century, uncovered in the same
sector (Fig. 6). The half-spherical stones with open-
ings, which were originally parts of the trapetum,
were secondarily used in the 5th or 6th century in
the construction of the Christian basilica located
nearby.22 The stone counterweights with the open-
ings in the shape of reversed letter T were also found
in the area occupied today by the holiday resort (Sec-
tor AB). As they were retrieved during the most
recent construction work, there are no indicators as
to the exact location of the press or its dating, but
their presence may suggest olive oil production in
the northern part of the site.
The scale of olive oil production may be to some
extent illustrated by archaeobotanical remains. Burnt
olive stones are the main part of the botanical mate-
rial from the layers dated to the Persian, Hellenistic
and Roman periods. Moreover, they are the most
numerous finds among the archaeobotanical remains
from the residential quarter (Sector D) constructed
in the 4th century, as well as the Christian basilica
dated to the 5th 6th century. Crushed, burnt olive
stones, as well as the ash from other plants are,
besides the sand, the main admixture to mortar,
lime floors, roof tiles and marble revetment binders
(Fig. 7). Such an abundance and availability of
olive stones can prove constant production of
olive oil.
During construction works at the holiday resort
(Sector A B) in 2011 12, a group of collecting vats,
probably destined for the grape must, was uncov-
ered. They had been cleared before the arrival of
archaeologists, therefore no dating material was
found.23 The location of these collecting vats next
to the workshop which produced transport amphorae
21 Information was obtained from M. Wagner who is respon-
sible for publishing glass finds from Jiyeh. On glass production
in Berytus, see S. JENNINGS, Vessel Glass from Beirut. BEY 006,
007 and 045, Berytus 48 49, 2004 2005, 287 289.
22 T. W ALISZEWSKI, Byzantine Basilica Q, in: WALISZEWSKI
et al. 2006, 30.
23 This discovery will be the subject of an article in prepa-
ration by S. Lenarczyk and Z. Kowarska.
Fig. 6. Counterweight from an olive oil press reused
in a house wall (by M. Gwiazda)
Fig. 7. Mortar sample with burnt olive stones
(by M. Gostkowski)
37
ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012 ECONOMY OF THE SETTLEMENT IN JIYEH
in the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods sug-
gests that they could have been filled with local wine.
Pliny the Elder, in his ranking of wines, lists,
among others, the products from Phoenicia, more
specifically from Berytus and Tyre.24 The most re-
cent ceramological research indicates that wine from
Berytus was poured into the amphorae of the type
known from Jiyeh, dated to the 2nd century BC,25
but the discovery of the above mentioned vats may
suggest that the locally made wine could have been
exported as well.
A different branch of the local economy fishery
is clearly reflected in the archaeological materials
by the finds of fish vertebrae, shells of edible mol-
luscs, as well as fishing equipment, including stone
and lead net sinkers. The stone sinkers are made of
limestone or ramleh (local sandstone). Usually, lime-
stone was used to make smaller sinkers while larger
ones were made of sandstone, in which it is much
more difficult to drill holes without destroying this
brittle material. All discovered stone fishing sinkers
can be categorized as undressed ones, with straight
perforations for rope (Fig. 8).26 They can be divided
into two categories: the small ones, weighing 0.1 to
1 kg, and the large ones, weighing 2 to 9 kg. The
purpose of the light stone sinkers and the small lead
ones (in the form of folded rectangles) was to keep
the net in the desired position and shape. They also
helped to make the cast net fall down more rapidly,
thus protecting it from tangling. The large stone sink-
ers were placed at the edges of the net in order to
prevent it from drifting. Traps and ropes with hooks
may have been also attached to the large sinkers.27
The varying weight of the sinkers could have been
attributed to different fishing conditions. In the
areas where the currents and waves are stronger,
heavier sinkers were probably used. In shallow wa-
ters with sand bottom beach, seines with sinkers of
lower weight could have been used. On the rocky
seashore to the west of the settlement it was prob-
ably preferred to fish with the use of hooks, also
found among the archaeological materials.28 Most of
the stone net sinkers were found in secondary de-
posits and therefore they cannot be dated precisely.
