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Vol. 12(12), pp. 944-952, 23 March, 2017
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2016.11518
Article Number: B546B8663264
ISSN 1991-637X
Copyright ©2017
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJAR
African Journal of Agricultural
Research
Full Length Research Paper
Appraisal of farmers’ wheat production constraints and
breeding priorities in rust prone agro-ecologies of
Ethiopia
Netsanet Hei1*, Hussein Ali Shimelis2 and Mark Laing2
1Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Ambo-PPRC, P. O. Box 37, Ambo, Ethiopia.
2African Center for Crop Improvement, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville 3209, Pietermaritzburg,
South Africa.
Received 4 August, 2016; Accepted 29 September, 2016
Ethiopia is the second largest producer of wheat in sub-Saharan Africa although yields remain
considerably below the global average due to several production constraints. The aim of the study was
to identify the primary threats to wheat production, farmers’ selection criteria for wheat varieties, and
disease management practices with emphasis on wheat rusts in the Arsi, Bale and West Shewa
administrative zones of Ethiopia. A total of 270 wheat growing households were interviewed in the three
administrative zones in 2012. Participatory rural appraisal tools, a semi-structured questionnaire and
focus group discussions were used to engage with the farmers. Main wheat production constraints
were wheat rust diseases, the high costs of fertilizers, shortage of improved seeds and high seed
prices. The most important traits that farmers sought in wheat varieties were disease resistance (27.8%)
and high grain yield (24.8%). Owing to the limited availability of rusts resistant varieties, and the
emergence of virulent pathotypes, fungicide application was the main disease management practice
used by 60% of respondent farmers. To enhance wheat production and productivity in Ethiopia, it is
important to develop rust resistant varieties considering farmers’ preferences, promote access to wheat
production inputs and strengthen seed multiplication and dissemination of improved varieties.
Key words: Ethiopia, participatory rural appraisal, rust, seed source, wheat production constraints, wheat traits.
INTRODUCTION
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the world’s leading
cereal grains serving as a staple food for more than one-
third of the global population. Globally, it is cultivated on
approximately 218 million hectares of land (HGCA,
2014). Ethiopia is the largest wheat producer in sub-
Saharan Africa (FAOSTAT, 2014). In Ethiopia wheat is
cultivated on over 1.6 million hectares of land, accounting
for 13.33% of the total grain crop area, with an annual
production of 4.2 million tons, contributing about 15.81%
of the total grain production (CSA, 2015). In terms of area
of production, wheat ranks fourth after teff (Eragrostis tef
Zucc.), maize (Zea mays L.) and Sorghum (Sorghum
*Corresponding author. E-mail: netsanetbacha@yahoo.com.
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
bicolor L.). In total grain production, wheat ranks third
after teff and maize in the country (CSA, 2015).
Wheat is largely grown in the mid and highland areas of
Ethiopia spanning at altitudes of 1500 to 3000 m above
sea level (masl). However, it is mainly grown between
1800 to 2500 masl in the country (Winch, 2007). Arsi,
Bale and Shewa administrative zones of the Oromia
Regional State of Ethiopia are among the major wheat
areas with 53.4% of the wheat produced in Ethiopia
coming from these zones (CSA, 2015). The Arsi and Bale
zones are included among the highest potential agro-
ecologies in Eastern Africa for wheat production with
467337.42 ha under wheat (Jobie, 2007; CSA, 2015).
In Ethiopia wheat is predominantly grown by small
scale farmers at a subsistence level, and these farmers
experience a wide range of biotic, abiotic and socio-
economic constraints. Wheat rusts, stem rust (Puccinia
graminis Pers. f.sp. tritici Eriks and Hann), leaf rust (P.
triticina Eriks) and stripe or yellow rust (P. striiformis
Westend. f. sp. tritici) are the major biotic constraints in all
wheat growing regions of the country. To combat yield
losses due to wheat rusts and other abiotic constraints,
the National Wheat Improvement Program has released
more than 30 wheat varieties since 2003. However, only
a few rust resistant wheat varieties are being planted by
farmers in the country (DRRW, 2010).
