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Salvia united: The greatest good for the greatest number
Abstract
Previous molecular phylogenetic research, based on chloroplast and nuclear ribosomal DNA data, has demonstrated that the large genus Salvia (Lamiaceae) is paraphyletic as traditionally circumscribed. However, neither relationships within Salvia s.l. nor within subtribe Salviinae have been evaluated using low-copy nuclear gene regions. Here, we use two low-copy nuclear gene regions (PPR-AT3G09060, GBSSI) to further assess relationships of Salvia and related genera within Salviinae. Our results largely confirm results from previous studies based on chloroplast and nuclear ribosomal DNA. Based upon the phylogenetic results presented here, previous phylogenetic studies, and taxonomic, morphological, and practical considerations, we conclude that the botanical community would be best served by maintaining a broadly defined Salvia, including the five small embedded genera Dorystaechas, Meriandra, Perovskia, Rosmarinus, and Zhumeria as Salvia species. We subsequently present an updated circumscription of Salvia.
... Salvia L. genus is the great abundant taxonomic group of the Lamiaceae family with ca. 1000 species [1]. The Salvia spp., have a wide worldwide distribution [2] and has been used in ancient traditional medicine, as food, and even in the production of cosmetics in different parts of the world [3][4][5], e.g., Salvia hispanica L., commonly known as chía, is an ...
... (+/-)-norepinephrine bitartrate hydrate (NE), carbamylcholine chloride (carbachol), indomethacin, L-NG-Nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME), 1H- [1,2,4] All other reagents and solvents were analytical grade. Stock solutions of all the chemicals were made in distilled water, except for the extracts, which were dissolved in DMSO (10%). ...
... (c) To establish the possible inhibition of soluble guanylyl cyclase enzyme (sGC), the E+ aortic rings were pre-incubated with 1-H- [1,2,4]-oxadiazolo-[4,3a]-quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ an sGC inhibitor (10 µM) for 15 min, previous to the contraction with NE (0.1 µM). The relaxation CRC of MESh (3.03 to 1000 µg/mL) was built as described before. ...
Salvia hispanica L., commonly known as chía, and its seeds have been used since ancient times to prepare different beverages. Due to its nutritional content, it is considered a dietary ingredient and has been reported with many health benefits. Chia seed components are helpful in cardiovascular disease (CVD) by reducing blood pressure, platelet aggregation, cholesterol, and oxidation. Still, its vasodilator effects on the vascular system were not reported yet. The hexanic (HESh), dichloromethanic (DESh), and methanolic (MESh) extracts obtained from chía seeds were evaluated on an aortic ring ex-vivo experimental model. The vasorelaxant efficacy and mechanism of action were determined. Also, phytochemical data was obtained through 13C NMR-based dereplication. The MESh extract showed the highest efficacy (Emax = 87%), and its effect was partially endothelium-dependent. The mechanism of action was determined experimentally, and the vasorelaxant curves were modified in the presence of L-NAME, ODQ, and potassium channel blockers. MESh caused a relaxing effect on KCl 80 mM-induced contraction and was less potent than nifedipine. The CaCl2-induced contraction was significantly decreased compared with the control curve. Phytochemical analysis of MESh suggests the presence of mannitol, previously reported as a vasodilator on aortic rings. Our findings suggest NO-cGMP pathway participation as a vasodilator mechanism of action of S. hispanica seeds; this effect can be attributed, in part, to the mannitol presence. S. hispanica could be used in future research focused on antihypertensive therapies.
... There are 500 taxa of Salvia in Central and South America, approximately 250 species in southwestern Asia, the Mediterranean region, and southern Africa, and approximately 100 species in eastern Asia (Walker & Sytsma, 2007). More unexpectedly, distinct from other genera of Lamiaceae, Salvia has two fertile stamens and it appears to have independently evolved different staminal lever mechanisms using an extended connective in each of these three geographical locations (Classen-Bockhoff et al., 2003, 2004Walker et al., 2004Walker et al., , 2015Walker & Sytsma, 2007;Drew et al., 2017;Hu et al., 2018). Consequently, due to a huge variety of habit, flower, and stamen morphology it is difficult to define infrageneric borders within the genus. ...
... Audibertia (Will & Classen-Bockhoff, 2017). The modern view, proposed by Drew et al. (2017), placed within Salvia five new small subgenera, until recently considered separate genera (Dorystaechas, Meriandra, Perovskia, Rosmarinus, and Zhumeria) because they share a number of synapomorphic morphological characters with Salvia, including having only two stamens with some connective elongation. Salvia comprises three well-supported major clades, including 11 named subgenera. ...
... Treating EA Salvia as eight separate genera would be at least confusing; furthermore, it seems untenable to treat EA Salvia as a single genus because they were unable to find any single morphological character that distinguishes EA Salvia from Salvia in the other centers of diversity, particularly in south-western Asia and the Mediterranean region. Therefore, following the suggestion of Drew et al. (2017), and drawing on their molecular analysis and morphological investigation, they formally define the EA Salvia clade as a subgenus Glutinaria, including eight sections (Hu et al., 2018). Morphologically, in contrast to the other two major centers of diversity where shrubs are common, all EA Salvia are herbaceous and have the same basic chromosome number, x = 8. ...
This paper comprises a study of the plant lists of Salvia, as genus of plants from 11 subgenera in the mint family (Lamiaceae) grown in Zagreb Botanical Garden of the Faculty of Science since 1895 until 2022. Synonymy, nomenclature and origin of plant material have been sorted. Lists of species grown in the last 127 years have been constructed to show that during that period at least 126 taxa from the genus Salvia (2 from subgen. Audiberia, 40 from subgen. Calosphace, 6 from subgen. Glutinaria, 8 from subgen. "Heterosphace” (informal designation for this group), 2 from subgen. Perovskia, 2 from subgen. Rosmarinus, 18 from subgen. Salvia and 48 from subgen. Sclarea) inhabited the Garden’s collections. Today, the genus is represented by 61 taxa from 8 subgenera in Botanical Garden: 1 from subgen. Audiberia, 12 from subgen. Calosphace, 4 from subgen. Glutinaria, 4 from subgen. “Heterosphace”, 1 from subgen. Perovskia, 1 from subgen. Rosmarinus, 13 from subgen. Salvia and 25 from subgen. Sclarea.
... An additional criterion, not theoretical but pragmatic and desirable is nomenclatural stability (Carruthers & Robin, 2010;Wright, 2015: 125;Drew & al., 2017). Many large genera are of economic or horticultural importance and names are used in commercial and cultural settings as well as by ecologists, conservationists, horticulturalists, etc. Users welcome nomenclatural stability and this is something that should be aimed for where possible. ...
... In fact, the issue of stability can be overstated as for example the sinking and nomenclatural changes of Lycopersicon Mill. into Solanum and Rosmarinus L. into Salvia seem to have been readily accepted (Drew & al., 2017;Gagnon & al., 2022). ...