Parallel finds from Salamina come from the Archaic,
Hellenistic and Early Roman layers, but the use of
similar objects on the Levantine coast is confirmed
for at least as early as the Neolithic.29
A considerable importance of fishery in the local
economy is proved by production of lead fishing net
sinkers. Two moulds for casting such sinkers of the
folded rectangular type (Fig. 9) were found in the
residential quarter (Sector D), in the secondary lay-
ers formed after R. Saidahs excavations in 1975.
The first mould, preserved completely, was a
25× 9.6 ×4.5 cm cuboid. One of its sides featured
six recesses and the other side featured nine. The
second mould, preserved as a 3.3 cm thick fragment,
has two pairs of decorative recesses rectangular in
24 PLINY THE ELDER, Nat. Hist. 14.9.74, 15.18.66 67.
25 WICENCIAK, op. cit. (n. 5), 450; cf. also C. AUBERT, Ag-
riculture et artisanat en Phénicie héllénistique daprès les fouilles
de Beyrouth, Topoi 8, 2007, 89.
26 Type S1.2.1, according to E. GALILI, B. ROSEN, J. SHAR-
VIT, Fishing-gear sinkers recovered from an underwater wreck-
age site, off the Carmel coast, Israel, The International Journal
of Nautical Archaeology 31(2), 2002, fig. 2.
27 Ibidem, 195 196.
28 Ibidem, 194.
29 M.-J. CHAVANE, Salamine de Chypre VI: Les petits objets,
Paris 1975, 111; E. GALILI, O. LERNAU, I. ZOHAR, Fishing and
Coastal Adaptations at Atlit-Yam. A submerged PPNC Fishing
Village off the Carmel Coast, Israel, Atiqot 48, 2004, 21.
Fig. 8. Selected stone sinkers (by M. Gwiazda)
38
MARIUSZ GWIAZDA ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012
shape on either side. The most common decoration
is a motif of lines running perpendicularly to the
longer axis of the recesses or in a chevron layout
resembling herringbones. Similar moulds are known
from other Mediterranean sites.30 Despite the fact
that no metallurgical furnaces have been discovered
so far in Jiyeh, the moulds described above, as well
as small amounts of slag found in the Hellenistic,
Roman and Early Byzantine layers in several trial
pits within the residential quarter (Sector D), con-
firm the existence of metallurgical workshops in the
investigated settlement.
Numerous finds of stone spindle whorls, as well
as clay and ceramic loom weights, suggest that spin-
ning and weaving was important element of the
30 Finds from southern Phoenicia: GALILI, ROSEN, SHARVIT,
op. cit. (n. 26), fig. 13; from todays Tunisia: M. HARBI-RIAHI,
30 ans au services du patrimoine:de la Carthage des Phéniciens
à la Carthage de Bourguiba: 18 octobre 1986 18 octobre 1987,
année du patrimoine, Tunis 1986, cat. nos. II.38, II.39.
31 Minimum spindle whorl weight for spinning threads is 4 g;
cf. L. MÅRTENSSON et al., Technical Report. Experimental Ar-
chaeology, Part 2: 2: Whorl or bead? 2006. Tools and Textiles
Texts and Contexts, Research Program. Danish National Re-
search Foundations Centre for Textile Research, University of
Copenhagen, available online at http://ctr.hum.ku.dk/tools/.
Spindle whorls weighing less could be used as additional load
for the spindle.
32 Cf. E. J. W. BARBER, Prehistoric Textiles. The Development
of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Refer-
ence to the Aegean, Princeton 1992, 52.
33 The production of linen fabrics in Byblos is attested in
Diocletians Edict (Edictum Diocletiani de Pretiis Rerum Vena-
lium 26 28). For written sources on production and trade
of linen textiles in Berytus and Tyre, see L. JONES HALL, Ro-
man Berytus. Beirut in Late Antiquity, London New York 2004,
2627, 223.