Different reports are available on the low adoption rate
of improved wheat varieties by resource poor farmers in
Ethiopia. For instance, Zegeye et al. (2001), DRRW
(2010) and Nelson (2013) indicated that most of the
released varieties in Ethiopia had been poorly adopted by
the small scale farmers because of lack of effective seed
production and delivery mechanism, weak integration of
variety requirements between breeders and farmers and
less adaptation of the breeders developed varieties to the
local environments. In Ethiopia, farmers’ variety
preferences is not only grain yield but also disease
resistance, straw yield, seed color, baking quality and
other related social values (Bishaw et al., 2010; Tesfaye
et al., 2014). Therefore, in order to enhance the adoption
rate of new wheat varieties, and improve wheat
production and productivity in the country farmers’
production constraints and varietal preferences should be
well known.
Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) has been widely
used to collect information on farmers’ varietal
preferences, production constraints and traditional
knowledge and experiences to mitigate food insecurity
and improve their livelihood (Chambers, 1994).
Understanding farmers’ preferences, attributes of wheat
varieties and wheat production constraints enables
breeders to set wheat breeding priorities (Weltzien and
Christinck, 2009). By integrating farmers’ concerns and
conditions into agricultural research, research will develop
technologies that become widely adopted, resulting in
more productive, stable, equitable and sustainable
agricultural systems (Martins et al., 2002; Owere et al.,
Hei et al 945
2012). Participatory rural appraisal has been previously
conducted on wheat in Ethiopia (Agidie et al., 2000;
Bishaw, 2004; Bishaw et al., 2010; Tesfaye et al., 2014),
however, information on presently grown varieties,
farmers’ key production constraints and preferences in
wheat cultivars is inadequate. The objective of the current
study was, therefore, to identify wheat production threats,
farmers’ variety selection criteria, and disease
management practices with special emphasis on wheat
rusts in Arsi, Bale and West Shewa administrative zones
of Oromia Regional State of Ethiopia.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of the study areas
The study was carried out in three selected administrative zones:
Arsi, Bale and West Shewa between February and April 2012. The
zones are situated in the Oromia Regional State of Ethiopia. All the
zones are wheat potential areas but differ in terms of agro-
ecological diversity and in the use of modern wheat production
technologies. The Arsi and Bale zones are situated in the South-
eastern of Ethiopia while the West Shewa zone is in the Central
highlands of Ethiopia. The study zones are dominated by three
major agro-ecologies: highlands (2300-3200 masl), midlands (1500-
2300 masl) and lowlands (500-1500 masl). The rainfall pattern in
the zones exhibits a bimodal nature: short and long rains during
February to May and June to September, respectively (CSA, 2014).
In all study zones mixed crop-livestock farming is the predominant
mode of agricultural production (Tefera et al., 2002). Wheat, tef,
barley and maize are the major cereal crops, together with pulses,
oil crops and vegetables (CSA, 2015).
Data source
Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from primary
and secondary sources. Primary data were collected through semi-
structured questionnaires and focus group discussions. The
secondary data were obtained from the zone and district agricultural
offices of the respective districts included in the study.
Sampling
A multi-stage sampling procedure was used involving the selection
of zones, districts, peasant associations and wheat farmers. A non-
random purposive sampling was used to select from the zones
through the districts, peasant associations and farmers levels. The
sampling procedure involved two districts per zone, three peasant
associations per district and fifteen respondents per village. This
resulted in a total of three districts, 18 peasant associations, and
270 respondents. Individual farmers were selected from each
peasant association representing various socio-economic
backgrounds (data not shown) and both gender (Table 1). Thus the
farmers selected for the study are believed to be the representative
of the wheat farmers in the three zones. Zone level agricultural
experts and district agricultural development offices assisted with
the identification of the sampled districts, peasant associations and
respondents.
Data collection
Semi-structured questionnaire was designed on topics related to
946 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
Table 1. The selected study areas in Arsi, Bale and West Shewa zones of the Oromia Regional
State in Ethiopia.
Zone
District
Male {No (%)}
Female {No (%)}
Total {No (%)}
Arsi
Tiyo
36 (80)
9 (20)
45 (16.7)
Munisa
39 (86.7)
6 (13.3)
45 (16.7)
Bale
Sinana
42 (93.3)
3 (6.7)
45 (16.7)
Gasera
41 (91.1)
4 (8.9)
45 (16.7)
West Shewa
Jeldu
39 (86.7)
6 (13.3)
45 (16.7)
Dandi
41 (91.1)
4 (8.9)
45 (16.7)
Total
238 (88.1)
32 (11.9)
270 (100)
the general socio-economic characteristics of the household, wheat
varieties grown, production constraints, wheat rust diseases and
their management. Enumerators were recruited for data collection
who lives in the area, fluent speakers of local language (Oromifa),
well acquainted with local and cultural contexts, and working within
the selected districts. They were trained on the contents of the
interview schedule and data collection techniques. Pre-test on non-
sample respondents was also made under supervision of the
researcher. Finally, the formal survey was conducted on 270
households after necessary modification and adjustments were
accommodated as per the result obtained from the pre-test.