... Case study 3. Salvia. -Salvia, as traditionally recognised (Drew & al., 2017;Mabberley, 2017) is an almost-cosmopolitan genus only absent from Australia and New Zealand. It forms a morphologically homogeneous group readily identifiable by Version of Record the staminal lever mechanism (Sprengel, 1793;Claßen-Bockhoff & al., 2004). ...
Big genera represent a significant proportion of the world's plants. However, comprehensive taxonomic and evolutionary studies of these genera are often complicated by their size and geographic spread. This paper explores the challenges faced in classifying these megadiverse plant groups consequent to the existing tension between diagnosability and increasing levels of resolution from molecular sequence data. We use recent examples from across angiosperms to illustrate how monophyly, diagnosability and completeness interplay with each other in attempts to classify several big genera and, specifically, the genus Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae). Ipomoea and the tribe Ipomoeeae have been the object of recent taxonomic and phylogenetic studies that highlight the limitations of previous attempts to classify the group, and show that the smaller segregate genera traditionally recognised in Ipomoeeae are nested within Ipomoea and are neither monophyletic nor diagnosable. We argue that existing classifications must be abandoned, and that recognising an expanded Ipomoea that incorporates all segregate genera of the Ipomoeeae is the most appropriate solution as it reconciles the properties of monophyly, diagnosability and completeness, and favours nomenclatural stability.
... Since the publication of the initial phylogenetic study on the tribe Menthineae (Wagstaff et al., 1995a(Wagstaff et al., , 1995b, our understanding of the phylogeny and systematics of Salvia have been modified based on the sequencing of additional nuclear and plastid regions with increasing taxonomic sampling (Drew & Sytsma, 2012;Drew et al., 2017;Fragoso-Martínez et al., 2018;Hu et al., 2018;Kriebel et al., 2019Kriebel et al., , 2020Takano & Okada, 2011;Walker & Sytsma, 2007;Will & Claßen-Bockhoff, 2014Will et al., 2015;Wu et al., 2021). In recent systematic studies of Salvia, Will and Claßen-Bockhoff (2017) suggested breaking the large Salvia group (i.e., Salvia s.l.) into six genera: Salvia sensu stricto, Ramonia Raf., Lasemia Raf., Glutinaria Raf., Pleudia and Polakia. ...
... However, they did not provide a taxonomic revision. Drew et al. (2017) embedded these latter five genera into a broadly defined Salvia and treated each as a subgenus. In recent phylogenetic studies of Salvia, Hu et al. (2018) and Kriebel et al. (2019) followed and updated the Drew et al. (2017) classification of Salvia, recognizing 11 subgenera. ...
... Drew et al. (2017) embedded these latter five genera into a broadly defined Salvia and treated each as a subgenus. In recent phylogenetic studies of Salvia, Hu et al. (2018) and Kriebel et al. (2019) followed and updated the Drew et al. (2017) classification of Salvia, recognizing 11 subgenera. In this study, to maintain stability in taxonomic definition and nomenclature, we follow the broad definition of Salvia (Drew et al., 2017;Hu et al., 2018;Kriebel et al., 2019). ...
Salvia is the most species-rich genus in Lamiaceae, encompassing approximately 1000 species distributed all over the world. We sought a new evolutionary perspective for Salvia by employing macroevolutionary analyses to address the tempo and mode of diversification. To study the association of floral traits with speciation and extinction, we modelled and explored the evolution of corolla length and the lever-mechanism pollination system across our Salvia phylogeny. We reconstructed a multigene phylogeny for 366 species of Salvia in the broad sense including all major recognized lineages and 50 species from Iran, a region previously overlooked in studies of the genus. Our comprehensive sampling of Iranian species of Salvia provides higher phylogenetic resolution for southwestern Asian species than obtained in previous studies. Our phylogenetic data in combination with divergence time estimates were used to examine the evolution of corolla length, woody versus herbaceous habit, and presence versus absence of a lever mechanism. We investigated the timing and dependence of Salvia diversification related to corolla length evolution through a disparity test and BAMM analysis. A HiSSE model was used to evaluate the dependency of diversification on the lever-mechanism pollination system in Salvia. A medium corolla length (15-18 mm) was reconstructed as the ancestral state for Salvia with multiple shifts to shorter and longer corollas. Macroevolutionary model analyses indicate that corolla length disparity is high throughout Salvia evolution, significantly different from expectations under a Brownian motion model during the last 28 million years of evolution. Our analyses show evidence of a higher diversification rate of corolla length for some Andean species of Salvia compared to other members of the genus. Based on our tests of diversification models, we reject the hypothesis of a direct effect of the lever mechanism on Salvia diversification. Therefore, we suggest caution in considering the lever-mechanism pollination system as one of the main drivers of speciation in Salvia.
... Salvia L. is among the largest genera of angiosperms with c. 1,000 species, and the most species-rich genus in the Lamiaceae (Drew et al. 2017;Kriebel et al. 2019). Salvia belongs in the Mentheae, the most species-rich tribe in the family and recognised as an ecologically and taxonomically important group. ...
... Salvia belongs in the Mentheae, the most species-rich tribe in the family and recognised as an ecologically and taxonomically important group. Salvia species are also important with respect to ethnobotany, phytotherapy, cuisine and gardening, in many traditional cultures (Epling & Toledo 1943;Harley et al. 2004;Drew et al. 2017). ...
... The genus was organized in 1876 into four subgenera by Bentham (Salvia, Leonia, Sclarea and Calosphace) [2]; however, its diterpenoid content [3] and recent taxonomic work, including molecular phylogenetic analysis, suggest a reconsideration of this classification [4,5]. Some authors have considered the existence of additional subgenera and the taxonomic complexity of such a rich genus has led to two main proposals regarding taxonomic treatment: on the one hand, the splitting of Salvia into six separate genera, and on the other hand, the inclusion of the species of the related genera Dorystaechas, Meriandra, Perovskia, Rosmarinus and Zhumeria as part of Salvia [6,7]. The second proposal is based on phylogenetic analysis using two low-copy nuclear gene In this work, we describe the results of the phytochemical analysis of the new species, S. carranzae, hoping that these results will help to establish its most suitable taxonomic position and, on the other hand, to evaluate the biological activity of its isolated secondary metabolites. ...
... The aerial parts of S. carranzae yielded, after dichloromethane extraction and thorough chromatographic purification, α-tocopherol and eleven diterpenoids: three new icetexane-type (1)(2)(3), in addition to the already known icetexanes (4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9) and abietanes (10)(11) (Figure 1). Structural elucidation and identification of the isolated compounds were performed by spectroscopic methods and comparison with the literature data. ...