34 Similar discovery was made in nearby Chhim, where in
one of the loculi of an Early Byzantine tomb five stone spindle
whorls were found, lying next to the upper and lower part of
the body; R. ORTALI-TARAZI, B. STUART, Two Rock-Cut Ro-
man Tombs in Chhim, BAAL 6, 2002, 124.
35 Discoid and truncated pyramid-shaped loom weights with
two perforations, made of unfired clay, are known from Beirut,
Sarepta and Sidon: J. ELAYI, H. SAYEGH, Un quartier du port
phénicien de Beyrouth au FER III/Perse. Les objets (Trans-
euphratène, supplément 6), Paris 1998, 233, cat. no. 3; AUBERT,
op. cit. (n. 25), 15; J.B. PRITCHARD, Sarepta IV. The objects
from Area II, X. The University Museum of the University of
Pennsylvania Excavations at Sarafand, Lebanon, Beyrouth
1988, 99, cat. nos 10 11; G. CONTENAU, Mission archéologique
à Sidon (1914): deuxième partie, Syria 1, 1920, 109.
local economy. So far, 30 spindle whorls have been
found in Jiyeh. They are either hemispherical or
conical in shape (Fig. 10) and their weight varies
from 3 g up to 23 g,31 which may suggest that weav-
ing threads of different thickness or different fibres,
e.g. goat-hair, sheep-hair or linen yarn, were used.32
Large share of the goat-sheep bone remains in the
archaeozoological materials from the excavations
indicates that wool may have been used as well. On
the other hand, no traces of flax growing have been
found so far.33 The spindle whorls were found in the
residential quarter (Sector D), in the Christian basi-
lica (Sector Q), and at the necropolis (Sector A),34
in layers from the Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byz-
antine times.
Recorded loom weights can be divided into four
types. The most commonly represented (21 finds)
is the wheel-shaped type, found exclusively within
the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman potters quar-
ter (Sector B). There is also a widespread occur-
rence of the doughnut-shaped type (9 items) made
of unfired clay,35 found only in Persian-Hellenistic
layers of the residential quarter (Sector D). The re-
maining types are: two discoidal loom weights with
two perforations and one in the shape of a truncated
pyramid (Fig. 11). The diversity of loom weights shapes,
as well as their weight and thickness, may suggest
Fig. 9. Mould for fishing net sinkers (by M. Gwiazda)
Fig. 10. Selected conical and hemispherical spindle whorls
(by M. Gwiazda)
39
ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012 ECONOMY OF THE SETTLEMENT IN JIYEH
36 Cf. L. MÅRTENSSON, M.-L. NOSCH, E. ANDERSSON STRAND,
Shape of Things: Understanding a Loom Weight, OJA 28(4),
2009, 373 398.
37 Similar results were obtained in Chhim where 25 spindle
whorls and no loom weights were found in the Roman and Early
Byzantine contexts. On the introduction of new types of looms
in the Roman period, see J.P. WILD, The Roman Horizontal
Loom, AJA 91(3), 1987, 459 471; G.R. DAVIDSON, D. BURR
THOMPSON, H. THOMPSON, Small Objects from Pnyx: I (He-
speria Supplements, vol. 7), Amsterdam 1975 (Reprint), 70 71.
38 PSEUDO-SCYLAX, Periplus 104. Later this toponym is
mentioned by POLYBIUS (Hist. V.68) and PILGRIM OF BOR-
DEAUX (Itinerarium Burdigalense 18,21).
39 JULIAN OF ASCALON (14) recommends that due to the un-
pleasant smell, cheese and fish sauce manufactures should be
located at a distance from settlements. On the other hand, STRA-
BO (Geogr. 16.2.23) informs that in Tyre the production of purple
was based in the city itself. Cf. also K. GRATTON, Production
et échange de la pourpre au Proche-Orient aux époques grecque
et romaine, Topoi, Suppl. 8, 2007, 151 172; D. S. REESE, Shells
from Sarepta (Lebanon) and East Mediterranean Purple-Dye
Production, MAA 10(1), 2010, 113141.