Focus group discussions were held in each district to understand
farmers’ varietal preferences and the specific traits that influence a
farmer’s decision to grow a wheat variety, and the major constraints
affecting wheat production. Each group was composed of 10-15
wheat growers (both male and female). Checklists were developed
and used to guide focused group discussions with farmer groups
and individual key informants. The farmers were encouraged to use
their local language that they were most familiar with. The
development agents most familiar with the local language facilitated
the group discussions. During the discussion, the farmers were
asked to list wheat varieties they grow and to identify the traits that
they used in selection of the varieties, and list the main constraints
limiting wheat production.
Data analysis
Data (both qualitative and quantitative) obtained from sample
respondents were sorted, coded and subjected for statistical
analyses using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences
computer software (SPSS Inc., 2005). Both descriptive (means and
percentages) and inferential statistical procedures were used to
analyze the data obtained from households.
RESULTS
Demographic characteristics
The sample population contained 88.2% males and
11.8% females. Almost all the respondents (99%) who
participated in the study were farmers in agricultural
production. The mean family size of the sampled
population was 5 and about 85% of interviewed farmers
had family sizes greater than 3 persons per household. In
the study areas, children were contributing to farm labour
significantly. Farmers who were illiterate constituted 21%.
Farmers educated up to primary and secondary level
constituted 62 and 17%, respectively.
Farming system
Household total crop land in the study areas ranged from
0.5 to 15 ha, with mean farm size of 2.5 ha (SD 2.43).
The majority of the interviewed farmers allocate most of
their land for wheat as the number one crop. Of the 2.5
hectares of mean farm size owned by individual farmers,
a mean of 1.85 ha were dedicated to wheat production in
the study areas. Farmers in the study areas grow
different assemblage of crops. These include cereals,
pulses and oilseed crops. In addition to wheat, other
major crops grown by majority of farmers in the Arsi zone
were barley (Hordium vulgare L.) (71%), maize (Zea
mays L.) (51%), teff (E. tef (Zucc.) Trotter) (41%), faba
bean (Vicia faba L.) (46%) and linseed (Linum
usitatissimum L.) (18%). The three major cereal crops
widely grown after wheat were barley (58%), maize
(40%), and teff (39%) in the Bale zone. In West Shewa
most farmers grow maize (67%), teff (63%), barley
(41%), faba bean (38%), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.)
(24%), and noug (Guzotia abysinica Cass.) (15%).
Wheat is grown both in the main and short rainy
seasons in the Sinana and Gasera Districts of Bale zone.
The main rainy season has long rains which start in June
and end in September. It is the period when the largest
wheat area is cultivated. In the short rainy season, the
rain starts in February and ends in April. Seventy-three
percent of the farmers in these districts grow wheat in
both the main and the short rainy seasons, while 27% of
them only utilize the main season to produce wheat. On
the other hand, farmers in the Arsi and West Shewa
zones only grow wheat during the main rainy season. In
the study areas, wheat is produced solely under rain fed
conditions.
Hei et al 947
Table 2. Farmers’ sources of wheat seed in the Arsi, Bale and West Shewa zones of Oromia
Regional State in Ethiopia.
Sector
Seed source
Seed source in 2011 cropping season
Frequency
% response
Informal
Own stock
184
68.1
Other farmers
24
8.9
Local markets
20
7.4
Formal
Agricultural Offices
33
12.2
Research centers
3
1.1
Producer cooperatives
6
2.2
Total
270
100
Table 3. Wheat varieties grown, year of release and proportion of wheat farmers in the
study areas.