From the aerial parts of Salvia carranzae Zamudio and Bedolla, three new icetexane-type diterpenoids were isolated. Their structures were established through spectroscopic methods and named the following: salvicarranzanolide (1), 19-deoxo-salvicarranzanolide (2) and 19-deoxo-20-deoxy-salvicarranzanolide (3). In addition, the known icetexane-type diterpenoids, 6,7,11,14-tetrahydro-7-oxo-icetexone (4), iso-icetexone (5), 19-deoxo-iso-icetexone (6), icetexone (7), 19-deoxo-icetexone (8) and 7α-acetoxy-6,7-dihydroicetexone (9), were also isolated, along with the abietanes sessein (10) and ferruginol (11). α-Tocopherol was also identified. Compounds 5, 6 and 8 were tested for their antiproliferative activity using the sulforhodamine B assay on six cancer and one normal human cell lines. Diterpenoids 5 and 6 showed noteworthy antiproliferative activity, exhibiting an IC50 (μM) = 0.43 ± 0.01 and 1.34 ± 0.04, respectively, for U251 (glioblastoma), an IC50 (μM) = 0.45 ± 0.01 and 1.29 ± 0.06 for K5621 (myelogenous leukemia), 0.84 ± 0.07 and 1.03 ± 0.10 for HCT-15 (colon cancer), and 0.73 ± 0.06 and 0.95 ± 0.09 for SKLU-1 (lung adenocarcinoma) cell lines. On the other hand, the phytotoxicity of compounds 5–7 and 9–10 was evaluated on seed germination and root growth in some weeds such as Medicago sativa, Panicum miliaceum, Amaranthus hypochondriacus and Trifolium pratense as models. While compounds 5 and 10 exhibited a moderate inhibitory effect on the root growth of A. hypochondriacus and T. pratense at 100 ppm, the diterpenoids 6, 7 and 9 were ineffective in all the plant models. Taxonomic positions based on the chemical profiles found are also discussed.
... (Hooker 1884;Mukerjee 1940;Harley et al. 2004). Drew et al. (2017) discussed the taxonomic circumscription and advocated the recent nomenclatural treatment for the genus Meriandra along with four other taxa, namely, Dorystaechas, Perovskia, Rosmarinus, and Zhumeria, by formally transferring them into Salvia s.l. in the subtribe Salviinae of Lamiaceae. The nomenclatural treatment of these taxa mainly relies on their phylogenetic proximity and shared taxo-morphological characteristics of Salvia (Drew et al. 2017). ...
... Drew et al. (2017) discussed the taxonomic circumscription and advocated the recent nomenclatural treatment for the genus Meriandra along with four other taxa, namely, Dorystaechas, Perovskia, Rosmarinus, and Zhumeria, by formally transferring them into Salvia s.l. in the subtribe Salviinae of Lamiaceae. The nomenclatural treatment of these taxa mainly relies on their phylogenetic proximity and shared taxo-morphological characteristics of Salvia (Drew et al. 2017). ...
Salvia strobilifera is endemic to the Indian Western Himalaya. This taxon is well-cited in Indian literature under its synonymous name Meriandra strobilifera, and has garnered attention due to its well-documented ethno-medicinal properties. However, our understanding of the species is limited when it comes to its floral biology and histological details. Presently, the taxon is studied morpho-histologically. The gynodioecious nature is morphologically confirmed in the species, while functionally, it exhibits a dioecious condition. Within the gynodioecious populations of the taxon, two plant morphs, namely, an andromonoecious (α) and carpellate (β) morph have been studied for species-specific as well as distinct characteristics. The inflorescence belonging to ‘α’ morphs are present with three types of flowers, i.e., Flw1, Flw2, and Flw3. All flowers possess two epipetalous fertile stamens with weakly exserted bithecate anthers and produce viable pollen. The Flw1 flowers lack gynoecium while the Flw2 and Flw3 flowers are monoclinous and with gynoecium (though, without developing seeds in Flw1, Flw2 and Flw3 flowers). Anthers are immobile with short filaments, reduced and puffy connective; two equal thecae are curved, and slightly elongated. The flowers belonging to the inflorescence of ‘β’ morph plants are present with only pistillate (or carpellate) conditions; four lobed ovary with basal nectaries are present, stigmas are bifid, but only one of the bifid part is functional, and it is associated with the stigmatic disc. All the flowers of ‘β’ morph plants are seed-producing. The taxon is cytologically recorded with n = 9 gametic chromosome number in their pollen mother cells (PMCs) of ‘α’ morph plants. The present morpho-histological study indicates new additions to the existing taxonomic characters of the plant species S. strobilifera within the subtribe Salviinae of the family Lamiaceae.
... Heldr., are not clearly resolved. Based on molecular data, two defensible opinions upon the status of these genera have been raised, lumping all into the genus Salvia (Drew et al. 2017) or dividing the genus Salvia into six genera plus maintaining the non-Salvia genera . The first approach, although commonly accepted, is not supported by diagnostic morphological characters. ...
... The results indicate that these data are useful in delimiting the different subtribes within Nepetoideae and Lamioideae (Naghiloo et al. 2014a, b, c, Claßen-Bockhoff 2017. These approaches, furthermore, is confirmed by molecular phylogenetic data (Drew et al. 2017). In the present study, we aim to employ floral ontogenetical data as important taxonomic evidence to determine the taxonomic status of S. majdae, i.e. whether it should be placed in Salvia s.l. or regarded as an independent genus. ...
Since the first description of Salvia majdae (syn. Zhumeria majdae ) in 1967, its taxonomic status has remained an enigma within Salvia senso lato due to its unusual characters, in particular the floral structure. Based on recent molecular phylogenetic data, two defensible opinions on its status have been proposed. Here, we studied the floral development of this species using scanning electron microscopy to resolve this ambiguity. The aspects of floral symmetry were also studied. Like species of Salvia and representative genera of Lamiaceae, the initiation sequence of sepals and stamens in S. majdae is unidirectional from adaxial to abaxial and reverse, respectively. The flowers show temporal overlaps in initiation of petals and stamens. However, in contrast, the bidirectional initiation of the petals in S. majdae is reversed, starting with the abaxial middle petal, followed by the two adaxial ones, and then finally ending with the two lateral ones. The filaments of the sterile stamens are elongated and exposed as staminodes thorough development. We conclude that subequal growth of the calyx lips, weak cochlear aestivation and bidirectional initiation of the petals and well‐developed sterile stamen primordia are responsible for the weak floral asymmetry in S. majdae . Based on these data, S. majdae shows significant differences from Salvia .
... According to (Jafri & El-gadi, 1985) Flora of Libya com-prises 10 Salvia L. species, out of which 3 are cultivated. Recently, Salvia rosmarinus Spenn., also known as rosemary, the most used name, Rosmarinus officinalis L., has to be considered a synonym of the actual name, because molecular investigations evidenced as Rosmarinus L. is nested in Salvia L. (Drew et al., 2017). ...
... Molecular studies have demonstrated that Salvia is not monophyletic (Will & Claßen-Bockhoff, 2017). Regarding classifications of the genus Salvia L., different opinions are proposed, one option is to treat the five embedded genera (Dorystaecha Meriandra, Perovskia, Rosmarinus, and Zhumeria) as subgenera and maintain Salvia in a broad sense (Drew et al., 2017;Kriebel et al., 2019) and the other is to split Salvia L. into six smaller genera (Will & Claßen-Bockhoff, 2017). ...
