The State of Gender Inequality in India

Abstract

Despite a high growth rate and plentiful Government measures to encourage gender equality, the gender gap still exists in India. Lack of gender equality not only limits women’s access to resources and opportunities, but also imperils the life prospects of the future generation. In the present article an attempt has been made to examine the problem of gender inequality in India. In this process, the article not only discusses the extent, causes and consequences of the problem, but also suggests policy measures to reduce gender inequality in India.

Full text

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DOI: 10.1515/genst-2017-0009
THE STATE OF GENDER INEQUALITY IN INDIA
SINGH SUMANJEET
Ramjas College, University of Delhi
University Enclave, New Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
sumanjeetsingh@gmail.com
Abstract: Despite a high growth rate and plentiful Government measures to
encourage gender equality, the gender gap still exists in India. Lack of
gender equality not only limits women’s access to resources and
opportunities, but also imperils the life prospects of the future generation. In
the present article an attempt has been made to examine the problem of
gender inequality in India. In this process, the article not only discusses the
extent, causes and consequences of the problem, but also suggests policy
measures to reduce gender inequality in India.
Keywords: Education, Gender, India, Inequality, Policy.
Gender inequality or the gender gap continues to be an immense
issue of concern in India despite its achieving high rates of economic
growth in recent years. Traditional patriarchal customs and norms have
relegated women to a secondary status within the household and workplace.
Gender inequality is reflected in India’s low ranking on the World Economic
Forum’s Gender Gap Index (GGI), 2014, with scores below average on
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parameters such as educational attainment, economic participation and
health and survival. On educational attainment, India ranked 126 with a
female to male ratio in the literacy rate of 0.68. On the criterion of economic
participation and opportunities, India was ranked 134. Its female to male
ratio in labour force participation was 0.36. India was the second-lowest
performing country on health and survival, ranking 141, just ahead of
Armenia. As a whole the country ranked 127th out of 146 countries with a
score of 0.563 on the gender inequality index and came 114th in the world in
terms of gender gap. According to the new (2015) report of the McKinsey
Global Institute, ‘The Power of Parity’, India’s global Gender Parity Score
(GPS) is 0.48, which represents an “extremely high” level of gender
inequality (Misra 2015). Furthermore, UNDP’s Human Development Index
(HDI) 2015 highlighted that with respect to gender inequality, among South
Asian countries, only Afghanistan fares worse than India. On every
parameter of the gender inequality index (GII), India lags behind even both
of its neighbouring countries, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Only 12.2 per cent
of parliamentary seats are held by women in India as against 19.7 per cent in
Pakistan and 20 per cent in Bangladesh. Some of the world’s poorest
nations, such as Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, Uganda and Mozambique,
have over a third to half of their parliamentary seats occupied by women.
India also has a high maternal mortality rate (MMR) of 190 deaths per
100,000 live births as compared to 170 pregnancy-related deaths per
100,000 births in both Bangladesh and Pakistan. India and Nigeria together
accounted for one third of global maternal deaths in 2013. 50,000 maternal
deaths occurred in India alone in 2013. In terms of the percentage of women
receiving secondary education, Bangladesh at 34 per cent far outperforms
India at 27 per cent (Lal 2016).
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On labour force participation, a majority of countries worldwide
show a positive trend in female workforce participation; the exceptions
include India. On the labour force participation rate for women, Bangladesh
stands at 57 per cent, China at 63.9 per cent and India at only 27 per cent
(Nair 2015). The 68th set of National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO)
data shows that between 2004-5 and 2011-12 there was a negative trend in
the women’s labour force participation rate (LFPR or proportion of labour
force to total population) in rural India. Rural female participation fell from
nearly 25 per cent in 2004-05 to 21 per cent in 2009-10 and then even lower,
to around 17 per cent, in 2011-12 (Shaw 2013). Such a fall also restricts
women’s ability to protect their health.
The Global Financial Inclusion Index (Global Findex, 2014)
database underlines that only 26 per cent of adult females in India have an
account with a formal financial institution, compared to 44 per cent of male
adults (World Bank 2014). A Reserve Bank of India (RBI) report (2013)
indicates that women’s credit outstanding from commercial banks accounts
for only 5 per cent of all credit outstanding (RBI 2013). Moreover, a recent
report of the MasterCard Connector’s Project (2015) points out that 58 per
cent of females in India report difficulty in accessing job opportunities
because of their gender (Gandhi 2015). Indeed, many important Global
Indices and reports show the sorry state of affairs in India as far as gender
equality is concerned.