40 EL TAYEB, op. cit. (n. 10), 45.
41 The exploitation of limestone continues today by a cement
factory located at an altitude of ca. 230 m a.s.l., 4 km to the
south of Jiyeh.
different cultural influences and/or production of
various fabric types.36 To sum up, all these finds
come from layers dated up to the Early Roman pe-
riod. The lack of loom weights in the Early Byzan-
tine contexts and the incessant use of spindle whorls
in that period should be attributed to the resignation
from warp-weighted looms and the substitution of
those with two beam or horizontal looms which did
not require the use of loom weights.37
The toponym Porphyreon, first used by Pseudo-
Scylax as a name for the investigated settlement, may
suggest the production of purple in this area.38 It
was manufactured from sea snails murexes. Al-
though single murex shells occurred in the Persian
and Hellenistic layers in the test trenches within the
residential quarter (Sector D) (Fig. 12), no concen-
trations of such shells have been found to date in
any part of the site. This can be explained by the
fact that due to the unpleasant smell connected with
the production of the purple dye, the possible work-
shop would be located away from the settlement, in
the areas occupied today by various buildings.39
At least since the 4th century lime was produced
in Jiyeh on a large scale for construction purposes.
It was used to make mortar, wall plaster and floors.
In 2012, in one of the rooms cleaned in the south-
eastern part of the residential quarter (Sector D),
a storing area for lime was discovered (Fig. 13). On
a beaten floor of the room a layer of pure lime was
deposited, reaching a height of 60 cm. The room
was explored by R. Saidah in 1975, who removed
a part of the lime filling, and afterwards this struc-
ture was partly destroyed and covered with a layer
of rubble and sand. However, in the remaining lime
layer a coin dated to the 4th century was found. For
earlier periods there is weak evidence of its use, with
the exception of the so-called potters quarter (Sec-
tor A), where basins made with the use of lime mor-
tar were found.40 In the closest vicinity, sandstone
is predominant, so the raw material was probably
transported from the lower parts of the mountainside,
to the east and south of the site.41 Limestone blocks
were also used rarely for other purposes, as for
making thresholds.
Fig. 11. Selected loom weights (by M. Gwiazda)
Fig. 12. Murex trunculus from the residential quarter
(by A. Romaniuk)
40
MARIUSZ GWIAZDA ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012
Sarcophagi, stelae and cippi carved in the local
sandstone (ramleh) are remains of another craft. In
most cases they were removed from their original
contexts by modern construction works within the
area of the necropolis (Sector A). The sandstone sar-
cophagi are undecorated, or the ornaments are lim-
ited to two round or square bosses on the longer
sides (Fig. 14). Their lids are flat or have the form
of gables with acroteria at four angles. Sarcophagi,
stelae and cippi from Jiyeh are very similar to the
Hellenistic and Early Roman ones found in Sidon,
what may indicate that the craftsmen from the
former settlement imitated products from Sidon or
that some mobile sculptors workshops operated in
this area.42 However, an important difference is that
the funeral objects from Jiyeh had no inscriptions,
42 For limestone sarcophagi found near Sidon, see G. CON-
TENAU, Mission archéologique à Sidon (1914). Troisième article.
La caverne aux inscriptions, Syria 1, 1920, 213 214, fig. 73;
IDEM, op. cit. (n. 35), 150 151, fig. 49, cf. E. RENAN, Mission de
Phénicie, Paris 1864, 505. For cippi and stelae, see ibidem, 381
382; TH. MACRIDY, Le temple dEchmoun à Sidon, Revue Bi-
blique 1, 1914, 391 392, 398, 401402, 547556, figs. 30, 35,
pl. XII.2 4; G. CONTENAU, Mission archéologique à Sidon
(1914). Quatrième partie. Les cippes, Syria 1, 1920, 287 289;
IDEM, Deuxième mission archéologique à Sidon (1920), Syria 4(4),
1923, 266; M. MEURDAC, L. ALBANÈSE, A travers les nécropoles
gréco-romaines de Sidon (suite), BMB 3, 1939, 5051, pl. VIII.