Salvia rosmarinus Spenn (synonym: Rosmarinus officinalis L.) is economically and medically important and grows naturally in Al-Marj (Libya). Macro, micro morphological and chemical characteristics were studied. Leaf venation, leaf anatomy and chemical compounds of essential oils were carried out according to traditional methods. The objective of the present study is to provide detailed description of the characteristics of this species. Morphological charactersistics of leaves, calyx, corolla, stamens are useful for sectional and specific delimitations in Salvia. The leaf architecture characters of primary, secondary, tertiary and quater-nary veins are good diagnostic markers for the identification and classification of species. Anatomical characters such as glandular and non-glandular trichomes , mesophyll structure, presence of hypodermis and structure of vascular bundles have been found to have taxonomic value. Cineol (32.38%) is main component of essential oil, followed by Camphor, β-pinene, borneol, Caryophyllene, α-terpineol and α-pinene. Chemical data in essential oils carried taxonomic value of Salvia species.
... The genus Salvia is an outstanding system to explore hypotheses about pollinator-mediated evolution and evolutionary constraints, as it shows a striking diversity of flower colors, shapes, and sizes. In addition, a key feature of most Salvia species is the presence of a mechanism that has been posited as a key innovation fostering radiation (i.e., staminal lever) (Claßen-Bockhoff et al., 2003, 2004Walker & Sytsma, 2007;Westerkamp & ClaßenBockhoff, 2007;Zhang et al., 2011), which independently appeared 3 times within the genus (Drew et al., 2017). Most species of Salvia in the Old World are pollinated by bees, except four African species, which are pollinated by Nectariniidae birds (Wester & ClaßenBockhoff, 2006). ...
... Instead, alternative non-adaptive hypotheses must be evaluated. Anther connectives, in particular, have independent origins in New World and Old World Salvia (Drew et al., 2017;Walker & Sytsma, 2007), and differences between groups may simply be the result of the different developmental pathways involved in the anther lever mechanism. In a recent article, Kriebel et al. (2022) demonstrated that asymmetric stigmas with a longer upper lobe and substigmatic brushes are restricted to subg. ...
A recent article by Kriebel et al. (2020) examines the relationship between floral shape evolution and pollination shifts in Salvia, a plant genus almost worldwide distributed, but particularly diverse in the New World. Kriebel et al. (2020) argue that a major shift to bird pollination at the origin of the subg. Calosphace (~20 million years ago [Mya]) imposed a legacy of constraints, resulting in significant differences in flower morphology between New World and Old World Salvia. However, reanalyzes of the data using hidden states to account for the heterogeneity in evolutionary rates do not support an early origin of bird pollination in this group. Instead, bird pollination may have appeared after the arrival of modern hummingbirds to North America (15.5-12 Mya), as in other North American plant clades. The use of more complex models of ancestral state reconstruction into comparative analyses provides a different perspective to explain morphological differences within Salvia. Our results indicate that bird pollination did not impose constraints on corolla shape evolution. Evolutionary constraints in anther connective and style shapes may have arisen at the origin of Calosphace but they were not associated with shifts to hummingbird pollination, being more likely the product of contingent evolution.
... Three of the funded PBI projects were undertaken on big genera of flowering plants (Solanum [19]; Euphorbia [20]; Miconia [21]) spurring the creation or strengthening of global consortia. Other global consortia have also undertaken work with large genera such as sedges (Carex [22]), sages (Salvia [23]), begonias (Begonia [24]) and morning glories (Ipomoea [25]). These global collaborations provided exactly the conditions Bentham [26] suggested were needed for real understanding of plant diversity almost 250 years ago. ...
In 2004, David Frodin published a landmark review of the history and concepts of big plant genera. Two decades of taxonomic activity have taken place since, coinciding with a revolution in phylogenetics and taxonomic bioinformatics. Here we use data from the World Flora Online (WFO) to provide an updated list of big (more than 500 species) and megadiverse (more than 1000 species) flowering plant genera and highlight changes since 2004. The number of big genera has increased from 57 to 86; today one of every four plant species is classified as a member of a big genus, with 14% in just 28 megadiverse genera. Most (71%) of the growth in big genera since 2000 is the result of new species description, not generic re-circumscription. More than 15% of all currently accepted flowering plant species described in the last two decades are in big genera, suggesting that groups previously considered intractable are now being actively studied taxonomically. Despite this rapid growth in big genera, they remain a significant yet understudied proportion of plant diversity. They represent a significant proportion of global plant diversity and should remain a priority not only for taxonomy but for understanding global diversity patterns and plant evolution in general.
... Scutellaria L. (Paton, 1990;Walker and Sytsma, 2007;Salmaki et al., 2012a;48 al., 2022a;Sun et al., 2022). During the past two decades, the circumscription 50 of Lamiaceae and evolutionary relationships within the family have been 51 gradually clarified based on a series of molecular phylogenetic studies 52 (Scheen et al., 2010;Bendiksby et al., 2011;Drew and Sytsma, 2012;Li et al., 53 2016;Drew et al., 2017;Li and Olmstead, 2017;Zhao et al., 2021a). 54 ...
Phlomoides, with 150–170 species, is the second largest and perhaps most taxonomically challenging genus within the subfamily Lamioideae (Lamiaceae). With about 60 species, China is one of three major biodiversity centers of Phlomoides. Although some Phlomoides species from China have been included in previous molecular phylogenetic studies, a robust and broad phylogeny of this lineage has yet to be completed. Moreover, given the myriad new additions to the genus, the existing infrageneric classification needs to be evaluated and revised. Here, we combine molecular and morphological data to investigate relationships within Phlomoides, with a focus on Chinese species. We observed that plastid DNA sequences can resolve relationships within Phlomoides better than nuclear ribosomal internal and external transcribed spacer regions (nrITS and nrETS). Molecular phylogenetic analyses confirm the monophyly of Phlomoides, but most previously defined infrageneric groups are not monophyletic. In addition, morphological analysis demonstrates the significant taxonomic value of eight characters to the genus. Based on our molecular phylogenetic analyses and morphological data, we establish a novel section Notochaete within Phlomoides, and propose three new combinations as well as three new synonyms. This study presents the first molecular phylogenetic analyses of Phlomoides in which taxa representative of the entire genus are included, and highlights the phylogenetic and taxonomic value of several morphological characters from species of Phlomoides from China. Our study suggests that a taxonomic revision and reclassification for the entire genus is necessary in the future.
... Rosmarinus officinalis belong to family Lamiaceae is an evergreen shrub and is commonly called as "rosemary, and widely applied as cooking additive and in the traditional medicine [1,2]. Biological activities such as antimicrobial and antioxidant of rosemary essential oils (REOs) were documented previously against Shigella sonei, Salmonella typhi, S. enteritidis, and Escherichia coli, furthermore REOs decreased the DPPH radical realization in a dose-dependent mode with IC 50 value of 3.82 µg/mL [3]. ...