Variety
Year of release
% response
Arsi
Bale
West Shewa
Pavon 76
1982
11.10
1.15
-
Dashen
1984
-
-
31.75
Kubsa
1995
53.35
10.15
38.90
Galama
1995
-
3.35
30.55
Tusie
1997
39.75
77.20
-
Madawalabu
2000
6.80
46.20
1.15
Hawi
2000
1.10
-
-
Sofumer
2000
9.10
20.35
-
Digelu
2005
88.75
70.75
40.20
Kakaba
2010
15.85
3.40
1.10
Danda’a
2010
10.25
-
-
Local
-
-
6.75
10.70
Wheat seed source
The sources of seed for farmers are presented in Table
2. The informal sector was the source of seed for 84.4%
of the farmers in the area, where 68.1% respondents
used seeds retained from the previous harvest, and 8.9
and 7.4% of respondents used seeds from other farmers
and local markets, respectively. The formal sector
provided for only 15.5%, where 12.2% of households
sourced their seed from Agricultural Offices (AO) in the
respective districts, 1.1% from research centers and
2.2% from producers’ cooperatives (Table 2).
Wheat varieties grown by farmers and genetic
diversity
Table 3 shows the different wheat varieties grown by
farmers in the study areas. Most farmers grow more than
one variety, making the proportions above 100%. The
most commonly grown wheat varieties in the Aris zone
were Digelu, Kubsa and Tusie at 88.75, 53.35 and
39.75%, respectively. In the Bale zone, Tusie (77.2%),
Digelu (70.75%) and Madawalabu (46.2%) were the
dominant wheat varieties grown by the majority of
households. Digelu (40.2%) and Kubsa (38.9%) were
popular varieties in West Shewa zone.
Variety Digelu was grown by 88.8, 70.8 and 40%
respondents in Arsi, Bale and West Shewa zones,
respectively. Fifty three percent of respondents in Arsi
and 39% in West Shewa grew variety Kubsa on their
farms. The new bread wheat varieties, Kakaba and
Danda’a that were released in 2010 were grown in Arsi
by 15 and 10% of the farmers, respectively. Danda’a was
grown only by 3.4% of farmers interviewed in Bale zone.
None of the respondents in West Shewa grew these
varieties, while 10.7% of household used local wheat
varieties. Bread wheat was the principal type of wheat
948 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
Table 4. Farmers’-preferred traits required of improved wheat varieties in the study zones.
Farmers’-preferred traits
Zones
All survey
Arsi
Bale
West Shewa
Freq
%
Freq
%
Freq
%
Freq
%
Grain yield
25
27.8
15
16.7
27
30
67
24.8
Disease resistance
16
17.8
25
27.8
34
37.8
75
27.8
Grain yield and disease resistance
28
31.1
22
24.4
23
25.6
73
27.0
Environmental adaptability
7
7.8
8
8.9
2
2.2
6
6.3
Disease resistance and food quality
4
4.4
3
3.3
0
0
12
2.6
Grain yield and high market value
3
3.3
2
2.2
1
1
10
2.2
Grain yield, food quality and high market value
2
2.2
5
5.6
0
0
9
2.6
Grain yield, early maturity, disease resistance and food quality
1
1.1
4
4.4
2
2.2
7
2.6
Grain yield, disease resistance, high market value and food quality
4
4.4
6
6.7
1
1.1
11
4.1
Total
90
100
90
100
90
100
270
100
†Freq=frequency of respondents.
Table 5. Wheat varieties grown by farmers in the Arsi, Bale and West Shewa zones and their outstanding traits.
Wheat varieties
Preferred traits
Non- Preferred traits
Kubsa
High grain yield, high biomass, multiple use at home, white seed, adaptable to environment
Susceptible to disease
Digelu
High grain yield, multiple use at home, white seed, diseases resistant
Late maturity, hard straw
Galama
High biomass, multiple use at home, adaptable to environment
Susceptible to disease, late maturity
Dashen
White seed
Susceptible to disease
Kakaba
High grain yield, disease resistant, early maturity, white seed, tolerant to lodging, soft straw for
animal fodder
-
Madawalabu
High grain yield, disease resistant, early maturity
-
Pavon 76
White seed, early maturity
Susceptible to disease
Tusie
White seed, tolerant to rust
-
Sofumer
High grain yield, disease resistant
Purple seed color
Danda’a
High grain yield, disease resistant, white seed, tillering capacity, bread making quality, long spike
Late maturing, less treshability
grown by farmers in all surveyed areas.