Fig. 13. Room used for storing lime (after cleaning). White traces of lime deposit
seen on the walls (by M. Romaniuk)
Fig. 14. Locally made sandstone sarcophagus found in the necropolis (by M. Makowska)
41
ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012 ECONOMY OF THE SETTLEMENT IN JIYEH
which can suggest that the inhabitants were illiter-
ate to a larger extent than Sidonians.
Apart from the craft and agriculture production,
trade played an important role in the local economy,
too. The archaeological evidence of trade exchange
includes measuring devices as well as imported
goods. Weights and measures were made of bronze,
lead and stone. Forms of the metal weights found in
Jiyeh are typical of Hellenistic, Roman and Early
Byzantine Syro-Palestine. The shape of a large, al-
most completely preserved, marble cuboid-shaped
weight with two hemispheres is unique in the Le-
vant (Fig. 15). Its dimensions are 18.4× 9.9×7.5 cm.
At present it weighs 2,506 g, which indicates that
the original weight was probably 8 librae (ca. 2,616 g).
Such weights are well known from Greece where
they occur most of all in Roman and Early Byzan-
tine contexts.43 This may indicate the dating of the
described weight, found in a modern fill in the resi-
dential quarter (Sector D). Moreover, four marble
measures with rounded hollows were also discov-
ered there during R. Saidahs and Polish-Lebanese
excavations (Fig. 16).44
Other objects which provide evidence for the long-
distance trade exchange are imports of ceramics and
marbles. Hellenistic and Early Roman fine wares
recorded in Jiyeh came from several production cen-
tres: colour-coated ware from the south-eastern
Aegean and the Levant, black-gloss ware from west-
ern Italy and Asia Minor, Eastern Sigillata A from
the area between Antiochia-on-the-Orontes and Tar-
sus, the so-called Cypriot Sigillata most probably
from southern Asia Minor, as well as small amounts
of South Gaulish Sigillata and early vessels of Afri-
can Red Slip Ware produced in the area of todays
Tunisia. The Early Byzantine period is represented
by the continued imports of African Red Slip Ware,
as well as Late Roman C/Phocean Red Slip Ware
from the eastern Aegean, the so-called Cypriot Red
Slip Ware from southern Asia Minor, and small
amounts of Egyptian Red Slip Ware. More informa-
tion on maritime trade connections will be provided
by a detailed analysis of amphorae which is, how-
ever, still in progress.
With the construction of the Christian basilica in
the 5th or 6th century a demand appeared for large
quantities of building materials which were unavail-
able locally, including white and coloured marbles
that were used for finishing this most prominent
building. The imported stone was used for making
wall decorations in the presbytery, the column shafts
and capitals, and probably for finishing floors. A part
of the liturgical equipment was also made of mar-
ble. Several marble objects have been found recently
in the basilica during the Polish-Lebanese excava-
tions. However, the layers they came from were
formed secondarily after 1988, when the floor mo-
saics were removed from the basilica and transported
to the museum in Beit ed-Dine.
Marble objects were also found in the residential
quarter (Sector D), in the secondary layers formed
after R. Saidahs excavations had been finished. As
there is no architectural evidence that marble was
used for finishing these houses, the objects may have
been originally found in the basilica as well. Marble
wall decorations are indicated there by the regu-
larly arranged little holes for hooks in the eastern
43 Delos: W. DEONNA, Exploration archéologique de Délos,
Tome 18.1, Le mobilier délien, Paris 1938, 144 145; Corinth:
G. DAVIDSON, Corinth, Volume 12, The Minor Objects, Princeton
1952, 205 206, 213 214, pl. 97; cf. also M. LANG, M. CROSBY,
The Athenian Agora, Volume X, Weights, Measures and Tokens,
Princeton 1964, 34 38. For Levantine finds, see M. CHÉHAB,
Mosaïques du Liban: Texte, BMB 14, 1957; IDEM, Mosaïques du
Liban: Planches, BMB 15, 1959, pl. XC.1; F. TURQUETY-PARI-
SET, Fouilles à la municipalité de Beyrouth (1977), Syria 59(12),
1982, 53, fig. 15; RENAN, op. cit. (n. 42), 29, 849, pl. XII.2.