Currently, it’s critical to develop efficient and focused processes for the extraction and separating the naturally occurring bioactive substances in the plant extracts. Helicobacter pylori is involved in the pathophysiology of several disorders, from gastritis without symptoms to stomach cancer. Induction of releasing bioactive compounds from rosemary plant extract with the evaluating of its anti-H. pylori, anti-hemolytic, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and healing properties was the aim of the present study. Rosemary plant was treated by moist heat, then extracted and analyzed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) compared to un-moist plant. The concentration of detected compounds except ferulic acid in moist rosemary extract (MRE) was more than that un-moist rosemary extract (UMRE). Concentrations of rosmarinic acid (34299.24 and 28341.54 µg/mL), ellagic acid (4106.39 and 2785.53 µg/mL), gallic acid (3763.63 and 2611.37 µg/mL), rutin (2456.26 and 1263.93 µg/mL) were recognized in MRE and UMRE, respectively. Well diffusion approach against H. pylori reflected that the inhibition zone caused by MRE was more (29.50 ± 0.5 mm) than that caused by NMRE (22.00 ± 1.0 mm). Moreover, MRE exhibited less minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) (3.9 µg/mL) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) (7.8 µg/mL) than UMRE (62.5 µg/mL). Hemolysis in the existence of H. pylori was more affected by MIC (25, 50, and 75%) of UMRE (12 ± 1.33, 4.3 ± 0.75, and 1.8 ± 0.33%) than MRE (19.7 ± 1.2, 6.0 ± 1.66, 3.3 ± 0.33%), respectively. Radical scavenging activity via 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) reflected low IC50 value (3.45 µg/mL) of MRE compared to UMRE (5.02 µg/mL). Moreover, antioxidant potential via total antioxidant capacity and Ferric reducing antioxidant power indicated that the MRE was more actually than NMRE. α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition was attractive using MRE with IC50 values of 3.18 ± 0.33 and 3.91 ± 0.25 µg/mL, compared to IC50 values of 7.34 ± 0.33 and 21.23 ± 0.87 µg/mL, respectively using UMRE.
... Salvia L., representing the largest genus within the Lamiaceae family, encompasses an estimated 1000 species. Its widespread distribution across both the Old and New Worlds, combined with its rich morphological diversity and unique pollination strategies, has consistently drawn the attention of botanists and ecologists (Drew et al., 2017;Hu et al., 2018;Kriebel et al., 2019;Drew, 2020;Kriebel et al., 2020). East Asia, in particular, stands out as significant hub of Salvia diversity, housing approximately 100 species. ...
Introduction
Salvia L., representing the largest genus within the mint family, is noted for its global distribution of approximately 1000 species, with East Asia, and particularly China, recognized as a critical center of diversity for the genus.
Methods
Our research was conducted through extensive fieldwork in Guidong County, Hunan Province, China, where we identified a previously undescribed species of Salvia. The identification process involved detailed morphological observations, phylogenetic analyses, and plastid genomics.
Results
The newly discovered species, Salvia guidongensis, exhibits unique characteristics not commonly observed in the East Asian lineage of Salvia, including dual floral colors within natural populations—either pale purple or pale yellow. Morphologically, while it shares similarities with members of sect. Glutinaria, S. guidongensis is distinct in its floral morphology, stature, and specific foliar traits. Phylogenetic analysis places S. guidongensis in a unique clade within the East Asian lineage of Salvia, suggesting it may serve as an important evolutionary link. Additionally, we explored the plastome features of S. guidongensis, comparing them with those of closely related species.
Discussion
The discovery of S. guidongensis not only entriches the taxonomic tapestry of Salvia but also provides critical insights into the biogeography and evolutionary pathways of the genus in East Asia. By integrating morphological and molecular data, we validate the novel status of S. guidongensis and highlight its significance in bridging taxonomic and evolutionary gaps within Sect. Glutinaria of Salvia.
... Ruellia simplex is considered an invasive species in the south-east USA, Australia and Pacific archipelagos [150]. [151], counts about 8 species distributed over arid regions of Asia [125], whose identification and nomenclature are complicated by several hybrids and cultivars selected by gardeners. Considering the morphological features of leaves, different from the supposed parental species, the collected material has been ascribed to the hybrid S. abrotanoides × S. yangii according to Galasso et al. [25] and Dolatowski et Zieliński [152]. ...
A single paragraph of about 200 words maximum. For research articles, abstracts should give a pertinent overview of the work. We strongly encourage authors to use the following style of structured abstracts, but without headings: (1) Background: Place the question addressed in a broad context and highlight the purpose of the study; (2) Methods: briefly describe the main methods or treatments applied; (3) Results: summarize the article’s main findings; (4) Conclusions: indicate the main conclusions or interpretations. The abstract should be an objective representation of the article and it must not contain results that are not presented and substantiated in the main text and should not exaggerate the main conclusions.
... Ruellia simplex is considered an invasive alien species in the South-East U.S.A., Australia and Pacific archipelagos [150]. G.González, later reduced at the subgeneric rank and included into Salvia [151], counts about eight species distributed over arid regions of Asia [125], whose identification and nomenclature are complicated by several hybrids and cultivars selected by gardeners. Considering the morphological features of leaves, different from the supposed parental species, the collected material has been ascribed to the hybrid S. abrotanoides × S. yangii according to Galasso et al. [25] and Dolatowski et Zieliński [152]. ...
Despite the wide amount of scientific contributions published on alien plant species, their diffusion dynamics, and their interactions with native taxa, it is increasingly difficult to slow down their spreading and their negative impact on habitats. Last recent years, in fact, a sharp rise in the number of new alien plant taxa introduced in Italy and Europe has been recorded. The aim of this work is to investigate most of the Italian territory in order to verify whether this alarming trend is still underway. Specimen collections and/or observations of alien plants have been performed in as
many as 12 Italian regions. All the collected specimens are stored in public or private herbaria. Taxa have been identified according to the literature from the countries of origin of the investigated taxa, while the nomenclature followed the current international references. Updates on 106 taxa are reported. In particular, among 117 new records, 89 are first records, 27 are changes to status and there is 1 extinction. Seven new taxa for Italian alien flora are reported, two of which are new to Europe. The administrative regions with the highest number of records are Calabria (48), Sardegna (17) and Sicilia (15). Five of the surveyed taxa, for the first time, have been considered invasive aliens to Italian territory. The unfrequent amount of originalresults provided by this work, overthe simple importance of data itself, proves how floristic investigation, still today, represents one of the most effective tools in broadening the current knowledge about alien taxa and their dynamics.
... In addition, S. glutinosa, a plant species widely distributed in Europe but with similar floral morphology to S. miltiorrhiza is known to contain tanshinone derivatives (Nagy et al., 1998;Hu et al., 2018). To date, many phylogenetic studies have been conducted that have divided Salvia into several clades or subgenera placing S. miltiorrhiza in the same clade or subgenus as S. glutinosa (Drew et al., 2017;Will and Claßen-Bockhoff, 2017;Hu et al., 2018;Kriebel et al., 2019;Rose et al., 2021;Wu et al., 2021;Moein et al., 2023). However, S. glutinosa differs from other species of the same subgenus or clade in that it is the only one distributed not only in Asia but also in Europe, while the other species are mainly represented by Chinese species (Will and Claßen-Bockhoff, 2017). ...
The roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza are the source of the traditional Chinese medicine danshen and the class of tanshinones, particular quinoid nor-diterpenoids of the abietane type. Of these compounds, cryptotanshinone, dihydrotanshinone I, tanshinone I, and tanshinone IIA, have been extensively studied for their anticancer potential, not only but as well because of their high abundance in S. miltiorrhiza and their thus easy availability. However, also additional Salvia species are known to contain tanshinones, mainly such of the subgenus Glutinaria, of which S. glutinosa is the only species widely occurring in Europe. Using UHPLC-DAD-MS, the tanshinone profile of S. glutinosa roots collected from two different locations was compared to the profile in S. miltiorrhiza roots. In addition, tanshinone IIA and another six diterpenoids from S. glutinosa were investigated for their antiproliferative and cytotoxic potential against MDA-MB-231 and HL-60 cells. Apart from dihydrotanshinone I, which has been previously characterized due to its anticancer properties, we determined danshenol A as a highly antiproliferative and cytotoxic agent, significantly surpassing the effects of dihydrotanshinone I. With regard to the diterpenoid profile, S. miltiorrhiza showed a higher concentration for most of the tanshinones, except for (+)-danshexinkun A, which was present in comparable amounts in both species. Danshenol A, in contrast, was only present in S. glutinosa as were dehydroabietic acid and (+)-pisiferic acid. The results of our study underlines the long traditional use of danshen due to its high amount on tanshinones, but also demonstrates the potential value of investigating closely related species for the discovery of new biologically active lead compounds.
... The East Asian species belong to Salvia subgen. Glutinaria which is a well-supported monophyletic group (Drew et al. 2017, Will andClaßen-Bockhoff 2017). Huang et al. (2014) classified the Chinese Salvia species into three groups (I, II, and III) based on floral characteristics, stamen type, and the position of pollen deposited on the pollinator's body. ...
Flowers of Salvia are characterized by a diversity of staminal lever types mediating pollen transfer. In the East Asian subgenus Glutinaria, species have been categorized based on their distinct flower and stamen morphologies. A hypothesized advantage of degraded-lever types suggests they may optimize pollinator foraging time, increase visitation rates, and potentially trigger autonomous self-pollination. However, this hypothesis remains untested. Here, Salvia castanea, S. miltiorrhiza, and S. liguliloba were selected as test species representing the three major flower and stamen types of the East Asian sages. We compared the species with regard to their inflorescence architecture, floral display, nectar reward, pollinator efficiency, and seed set. We found that S. liguliloba had a degraded-lever type that significantly reduced pollinator foraging time did not significantly increase pollination efficiency. These species have a mixed mating pattern with high seed set, no pollen- or pollinator limitation, and no inbreeding depression. We conclude that the diversity of floral traits is addressed to pollinators, whereas reproductive success emerges from a complex interplay of factors encompassing floral characteristics, pollination efficiency, plant life history, or/and other biotic and abiotic factors. For this reason, the link between floral morphological traits and mating systems should not overestimated.
... Perovskia were considered to represent a separate genus, and its sister taxon is Rosmarinus. However, this genus was recently reclassified as the Perovskia subgenus of the extended genus of Salvia [2]. The current valid species names in the Kew database are Salvia yangii B.T. Drew (previously Perovskia atriplicifolia) and Salvia abrotanoides (Kar.) ...
Among traditional Iranian herbs, Perovskia species (a subgenus of Salvia), while being valued ornamentals, are also studied for numerous potential pharmacological and therapeutic aspects. The current study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of two species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), Funneliformis mosseae and Rhizophagus intraradices, separately and in combination, in terms of the essential oil content and compositions along with the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants in Salvia abrotanoides and S. yangii in response to three levels of irrigation, including 100% FC as well-watered, 75% FC (moderate irrigation deficit), and 50% FC (severe irrigation deficit). In both species, essential oil content, enzyme antioxidant activities, total phenolics, and flavonoids were increased significantly with the severity of stress; this increase was more pronounced in mycorrhizal inoculated herbs. Furthermore, leaf phosphorus concentration, relative water content, chlorophylls a and b, and total carotenoids decreased in parallel with reducing soil moisture; albeit, AMF inoculation improved the stress symptoms under increasing severity of water restriction compared with their control conditions. In addition, the percentage of root colonization was positively correlated with the relative water content (RWC) and leaf phosphorus concentration. Taking into account the essential oil groups, AMF colonization elevated some essential oil components, such as oxygenated monoterpenes, 1,8-cineol, camphor, and borneol, whereas the main sesquiterpenes, including E-β-caryophyllene and α-humulene, remarkably decreased. Taken together, these findings highlighted the role of symbiosis with AMFs in increasing the tolerance of water deficit stress in S. abrotanoides and S. yangii and improving their essential oil composition.
... Perovskia were considered as a representative of the separate genus Perovskia, and its sister taxon was Rosmarinus (Walker et al., 2004). However, this genus was recently reclassified as the Perovskia subgenus of the extended genus of Salvia (Drew et al., 2017). The current valid species names in the Kew database are Salvia yangii B.T. Drew (formerly Perovskia atriplicifolia Benth.), as well as Salvia abrotanoides (Kar.) ...
Despite the fact that most of the studied activities of plant phenolic compounds rely on their antioxidant properties, few clues about their antiglycation activity are available. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the potential of phenolic compounds to suppress the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in the leaf and root system of two Salvia subg. perovskia species. The study evaluated the antiglycation activity of the plant species and the main polyphenolic profiles in the bovine serum albumin (BSA)/methyl-glyoxal (MGO) system. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis also revealed the presence of rosmarinic acid, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid and rutin. The study found that rosmarinic acid and rutin were the major phenolic compounds in both species. The leaf crude extracts possessed a higher inhibitory effect against BSA glycation than from other parts. The study concluded that rutin can successfully interact with the key residues of Asp108, His145, Tyr147, Arg196, and Arg458. The results of the study can provide new insights into the development of effective molecules for the treatment of conformational protein diseases.
... To date, different studies have evidenced antiproliferative effectiveness against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains of different EOs mainly obtained from species belonging to Lamiaceae, such as Origanum L., Ocimum L., Thymus L., Lavandula L., and Rosmarinus L. (which are included in the genus Salvia L. [2,3,[5][6][7][8][9]). Lamiaceae comprises many morphologically diverse plants, which are widely distributed worldwide and able to produce large amounts of secondary metabolites [9]. ...
In recent years, essential oils (EOs) have received interest due to their antibacterial properties. Accordingly, the present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the EOs obtained from seven species of Salvia on three strains of Listeria monocytogenes (two serotyped wild strains and one ATCC strain), a bacterium able to contaminate food products and cause foodborne disease in humans. The Salvia species analysed in the present study were cultivated at the Botanic Garden and Museum of the University of Pisa, and their air-dried aerial parts were subjected to hydrodistillation using a Clevenger apparatus. The obtained EOs were analysed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry for the evaluation of their chemical composition, and were tested for their inhibitory and bactericidal activities by means of MIC and MBC. The tested EOs showed promising results, and the best outcomes were reached by S. chamaedryoides EO, showing a MIC of 1:256 and an MBC of 1:64. The predominant compounds of this EO were the sesquiterpenes caryophyllene oxide and β-caryophyllene, together with the monoterpenes bornyl acetate and borneol. These results suggest that these EOs may possiblt be used in the food industry as preservatives of natural origin.
... Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. (Lamiaceae) [1][2][3] ("rosemary") is an aromatic evergreen shrub native to the Mediterranean region, and it has been used for centuries for its culinary, medicinal, and aromatic properties [4]. Several Italian ecotypes have been studied for their possible exploitation [5][6][7]. ...
The Salvia rosmarinus “Eretto Liguria” ecotype was studied as a source of valuable bioactive compounds. LC-MS analysis of the methanolic extract underlined the presence of diterpenoids, triterpenoids, polyphenolic acids, and flavonoids. The anti-virulence activity of carnosic acid along with the other most abundant compounds against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was evaluated. Only carnosic acid induced a significant reduction in the expression of agrA and rnaIII genes, which encode the key components of quorum sensing (QS), an intracellular signaling mechanism controlling the virulence of MRSA. At a concentration of 0.05 mg/mL, carnosic acid inhibited biofilm formation by MRSA and the expression of genes involved in toxin production and made MRSA more susceptible to intracellular killing, with no toxic effects on eukaryotic cells. Carnosic acid did not affect biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a human pathogen that often coexists with MRSA in complex infections. The selected ecotype showed a carnosic acid content of 94.3 ± 4.3 mg/g. In silico analysis highlighted that carnosic acid potentially interacts with the S. aureus AgrA response regulator. Our findings suggest that carnosic acid could be an anti-virulence agent against MRSA infections endowed with a species-specific activity useful in multi-microbial infections.
... Recientemente se han desarrollado diferentes contribuciones para comprender mejor la sistemática y filogenia (González-Gallegos et al., 2016;Martínez-Gordillo et al., 2019;Lara-Cabrera et al., 2021;Rose et al., 2021), diversidad y distribución (Cornejo-Tenorio e Ibarra-Manríquez, 2011;Lara-Cabrera et al., 2016;González-Gallegos et al., 2020a, 2022, y propiedades fitoquímicas del género (Ortiz-Mendoza et al., 2022). Uno de los hallazgos más relevantes consistió en la redefinición de su delimitación taxonómica a partir de estudios filogenéticos (Walker et al., 2004;Drew et al., 2017;Hu et al., 2018), lo que permitió circunscribirlo como un grupo natural y dar paso a estudios i n t e g r a t i v o s d e l a e v o l u c i ó n d e c a r a c t e r e s morfológicos (Benítez-Vieyra et al., 2014Fragoso-Martínez et al., 2018;Kriebel et al., 2019Kriebel et al., , 2021Kriebel et al., , 2022. Las revisiones taxonómicas por regiones y estudios de distribución de la riqueza de sus especies han sido fructíferos en el descubrimiento de especies nuevas, actualización de descripciones morfológicas, documentación de la distribución de las especies y curación de los especímenes examinados en colecciones de herbario . ...
RESUMEN Existen seis especies mexicanas del género Salvia (Lamiaceae) que se conocen solo a partir del ejemplar tipo, o de este y pocas colectas antiguas. Es prioritario poder incrementar el muestreo de ellas para documentar mejor su morfología y distribución. Para contribuir con esta tarea, se realizaron búsquedas en herbarios y trabajo de campo que hasta ahora han permitido la localización de una de las especies, Salvia iodophylla Epling. Esta planta se conocía solamente del material tipo de 1854 y de una colecta tres años posterior a esta, ambas realizadas en el centro del estado de Veracruz. La investigación permitió encontrar dos especímenes de herbario provenientes del norte del estado de Oaxaca colectados en el año 2000, lo que amplía su distribución conocida, además se redescubrió una población de esta especie en Veracruz, después de 165 años del último registro para el estado. Se presenta una descripción amplia que ayuda a comprender mejor la posición de esta especie con relación al resto de especies del género Salvia. Se añaden fotografías, un mapa de la distribución geográfica de la especie y se define su estado de conservación.
ABSTRACT There are six Mexican Salvia (Lamiaceae) species that are known only from the type specimen, or from this and some few additional old collects. It is crucial being able to increase the samples of these to better document their morphology and distribution. To contribute with this task, herbarium collections were examined, and field work was carried on, which has allowed until now to locate one of these species, Salvia iodophylla Epling. This plant was known only from the type material collected in 1854 and from a specimen collected three years later. The research led to find two herbarium specimens coming from Northern Oaxaca, collected during 2000, extending the known distribution of the species, besides a population was rediscovered in Veracruz, after 165 years since the last observation for the state. A broad description is presented and helps to better understand the position of this species in relation to the rest of the species of the Salvia genus. Photographs and a map of the geographic distribution of the species are added, and its conservation status is assessed.
... Vandellia sensu Liang (2017) comprised 49 species, almost all of which were transferred from other genera. A large number of species name changes will lead to confusion for end-users of these names (most of them are not taxonomists) (Drew et al., 2017). Due to limited sampling in the current study, we have insufficient evidence to elucidate the circumscription of Vandellia, pending comprehensive phylogenomic analyses to better determine the strength of support for this genus. ...
Introduction
The recently established Linderniaceae, separated from the traditionally defined Scrophulariaceae, is a taxonomically complicated family. Although previous phylogenetic studies based on a few short DNA markers have made great contributions to the taxonomy of Linderniaceae, limited sampling and low resolution of the phylogenetic tree have failed to resolve controversies between some generic circumscriptions. The plastid genome exhibits a powerful ability to solve phylogenetic relationships ranging from shallow to deep taxonomic levels. To date, no plastid phylogenomic studies have been carried out in Linderniaceae.
Methods
In this study, we newly sequenced 26 plastid genomes of Linderniaceae, including eight genera and 25 species, to explore the phylogenetic relationships and genome evolution of the family through plastid phylogenomic and comparative genomic analyses.
Results
The plastid genome size of Linderniaceae ranged from 152,386 bp to 154,402 bp, exhibiting a typical quartile structure. All plastomes encoded 114 unique genes, comprising 80 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, and four rRNA genes. The inverted repeat regions were more conserved compared with the single-copy regions. A total of 1803 microsatellites and 1909 long sequence repeats were identified, and five hypervariable regions (petN-psbM, rps16-trnQ, rpl32-trnL, rpl32, and ycf1) were screened out. Most protein-coding genes were relatively conserved, with only the ycf2 gene found under positive selection in a few species. Phylogenomic analyses confirmed that Linderniaceae was a distinctive lineage and revealed that the presently circumscribed Vandellia and Torenia were non-monophyletic.
Discussion
Comparative analyses showed the Linderniaceae plastomes were highly conservative in terms of structure, gene order, and gene content. Combining morphological and molecular evidence, we supported the newly established Yamazakia separating from Vandellia and the monotypic Picria as a separate genus. These findings provide further evidence to recognize the phylogenetic relationships among Linderniaceae and new insights into the evolution of the plastid genomes.