Farmers’ preferred traits
In all the study areas, farmers used a combination of
criteria in selecting wheat varieties. The major and
common reasons behind varietal preferences are given in
Table 4. The most important criteria across the areas
were disease resistance (27.8%), high grain yield
(24.8%) and a combination of the two (27%). In Arsi
31.1% of respondents preferred a combined high grain
yield and disease resistance as the key criteria for
selecting wheat varieties. Disease resistance was a key
criterion for 27.8 and 37.8% farmers in Bale and West
Shewa, respectively.
Environmental adaptability was a criterion for 7.8% of
farmers in Arsi and 8.9% in Bale and 2.2% of
respondents in West Shewa. High market value in
combination with other traits was also a major selection
criterion in the study areas because wheat is a major
source of income in the areas.
Farmers in group discussions were also asked to
associate a particular wheat variety they grow with its
preferred and non-preferred traits. The most commonly
grown varieties, along with their preferred traits are
summarized in Table 5. Farmers in the study areas
selected wheat varieties Madawalabu, Sofumer, Danda’a
and Kakaba for their disease resistance. Tusie is tolerant
of rust and is preferred for its market value. Kubsa and
Galama are disease susceptible varieties but farmers still
grew these variteis for their high grain yield and biomass
which is used for animal fodder, fuel and house roofing
material. White seeded varieties such as Kubsa, Dashen,
Digelu, Kakaba, Danda’a, Tusie and Pavon 76 were
largely grown by farmers for sale because they are
preferred by urban consumers.
Farmers in group discussions stated that Kakaba is
tolerant to lodging because of its semi-dwarf nature. It is
early maturing variety and was preferred by farmers who
practiced double cropping. Kakaba was also preferred for
its soft straw which makes it suitable for animal fodder. In
contrast, Digelu has hard straw, making it little use for
animal fodder. Farmers raised that variety Digelu is late
maturing. However, they were convinced that this variety
is high yielding and has the best fit in areas that receive
extended rainfall. Danda’a was preferred by the farmers
for its tillering capacity, resistance to disease and long
spike. The farmers who grew Danada’a considered it as a
replacement for the old susceptible wheat variety,
Galama. The female famers who participated in the group
discussions also stated that the variety has good bread
making quality. However, the farmers indicated that
Denda’a has less threshing ability and difficult for
threshing using manual harvesting and threshing
methods. Hence, farmers obliged to use combine
harvesting.
Wheat production constraints
The farmers’ perceptions of wheat production constraints
and their ranks between locations are summarized in
Table 6. There was a marked agreement in the identified
constraints in the three survey zones, with some variation
in the ranking between the zones. High seed prices were
ranked fourth following a lack of access to seeds of
varieties in the Arsi and West Shewa zones, whereas
farmers in the Bale zone perceived high seed prices as
equally important to the lack of access to seeds of
improved varieties and both ranked third. Lack of credit
access was perceived as an important constraint in West
Shewa while it ranked lower in the Arsi and Bale zones.
Almost all sampled farmers (96%) in the three zones
considered the wheat rusts as the most important
production constraint. The second most important
constraint in the surveyed zones was high fertilizer price
(93%). Farmers in the study areas use fertilizers;
however, the amount applied per unit area is often lower
than the recommended rate because of the high price of
fertilizer. Lack of access to seeds of improved wheat
varieties (85%) was identified as the third most important
limiting factor of wheat production followed by high
improved seeds prices (81%). Unavailability and high
cost of improved seeds were mentioned as the two most
important reasons for not adopting wheat technologies by
the respondents. Low market prices of wheat were also
regarded as major constraints of wheat production by
66% of the farmers. Most farmers sold the produce in the
local markets and were discontented with the low prices
of wheat. Farmers mentioned that the low prices were
due to the fact that middlemen determined the price of
the produce.
Wheat rusts and farmers’ management methods
Farmers in the study areas were also asked to estimate
Hei et al 949
yield losses from rusts. This was done based on the
differences between yields from stem rust free wheat
farms and diseased wheat farms sown to the same
varieties. Accordingly, yield losses of 70.7, 60.5 and
60.0% were estimated in the Aris, Bale and West Shewa
zones, respectively (Table 7).
To reduce losses from rust infestations, fungicides are
being used by most producers. More than 60% of
interviewed farmers used fungicides for rust management
(Table 8). Tilt® (Propiconazol), Bayfidan® (Triadimenol),
and Mancozeb were the major fungicides used by the
farmers for rust control. Only 15% of the respondents had
adopted new varieties for the control of rusts. Varieties
Kakaba, Danda’a and Digelu were widely adopted rust
resistant wheat varieties during the study period. On the
other hand, a few farmers in Bale (6.7%) were planting
early to avoid rust damage. In contrast, almost 20% of
the farmers did not use any control measure to protect
their wheat farms from rust infection.