44 For the same type found in Beirut, see TURQUETY-PARISET,
op. cit. (n. 43), 53, fig. 15. Cf. also DEONNA,op. cit. (n. 43), 167175.
Fig. 15. Marble weight (by M. Puszkarski, M. Gwiazda)
Fig. 16. Marble measure (by K. Kotlewski)
42
MARIUSZ GWIAZDA ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012
45 Cf. T. WALISZEWSKI, Byzantine Basilica Q, in: WALI-
SZEWSKI et al. 2006, fig. 38 (drawing of the view of the east-
ern basilica wall with marked openings for the wall facings).
46 Cf. S. GARREAU FORREST, Pérennité de loccupation des
sites sacrés de lAntiquité à lépoque moderne, Dossiers dArché-
ologie 350, 2012, 58 59. One of the capitals from the basilica
was published by CONTENAU, Mission. Quatrième partie
(n. 42), 296, fig. 92.
47 I wish to express my gratitude to D. Wielgosz for her help
in identifying the marbles from Jiyeh and Chhim.
48 Both types of roof tiles were found in Chhim as well.
Chemical analyses and thin sections of these finds have shown
that they were produced outside Phoenicia; M. DASZKIEWICZ,
G. SCHNEIDER, E. BOBRYK, Pottery from Chhim preliminary
results of archeometric analysis (unpublished).
49 Roofs of traditional and modern houses in Jiyeh and Chhim
are flat and there is no evidence that in Antiquity they were con-
structed in a different way. Only in higher parts of Mount Leba-
non, where the rainfall and snowfall are stronger, buildings have
sloping roofs covered with roof tiles.
50 M. RAUTMAN, Neutron Activation Analysis of Cypriot and
Related Ceramics at the University of Missouri, in: H. MEYZA,
J. M£YNARCZYK (eds.), Hellenistic and Roman Pottery in the
Eastern Mediterranean Advances in Scientific Studies. Acts of
the IInd Nieborów Pottery Workshop. Nieborów, 18 20 Decem-
ber 1993, Warszawa 1995, 333 336, pl. 8.40.
wall.45 Some of the holes are covered with greenish
corrosion, left by the copper alloy hooks to which
marble tiles were attached (Fig. 17). Most of the
marble tiles (12 cm thick) are covered with ash
mortar, visible also on the walls of the basilicas
presbytery.
Two-thirds of the marble crustae are made of
white, coarse-grained marble with blue veins, typi-
cal of materials from the quarries in Proconnesus.
Some tiles were made of grey marble of uncertain
origin (grey Proconnesian marble?). Moreover, crus-
tae and opus sectile tiles found in Jiyeh were also
made of the following stones: breccia coralina (Bithy-
nia), cipollino verde (Euboea), giallo antico (Chem-
tou, todays Tunisia), pavonazetto (Phrygia), serpen-
tino verde (Laconia), and verde antico (Thessaly)
(Fig. 18). Yet, they were found in much smaller quan-
tities. The pro- minent role of the Proconnesian mar-
ble is illustrated by other architectural elements as
well, mainly columns. Several column fragments
were discovered during the excavations. Two large
column fragments and a Corinthian capital, probably
coming from the basilica, are currently located in
the nearby mosque where they were secondarily used
as support in the main hall.46
Various white marbles were used to make elements
of the church liturgical equipment, such as the so-
called polylobed sigma table, chancel screens and
chancel posts, the mensa, small columns under the
altar, and à bec de corbin-type plates (Fig. 19). All
these objects are very similar in form to those found
in other contemporary churches in Syro-Palestine,
including the nearby located church in Chhim where,
however, the use of imported stones is limited ex-
clusively to the liturgical equipment.47
The last category of objects indicating long-dis-
tance trade exchange are roof tiles. At least two types
of roof tile were identified in Jiyeh. The first one
has yellow fabric, a finer texture and the shape of
a Corinthian imbrex, while the other one has red
fabric, coarse texture and the shape of a Sicilian
imbrex. No evidence of roof tile production has been
found to date in Jiyeh and the fact that both fabrics
are clearly different from that of the locally manu-
factured pottery indicates that they were imported.48
The vast majority of roof tiles found in the layers
secondarily formed in the last decades (Sectors Q
and D) had most probably originally covered the
roof of the Early Byzantine basilica.49 All of them
seem to be well selected, with no badly fired pieces
or accidental imprints. The yellow tiles (type 1) show
some similarity to the contemporary tiles from
Cyprus.50 However, it is impossible to determine
whether they were imported from the island or from
a different source.