The Government of India, along with various states, initiated a
number of policies, programmes and schemes intended to reduce the gender
gap and to boost women’s empowerment over the 1989-2015 period. Some
of these notable initiatives are the National Mission for Empowerment of
Women (NMEW), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
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(DWCRA), Gender Sub Plan (under the 8th Five Year Plan), Women
Component Plan (under the 9th Five Year Plan), Swadhar, Priyadrashani,
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK), Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana
(SGRY), Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), Awareness
Generation Projects for Rural and Poor Women, Kishori Shakti Yojana
(KSY), Swayamsidha Mahila Mandal Programme, Condensed Course of
Education for Adult Women, Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of
Adolescent Girls-Sable (RGSEAG), Swa-Shakthi, Swawlambn programme,
Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana Conditional Maternity Benefit plan
(IGMSY-CMB), Support to Training and Employment Programme for
Women, Swawalamban Programme, Swashakti Project, Integrated Child
Development Services, Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY), Maliha Samridhi
Yojana (MSY), Balika Samriddhi Yojana (BSY), National Programme of
Nutritional Support to Primary Education, National Programme for
Education of Girls at Elementary Level, Sukyana, Ladli Laxmi Yojana, Apni
Beti-Apna Dhan (ABAD) and many more.
But, in spite of these attempts, a considerable gender gap still exits.
In fact, according to the Global Gender Gap Report (2015) the economic
gender gap has actually widened by 1 per cent since 2006 (Malhotra 2015).
Lack of gender equality not only limits women’s access to resources and
opportunities but also imperils the life prospects of the future generation. To
give one example, the division of labour according to “sex-roles” usually
limits women to domestic work and restricts their access to material and
social resources and participation in political, economic and social decision-
making. A large amount of literature on the gender gap also indicates that it
is a major stumbling block in access to education. For instance, many
adolescent females, due to the social structure, usually have to help with the
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household work and take care of their siblings instead of going to school or
playing. Gender-based inequality results in the female literacy rate being
much lower, at 65.46 per cent, than that of their male counterparts, at 82.14
per cent (Table and Figure 1).
Table and Figure 1: Gender Disparity in Basic Education
Year
Male
Female
Total
1901
9.83
0.60
5.35
1911
10.56
1.05
5.92
1921
12.21
1.81
7.16
1931
15.59
2.93
9.50
1941
24.90
7.30
16.10
1951
24.95
7.93
16.67
1961
34.44
12.95
24.02
1971
39.45
18.69
29.95
1981
56.50
29.85
43.67
1991
64.13
39.29
52.21
2001
75.85
54.16
65.38
2011
82.14
65.46
74.04
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Note: Effective literacy rate (age 7 and above)
Source: Census of India, various years
The low female literacy rate has had a dramatically negative impact on
family planning and population stabilisation efforts in India. An NSSO
report states that about 15 percent of girls (around 90 million) never attend
school as compared to 11 percent of boys. As the young people grow older,
the gap in their educational status widens and widens with huge implications
over time.
Lack of education generally engenders a series of problems for them.
Uneducated mothers are not aware of the best nutritional choices for their
children. A study by Lawrence et al. (2009) identified the fact that compared
to women of higher educational attainment, women of lower educational
attainment had less control over their families’ food choices, showed less
support for attempts to eat healthily, fewer opportunities to observe and
learn good food-related practices, more perceived environmental
constraints, and more ambiguous beliefs about the consequences of eating a
nutritious diet. This leads to problems such as malnutrition and anaemia
among children. A Nandi Foundation report (2011) on ‘Hunger and
Malnutrition (HUNGaMA)’ found that in India as many as 42 per cent of
under-fives are severely or moderately underweight and that 59 per cent of
them suffer from moderate to severe stunting, meaning their height is much
lower than the median height. Further, the report found that awareness of
nutrition among mothers is low: “92 per cent of mothers had never heard the
word malnutrition.” Highlighting the negligence shown towards girl
children even in their early childhood, the report says that the nutritional
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advantage girls have over boys in the first months of life seems to be
reversed over time as they grow older (Dhar 2012).
Uneducated mothers are less likely to send their own children to school and
often do not participate in the labour force or the political process. They
rarely have any say in household affairs. The HIV/AIDS epidemic is closely
linked to education. The National Family Health Survey (1998-99) showed
that only 4 out of 10 women of reproductive age had heard of AIDS.
Awareness is much lower among rural and less educated women. Only 18
percent of illiterate women had heard of AIDS, compared with 92 percent of
women who had at least completed high school.