DISCUSSION
In Ethiopia wheat research programs to develop
improved wheat varieties were initiated during the 1950s.
Despite 60 years of wheat breeding in the country, most
of the released cultivars had been poorly adopted by
small-scale farmers (Zegeye et al., 2001; DRRW, 2010).
Majority of farmers in the study areas continue to grow
old varieties such as Kubsa and Galama that are often
susceptible to diseases. The reasons for the persistence
of old varieties were lack of farmers’ preferred traits in the
new cultivars, unavailability of sufficient quantity of new
seed or its poor distribution in the study areas and the
risk avoidance adopted by farmers who grow a mixture of
varieties to spread their risks.
The continued planting of rust susceptible varieties
poses a serious threat to stable wheat production in the
country. The failure to distribute newly released varieties
in a timely way exposes the country to an agricultural
time bomb, in a scenario ominously similar to the events
leading up to the 2010 and 2013 yellow rust and stem
rust epidemics, respectively. Another problem with the
continued use of susceptible varieties is that it increases
the chances of new mutant races of rusts developing to
attack presently resistant varieties (CIMMYT, 1989). To
address this, the recently released rust resistant wheat
varieties with diversity in genetic background, adaptation
and good yield potential should be delivered to small
scale farmers in time at affordable prices, to ensure
increase wheat productivity.
The study also indicated the predominance of informal
seed sector in seed distribution. The predominance of the
informal seed systems slows down replacement of older
varieties and delays the transfer of benefits from breeding
research to farmers. Hence, efforts should be made to
understand and solve factors in the seed system that
950 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
Table 6. Major wheat production constraints and their ranks in Arsi, Bale and West Shewa zones of Oromia Regional State in Ethiopia.
Constraints
Zones
All Surveyed
Arsi
Bale
West Shewa
†Freq.
%
Rank
Freq.
%
Rank
Freq.
%
Rank
Freq.
%
Rank
Rusts (yellow rust and stem rust)
87
96.7
1
86
95.6
1
86
95.6
1
259
96
1
Lack of seed of improved varieties
81
90.0
3
77
85.6
3
71
78.9
3
229
85
3
High seed price
78
86.7
4
77
85.6
3
65
72.2
4
220
81
4
High fertilizer price
85
94.4
2
82
91.1
2
84
93.3
2
251
93
2
Shortage of fertilizer
15
16.7
9
17
18.9
9
21
23.3
9
53
20
9
Low producer price
61
67.8
5
62
68.9
5
54
60.0
5
177
66
5
Weeds (grass weeds)
37
41.1
7
32
35.6
6
25
27.8
8
94
35
7
Poor soil fertility
11
12.2
10
10
11.1
11
12
13.3
11
33
12
11
Other diseases and pests
42
46.7
6
29
32.2
7
39
43.3
7
110
41
6
Unpredictable rain
18
20.0
8
13
14.4
10
16
17.8
10
61
17
10
Lack of access to credit
7
7.8
11
24
26.7
8
54
60.0
5
85
31
8
†Freq=frequency of respondents.
Table 7. Yield losses due to rusts in study zones.
Zone
Mean wheat productivity
Loss (%)
Under low/no rust infestation (t ha-1)
Under high rust infestation (t ha-1)
Arsi
4.1
1.2
70.7
Bale
3.8
1.5
60.5
West Shewa
2.0
0.8
60.0
Table 8. Wheat rusts control measures practiced in the study areas.
Control measures
Zone
All surveyed zones
Arsi
Bale
West Shewa
†Freq
%
Freq
%
Freq
%
Freq
%
None
14
15.6
15
16.7
24
26.7
53
19.6
Chemical
62
68.9
60
66.7
57
63.3
179
66.3
Resistant variety
14
15.6
9
10.0
8
8.9
31
11.5
Cultural practice (Early planting)
0
0
6
6.7
1
1.1
7
2.6
Total
90
100
90
100
90
100
270
100
†Freq= frequency of respondents.
may impede rapid varietal replacement. This effort will be
instrumental in improving the current seed multiplication
and dissemination pathway and widening the genetic
bases of wheat that will help in buffering the rust
incidence and contribute to household food security of
smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Besides, the seeds of
newly developed varieties must be produced in sufficient
quantities in the study areas to make the research efforts
more successful.