To sum up, the archaeological evidence gathered
to date gives us a general picture of the economy
of the investigated settlement from the Hellenistic
through the Early Byzantine period. Although it is
difficult to determine to what extent it was self-suf-
ficient in the agricultural production, as we know
nothing about grain and vegetables cultivated in this
area, we do have abundant evidence of olive oil and
wine production. More coherent is the outlook on
the crafts. The local production of ceramic vessels
for the inhabitants daily needs, including amphorae
for storage and transport of agricultural products and
Fig. 17. Crusta from the Christian basilica
(by M. Gwiazda)
43
ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012 ECONOMY OF THE SETTLEMENT IN JIYEH
51 E.g., no Hellenistic and Roman amphorae produced in Jiyeh
were found so far in Chhim, in contrary to the later products,
recorded there in large quantities; cf. WICENCIAK, op. cit.
(n. 13), 887.
terracotta lamps, is attested for the whole period
under discussion. It is possible that some of these
wares,51 as well as a surplus of the olive oil and
wine production, were sold to neighbouring settle-
ments, bringing an additional income.
Another activity taken up by the inhabitants was
fishing and collecting of the molluscs. It is proved
by both archaeozoological finds and elements of fish-
ing equipment. Moreover, finds of slag and moulds
for net sinkers confirm the local production of metal
goods, which was probably limited to the needs of
the settlement. Concerning spinning and weaving,
this craft was possibly particularly developed, being
also connected with dying fabrics with purple. It is
indicated by the diversity of the equipment for thread
and textile production. The lack of loom weights in
the Early Byzantine contexts in which the spindle
whorls are still present may indicate a fast introduc-
tion of horizontal looms in the local workshops.
Stone-work and constructing activity was devel-
oped in Jiyeh between the Hellenistic and the Early
Byzantine period. Although sandstone was the easi-
est available material, the local craftsmen used also
the nearby located resources of limestone for the
Fig. 18. Selection of colour marbles (by M. Gwiazda)
Fig. 19. Selection of marble liturgical equipment: polylobed sigma table, chancel post and screen,
mensa, à bec de corbin-type plate, altar column (by M. Gwiazda)
44
MARIUSZ GWIAZDA ARCHEOLOGIA LXII-LXIII 2011-2012
production of mortars, plasters and architectural ele-
ments, such as thresholds. Moreover, stone was
widely used for sepulchral purposes, as shown by
sarcophagi, stelae and cippi, made in the style known
from Sidon and its vicinity.
According to the picture presented above, some
economic activities in the investigated settlement
certainly generated surpluses, which enabled the in-
habitants to purchase imported products. It is best
exemplified by the constant influx of ceramic table-
ware from distant production centres. Some of these
goods were subsequently distributed to the neigh-
bouring villages. The available evidence shows that
the peak of the economic growth probably took place
in the Early Byzantine period when a residential
quarter was built, together with the large Christian
basilica embellished with imported marble and roof
tiles. A similar peak of prosperity in the same pe-
riod was noted in the settlement of Kopetra, located
near the southern coast of Cyprus,52 as well as in
various parts of Syro-Palestine.53 According to the
archaeologists working in Kopetra, the settlement
played an important role as a subregional economic
link, connecting mountain villages specialized in agri-
cultural production and copper mining with the mari-
time trade network providing imported goods. The
same can be said about the investigated settlement
in Jiyeh.