Without education, women lack confidence or knowledge to make
their own choice and are encouraged or forced to marry early. India holds
the miserable record of having the highest absolute number of child brides :
about 24 million. This represents 40% of the world's 60 million child
marriages. Early marriage forces girls into adulthood and, frequently,
motherhood before they are emotionally or physically mature. It profoundly
affects a girl’s life, not only by substantially lowering her educational
prospects, but also by causing health complications and harming
psychological well-being (Wodon 2014). In this way gender-based
discrimination in education is both a cause and a consequence of broader
forms of gender inequality in society (Pulugurtha 2008).
Added to this, unequal power relations and the low status of women,
as expressed by limited access to human, financial, and economic assets,
weaken the ability of women to protect themselves and negotiate safer sex
both within and outside of marriage, thereby increasing their vulnerability
(World Bank 2012). The Report on the Implementation of the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action (2014) stated that the lack of power of
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women in most cultural settings also impacts the nutritional intake and
health status of women and girls. This in turn leads to health issues such as
anaemia and intrauterine growth restriction during pregnancy. If a woman
gives birth to a female child while malnourished, then the child’s survival
and nutritional issues increase.
Apart from education, there are a number of intricate and often
interconnected factors that explain the prevailing gender gap in India. The
root cause of gender inequality in Indian society lies in its patriarchal
system. Most of India, with some exceptions, has strong patriarchal and
patrilineal customs, where men hold authority over female family members
and inherit family property and title. Examples of patriarchy in India include
prevailing customs in which inheritance passes from father to son, women
move in with the husband and his family upon marriage, and marriages
include a bride price or dowry. This ‘inter-generational contract’ provides
strong social and economic incentives for raising sons and disincentives for
raising daughters. The preference for sons is so strong that it is manifested
in terms of limiting the birth and survival of girl children. As a result, the
sex ratio in India has become imbalanced. From 983 girls for every 1000
boys in 1951, it went down to 945 in 1991, then to 927 in 2001, and
declined to 918 in 2011 - the worst since independence (Table and Figure 2).
Table and Figure 2: Increasing Imbalance in Child Sex Ratio in India
Year
Sex
Ratio
Child Sex Ratio
1901
971
*
1911
964
*
1921
955
*
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1931
950
*
1941
945
*
1951
946
983
1961
941
976
1971
930
964
1981
934
962
1991
927
945
2001
933
927
2011
940
914
Note: Girls per 1000 boys (under the age of 6);
* Data not available
Source: Census of India, various years
Sex-selective abortion of the female fetus following a prenatal diagnostic
test is widely believed to be the major contributor to this phenomenon (Sen
and Kumar 2001). According to a study by the United Nations Population
Fund (UNPF), the widening gap in the child sex ratio will lead to a deficit of
23 million females in the 20-49 age group by 2040. This scarcity will not
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improve their position in society. In fact, it will lead to increasing pressure
to marry, a higher risk of gender-based violence, a rising demand for sex
work and the development of trafficking networks (Salve 2015). Official
statistics show that there has been a considerable increase in the number of
reported crimes against women. According to a 2013 report, ‘Crime Against
Women’, by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), a crime against
women is recorded every 1.7 minutes in India. Every 16 minutes a rape is
recorded in this country and every 4.4 minutes a girl is subjected to
domestic violence. From 2011 to 2012 there was a 5.3% increase in
violations of the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act of 1956. A total of 24,771
dowry deaths have been reported in the past three years with the highest
individual number of them occurring in Uttar Pradesh, with 7,048 deaths. In
short, the increasing imbalance in the sex ratio is a sign of continuing
discrimination between the sexes.
A fundamental factor responsible for gender inequality in India, and
arguably one of the most powerful, is poverty. Out of the total of 30 per cent
poor people, 70 per cent are female. This factor is closely associated with
gender disparities in employment opportunities. While the share of
employed men remained roughly constant between 2009 and 2012, women's
employment dropped from 18 per cent to 16 per cent. Only 13.4 per cent of
working-age women (aged 15-59 years) have a regular salaried job
compared to 21.2 per cent of working-age men (ILO 2014). Women earn 56
per cent of what their male colleagues earn for performing the same work
(World Economic Forum 2014). As estimated by the World Bank, 90 per
cent of Indian working women are employed in the informal sector and do
tasks involving heavy physical work of different types, with long working
hours with limited payment, lack of guarantee of minimum wages, job
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insecurity and lack of minimum facilities at the work place. In turn, the
disparity in employment opportunities and the nature of the work in which
they are engaged contribute to women's economic disempowerment.