Wheat rusts have been major threats to wheat
production in Ethiopia. In recent years, novel pathotypes
of the rusts fungus have overcome resistant wheat
varieties (ICARDA, 2011). The study areas are among
the most rusts prone areas of East Africa and the wheat
farmers in these areas frequently suffer serious losses
from rusts epidemics (Hodson, 2013; Periyannan et al.,
2013). The yellow rust outbreak in 2010 significantly
reduced the national wheat annual production. The major
wheat producing regions including the study zones were
seriously affected of the epidemics with losses up to 70%
(Hunde et al., 2012; Yami et al., 2013). Hence, farmers in
all the study areas were in agreement that wheat rusts
are the most important production constraints. High
prices of chemical fertilizers and improved seeds were
also important production limiting factors in the study
areas. An increase in fertilizer prices due to the removal
of government subsidies has decreased fertilizer use in
the study areas. Consequently, farmers apply chemical
fertilizers below the recommended rates. Under such
circumstance, it is difficult to increase the wheat yields on
small scale farms. Bishaw et al. (2010) reported a serious
gap between the recommended rate and the actual
amount applied by the farmers.
Farmers in the study areas were well aware of the
benefit of resistant varieties for the control of rust
diseases. However, majority of the respondents grow old
varieties for the reasons described earlier and due to high
improved seed prices, and doubts about the level of
resistance provided by these new varieties to rust
diseases. Hence, farmers use fungicides for the control of
the rusts. The producers applied fungicides at early
growth stages but the application rates were below the
optimum rates to get the desired level of benefits. Early
planting is another important rust control measure. It
reduces the time of exposure of the crop to the pathogen
and hence reduces yield loss (Tolessa et al., 2014).
However, early planting is not a widely adopted disease
control measure by the farmers in the PRA zones.
Although farmers in the study zones had a range of
preferences regarding wheat varieties and specific traits,
they were in agreement that disease resistance is the
most important trait compared to all other traits. This
indicated that farmers were concerned about the
susceptibility of the existing varieties to rust diseases.
During the study period, variety Digelu which was
released in 2005 was still in high demand and was being
rapidly multiplied. However, Digelu developed extremely
Hei et al 951
high levels of stem rust epidemic in Bale zone during the
2013 cropping season, which led to 100% yield losses
(Hodson, 2013). It was resistant to stem rust at the time
of its release, but become susceptible to stem rust even
before its cultivation was in substantial areas. The failure
of many promising cultivars such as Digelu even before
its cultivation was in substantial areas, indicate disease
resistance as high breeding priority (Hei et al., 2014). The
farmers in the study areas also indicated grain yield as a
key criterion for selecting wheat varieties after rust
resistance. Breeding for disease resistant and high
yielding wheat varieties should also focus on other
important traits such as seed colour and early maturity
that were perceived as critical by famers.
In the past, durum wheat was the most widely grown
wheat type in the major wheat growing areas of Ethiopia.
Ethiopia is a center of diversity for durum wheat (Zohary,
1970) and Ethiopian durum wheat land races are
valuable sources of resistance to rust diseases (Denbel
and Badebo, 2012). To date bread wheat has become
predominant in most wheat areas of the country. Farmers
in the study areas shifted to bread wheat production
owing to its productivity per unit area relative to durum
wheat. However, this may seriously threaten the
existence of local durum wheat land races in the country
if strategic seed conservation is not undertaken on a
national scale.
Taking into consideration the range of attributes that
farmer’s use when choosing varieties for planting,
selection of a large breeding population is a prerequisite
when developing wheat varieties for small holder farmers.
In general, to ensure a high level of variety adoption and
therefore the high productivity of the crop, the wheat
breeding programme in the country should put more
emphasis on solving the problems of wheat farmers,
increase the frequency with which it releases new
varieties that resist diseases and yield well. Efforts should
also be made to conserve the indigenous durum wheat
landraces and make use of them in developing modern
wheat varieties.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to farmers of the study zones
who made this participatory rural appraisal study
possible. We acknowledge the Bureau of Agriculture staff
at zone and district levels, development agents and the
Ambo Plant Protection Research Center for facilitation of
the work. The financial support from Alliance for a Green
Revolution in Africa which enabled us to conduct the
study is greatly acknowledged.
952 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
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