Remains of olive oil and wine presses found in
the mountain villages located to the east of Jiyeh,
especially in Chhim, indicate a high level of agri-
cultural production in this microregion.54 These
villages must have had surpluses exchanged for im-
ported goods, such as imported fine pottery, mar-
bles and roof tiles. All these imports are character-
ized by a lesser diversity of forms than the parallel
finds from Jiyeh, and they come from a smaller
number of production and mining centres. This con-
firms an intermediary role of the ancient settlement
in Jiyeh, located directly at the coastline55 and on
the principal route of the via maris, in the trade
exchange between the off-coast areas of this micro-
region and other parts of Phoenicia and the entire
Mediterranean world.
Polish-Lebanese excavations of the settlement in
Jiyeh are still in progress, as is also surveying of its
neighbourhood and analyzing of the archaeological
materials. Therefore, the tentative conclusions pre-
sented above, shedding important light on the eco-
nomy of Phoenician countryside from the Hellenis-
tic through the Early Byzantine period, should be
complemented in the future, especially by results of
detailed archaeobotanical and archaeozoological ana-
lyses showing the scale of grain, vegetable and ani-
mal farming. Further discoveries may also help to
fill in some gaps in our knowledge of the chronol-
ogy and scale of local crafts.
Orodek Badañ nad Antykiem
Europy Po³udniowo-Wschodniej
Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego
Krakowskie Przedmiecie 32
PL 00-325 Warszawa
mariusz.gwiazda@gmail.com
52 M. RAUTMAN, A Cypriot Village of Late Antiquity. Kalava-
sos-Kopetra in the Vasilikos Valley (JRA Supplement, 52), Ports-
mouth 2003, 241243, 257.
53 G. TAT E , Les campagnes de la Syrie du Nord du IIe au
VIIe siècle. Un exemple dexpansion démographique et écono-
mique à la fin de lAntiquité (Bibliothèque Archéologique et His-
torique, 133), Paris 1992, 331 332, 343 348; P.-L. GATIER, Vil-
lages du Proche-Orient protobyzantin (4ème 7ème s.). Étude
régionale, in: G.R.D. KING, A. CAMERON (eds.), The Byzan-
tine and Early Islamic Near East II: Land Use and Settlement
Patterns (Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 1), Princeton
1994, 17 48; D. BAR, Population, Settlement and Economy in
Late Roman and Byzantine Palestine (70 641 AD), Bulletin of
the School of Oriental and African Studies 67 (3), 2004, 307320;
Y. H IRSCHFELD, Settlement of the Negev in the Byzantine Pe-
riod in Light of the Survey at Horvat Saadon, Bulletin of the
Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 24, 2006, 7 49.
54 M. EL TAYEB, Archaeological Reconnaissance in Iqlim
el Kharoub, Preliminary Report, in: WALISZEWSKI et al. 2002,
10 11; WALISZEWSKI et al. 2002, 2028.
55 So far, there is no evidence of an ancient harbour in Jiyeh.
The modern harbour is located in a bay to the southwest of the
site. The bay itself protects this part of the coastline from south-
ern winds. According to POLYBIUS (Hist. V.68), the Ptolemaic
fleet was anchored there during the battle with the army of
Antioch III in 218 BC; cf. also M. WONIAK, Strategy and the
Use of Terrain in the Battle of Porphyreon, 218 BC, in: WA-
LISZEWSKI et al. 2006, 9 12.
ABBREVIATIONS
BAAL Bulletin dArcheologie et dArchitecture Libanaises
BMB Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth
MAA Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry
OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeology
OLA Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta
WALISZEWSKI et al. 2002 T. WALISZEWSKI et al., Village ro-
main et byzantin à Chhîm-Mariyat. Rapport prélimi-
naire (19962002), BAAL 6, 2002, 5 105;
WALISZEWSKI et al. 2006 T. WALISZEWSKI et al., Jiyeh (Por-
phyreon) Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine settlement
on the southern coast of Lebanon. Preliminary report
on the 1997 and 20032005 seasons, BAAL 10, 2006,
584.