Poverty has various manifestations, including lack of income and
availability of resources sufficient to ensure a sustainable livelihood, hunger
and malnutrition, ill health, limited or a complete lack of access to education
and other basic services, increasing morbidity and mortality from illness,
homelessness and inadequate housing, unsafe environments and social
discrimination and exclusion. It is also characterised by an absence of
participation in decision-making and in civil, social and cultural life (UN
1995).
The educational backwardness of girls has been a consequential
cause of gender inequality in India. Educating a girl child is still seen as a
bad investment because she is bound to get married and leave her paternal
home one day. There are various barriers to girls’ education that appear
especially in developing countries like India, ranging from supply-side
constraints to negative social norms. Some of these include school fees;
strong cultural norms favouring boys’ education when a family has limited
resources; inadequate sanitation facilities in schools such as lack of private
and separate latrines; and negative classroom environments, where girls may
face violence, exploitation or corporal punishment. Additionally, schools
often lack sufficient numbers of female teachers. Due to these reasons
among many others, in some states, such as Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar,
Jammu and Kashmir and Rajasthan, the female literacy rate is below 60 per
cent (Figure 3). Thus, lacking a good education, women are ill-equipped for
the present day with its demanding job skills – and this despite the fact that
each year’s High School and Higher Secondary standard results show that
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the girls who take the exams are doing better than the boys. This shows that
parents do not spend much on a girl child after Higher Secondary standard;
hence they lag behind in the job market.
Figure 3: States with the Worst Female Literacy Rate in India
Source: Census of India
Lack of awareness, which is very closely connected with the level of
literacy, is another major factor responsible for the widening gender gap in
India. Most Indian women are not aware about their opportunities, their
rights and their capabilities. This lack of awareness hinders their
entrepreneurial development and stops them accessing credit from formal
financial institutions. Moreover, these women are unable to discover about
the schemes, policies and initiatives taken by the government to empower
them. In short, the information gap greatly affects women’s development.
Thus the causes of gender inequality are interdependent and interconnected.
Reports and studies stress that bridging gender gaps is imperative
not only from an equity perspective, but also from an economic one. Gender
equality is also important for national competitiveness, as human talent,
skills, education and labour productivity are essential determinants of
competitiveness. Since women account for slightly less than half of India's
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population (48.14 per cent in 2014, according to the World Bank),
empowering women would mean making the most of all of the country’s
talent. Added to this, numerous studies during the last decade have
confirmed that reducing the gender gap enhances productivity and economic
growth. According to a recent (2015) IMF report, ‘Catalyst for Change:
Empowering Women and Tackling Income Inequality’, eliminating the
gender gap could boost GDP by 5 per cent in the US, 9 per cent in Japan and
27 per cent in India. Closing the gender gap promotes economic
development, largely through the impact of female education on fertility,
child mortality and the creation of human capital in the next generation.
Falling fertility rates will lead to what Bloom and Williamson (1998) have
termed the “demographic gift”. Evidence from Asia, Africa and Latin
America consistently shows that closing the gender gap brings benefits by
strengthening women’s direct access to, and control over, resources and
income. A large number of studies have linked women’s income and greater
bargaining power within the family to improved child nutritional status,
which in turn influences health outcomes and educational attainment (FAO
2010-11). Appreciating the need to close the gender gap, former UN
Secretary General Kofi Annan said that improving gender equality creates
immediate benefits: “Families are healthier, they are better fed, their
income, savings and reinvestment go up. And what is true of families is true
of communities and, eventually, the world.”
According to ‘The Power of Parity’, a report by the McKinsey
Global Institute, India could increase its 2025 GDP, estimated at US$4.83
trillion, by between 16% and 60% simply by enabling women to participate
in the economy on a par with men (McKinsey 2015). To reap the benefits of
bridging the gender divide, the Government of India, especially in the last
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decade, has come up with many remarkable policies and programmes and
introduced new laws or amended existing ones to reduce this gap. The
provisions include quotas for women on local elected bodies (panchayats);
laws protecting women from domestic violence (The Protection of Women
from Domestic Violence Act 2005) and girl children from abuse (Juvenile
Justice (Care and Protection) Act 2000); laws providing equal rights to
school education (Commission of Protection of Child Rights Act 2005),
prohibition of child marriage (Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006),
guaranteeing equal benefits in employment schemes (Equal Remuneration
Act 1976); maternity benefit schemes (Maternity Benefits Act, 1961
(amended 1995)) and most recently laws for preventing sexual harassment
of women at the workplace (The Sexual Harassment of Women at the
Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redress) Act 2013). In 2001, a
National Policy for Women’s Empowerment was adopted to remove
discrimination against women and give them an equal share in social,
economic and political areas. As a result of these initiatives, women and
girls have been benefited to some extent. For example, in primary education,
the current enrolment ratio of 940 girls per 1000 boys seems perfectly in
line with India's overall gender ratio of 940 females per 1000 males. The
maternal mortality rate, or the rate of deaths among women during or after
pregnancy, had declined by 16% by 2011-12 compared with 2007-09. But
these achievements are not enough to offset the effects of the gender
inequity that is still so pervasive in India. Many women still lack the
autonomy to make their own choices about such important life decisions as
marriage and healthcare. Thus, far more needs to be done to bridge the
gender divide gap in India and thereby ‘transform India’ in a real sense.
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Primarily, gender inequality is a predicament of unequal
opportunities. Thus the solution also lies in providing equal opportunities to
women in access to services, resources and infrastructure such as healthcare,
education, banking, water, electricity, sanitation and communication tools,
etc. Without access to such resources women cannot use their potential,
skills, expertise, knowledge and passion, keeping them at a disadvantage.
Access to information and communication technology (ICT) tools is
particularly important as studies show that it has potential to broaden
women’s and girls’ opportunities in education and employment and can
bring greater access to health services. Examples would be the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) initiatives, the “Digital literacy”
campaign, training more than one million women in basic ICT skills, and
the “Mobiles for midwives” programme, which enables midwives practising
in remote areas to provide accurate records of births. Thus it is of great
importance to include an agenda for gender equality in ICT Policies,
programmes and projects at all levels. Added to this, women should be
given more opportunities to be visible in public life and institutions. It is
disturbing to see that women make up only 5 per cent of the total work
force, and that just 2 out of 24 Supreme Court judges, 11 per cent of
members of the last parliament and only 3 per cent of Vice-Chancellors are
women.
On the policy front, as suggested by Tavares and Mishra (2016),
concerted efforts are needed to ensure that planning, budgeting and auditing
processes contribute to gender equality. Taking tiny steps towards
integrating women in India’s growth story, in its budget for 2016-17 the
government proposed increasing spending on women-specific schemes
across ministries by 56 per cent (from 11,388 crore to 17, 412.01 crore) in
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2016-17. However, there are still no programmes for adolescent girls, or for
the skill enhancement of women (Masoodi 2016). There is an urgent need to
create institutional mechanisms to ensure representation of the women and
child development department in approval of committee members for new
programmes and to set up gender budget cells in all departments.
Added to this, the government needs to design more result-oriented
‘conditional cash transfer’ schemes on the lines of Apni Beti-Apna Dhan,
which provides a cash payment into a saving bond account on the condition
that the girl’s family keeps her in school rather than marrying her off young.
Similar schemes could be introduced to ensure children’s attendance at
school and health clinics. A conditional cash transfer scheme has had some
remarkable success in countries such as Brazil and Mexico. In these
countries a scheme was founded to help women invest in their own
education and in small livestock and poultry rearing, alongside doing more
for their children’s education (Kabir 2014). Highlighting the importance of
these schemes, Jamie et al. (2012) state that while savings-linked cash
transfers are not a panacea to end gender-based oppression, they offer a
high-impact model for early and targeted interventions that can influence
health, education, and economic opportunities. More importantly, they
provide a much-needed asset that a girl can hold proudly, use wisely, and
own completely.
In the light of the above discussion it can be concluded that a
country like India has a long way to go before it can call itself a ‘gender
neutral’ country. However, no simple and direct solutions are available to
minimise gender inequality as gaps are rooted in norms and in cultural and
social practices and are further consolidated by poor infrastructure and
service delivery. Possibly, the change will come only with awareness,
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cultural/fundamental restructuring, mindset shifting and through widening
access to public service delivery without discrimination on a gender basis.
No government, be it state or central, can by itself bring long-lasting
change. Government authorities, the donor community, the private sector
and civil society need to come together to act to close the gender gap, and a
system of accountability should be put in place to record the aid they
provide.
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Social Work, B.R. Ambedkar College, University of Delhi) for constructive criticism and
making a number of helpful comments in the preparation of the final draft. This paper is
part of an ongoing research project (RC 305) designed to study the impact of ICT on the
Gender Gap in India. The author gratefully acknowledges the infrastructural and financial
support of the University of Delhi.
Unauthenticated
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