... It has a powerful aroma, dark green elongated leaves and whitish, bluish-or bluish-purple flowers [1][2][3]. The name generally used, Rosmarinus officinalis L., is a synonym of the actual name, Salvia rosmarinus Spenn., because recent evidence has shown that Rosmarinus L. are nested in Salvia L. [4]. ...
Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. is a native Mediterranean shrub belonging to the Lamiaceae family and is well-known as a flavoring and spicing agent. In addition to its classical use, it has drawn attention because its biological activities, due particularly to the presence of polyphenols, including carnosic acid and rosmarinic acid, and phenolic diterpenes as carnosol. In this study, the aerial part of rosemary was extracted with a hydroalcoholic solution through maceration, followed by ultrasound sonication, to obtain a terpenoids-rich Salvia rosmarinus extract (TRSrE) and a polyphenols-rich Salvia rosmarinus extract (PRSrE). After phytochemical characterization, both extracts were investigated for their antioxidant activity through a classical assay and with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) for their DPPH and hydroxyl radicals scavenging. Finally, their potential beneficial effects to reduce lipid accumulation in an in vitro model of NAFLD were evaluated.
... & Wendelbo), los cuales están intercalados entre distintos clados de Salvia y carecen de palanca estaminal. Bajo esta propuesta, Salvia se convirtió en un gran género (Frodin, 2004), que es monofilético y se caracteriza por la presencia de conectivos engrosados o alargados (Drew et al., 2017). Al interior de Salvia se reconocen 11 clados y/o subgéneros dentro de los que destaca Salvia subgénero Calosphace (Benth.) ...
Antecedentes y Objetivos:
Durante una excursión a Atoyac de Álvarez, una región poco explorada de Guerrero, se recolectaron especímenes de Salvia con características poco comunes en taxones mexicanos. El objetivo de este trabajo es describir e ilustrar a Salvia ayecarrenoi y discutir sus afinidades morfológicas.
Métodos:
Se emplearon claves de identificación para determinar los ejemplares colectados a nivel de sección. Se comparó morfológicamente con los taxones de la sección Siphonantha usando bibliografía disponible, colecciones de herbarios y bases de datos. El estado de conservación de la nueva especie se determinó con base en los criterios de la IUCN.
Resultados clave:
Salvia ayecarrenoi es una especie endémica de Guerrero, con una combinación única de caracteres: inflorescencias hasta de 46 cm de largo, flores de color violeta, tubo ventricoso, estambres exsertos y curvados. Esta última característica es común en especies sudamericanas, pero rara en taxones mexicanos. Por lo tanto, su morfología está cercana a la sección Siphonantha, un grupo de cinco taxones de los Andes septentrionales. La nueva especie comparte algunas características morfológicas con Salvia sigchosica. Sin embargo, difiere de ella principalmente por la ausencia de guías de néctar, el tubo de la corola ventricoso, el labio inferior de la corola cuculado y la rama estigmática superior bien desarrollada y más larga que la rama inferior. De acuerdo con los criterios de la IUCN, la nueva especie está en Peligro Crítico (CR B1a).
Conclusiones:
Con Salvia ayecarrenoi, el número de especies mexicanas de Salvia subgénero Calosphace aumenta a 311. Las afinidades morfológicas de la nueva especie la ubican en una sección sudamericana. Sin embargo, otras secciones con distribución disyunta han resultado no monofiléticas. Por ello, es necesario reevaluar la clasificación infragenérica del grupo y los caracteres morfológicos usados para circunscribir secciones, con el objetivo de obtener agrupaciones más naturales.
... formed a clade with Salvia species, whereas M. officinalis acted as a sister clade47,48,55,56,59,60 . ...
The genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae) comprises myriad distinct medicinal herbs, with terpenoids as one of their major active chemical groups. Abietane-type diterpenoids (ATDs), such as tanshinones and carnosic acids, are specific to Salvia and exhibit taxonomic chemical diversity among lineages. To elucidate how ATD chemical diversity evolved, we carried out large-scale metabolic and phylogenetic analyses of 71 Salvia species, combined with enzyme function, ancestral sequence and chemical trait reconstruction, and comparative genomics experiments. This integrated approach showed that the lineage-wide ATD diversities in Salvia were induced by differences in the oxidation of the terpenoid skeleton at C-20, which was caused by the functional divergence of the cytochrome P450 subfamily CYP76AK. These findings present a unique pattern of chemical diversity in plants that was shaped by the loss of enzyme activity and associated catalytic pathways.
... Rosemary or Salvia rosmarinus (commonly also known as Rosmarinus officinalis) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Lamiaceae family [29] . Rosemary is an evergreen shrub that can grow up to 1-2 meters in height with dark green, needle-like leaves that are about 2-4 cm in length and a distinct, woody aroma; the flowers of rosemary are small, blue, and appear in clusters at the tips of the branches [30] . Rosemary contains a variety of biologically active compounds, including terpenes, essential oils, and phenolic compounds. ...
Acne vulgaris is a common skin condition that affects individuals of all ages. Conventional treatments for acne can have various side effects and may not be effective for all individuals. This study aimed to investigate the effect of rosemary extract in the treatment of acne vulgaris. The study was conducted on a group of individuals with acne vulgaris who were treated with rosemary essential oil in a gel product twice daily for a period of four weeks. The efficacy and safety of rosemary oil were evaluated by measuring the reduction in acne lesions and improvement in overall skin condition. The results of the study showed that rosemary oil was effective in reducing acne lesions and improving overall skin condition in individuals with acne vulgaris. The study also found that rosemary oil was well-tolerated and had minimal side effects. These findings suggest that rosemary extract could be a safe and effective natural alternative for managing acne vulgaris.
... The genus Salvia, from the mint family (Lamiaceae), has around 1,000 species worldwide (Etminan et al., 2018). These species are divided into ten clades, nine of them currently considered formally as subgenera (Drew et al., 2017). Mexico is one of the most important centres of diversification of the genus, harbouring ca. ...
... One of the most significant genera in the Lamiaceae family, Salvia (garden sage), has around 1000 species worldwide [4]. Numerous Salvia species are used to make herbal tea, as well as in cosmetics, fragrances, and medicines [5]. The biological properties of plants in antidiabetic, and anxiolytic characteristics, further set them apart [6][7][8][9]. ...
Salvia yangii B.T. Drew and Salvia abrotanoides Kar are two important fragrant and medicinal plants that belong to the subgenus Perovskia. These plants have therapeutic benefits due to their high rosmarinic acid (RA) content. However, the molecular mechanisms behind RA generation in two species of Salvia plants are still poorly understood. As a first report, the objectives of the present research were to determine the effects of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) on the rosmarinic acid (RA), total flavonoid and phenolic contents (TFC and TPC), and changes in the expression of key genes involved in their biosynthesis (phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), 4-coumarate-CoA ligase (4CL), and rosmarinic acid synthase (RAS)). The results of High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis indicated that MeJA significantly increased RA content in S. yungii and S. abrotanoides species (to 82 and 67 mg/g DW, respectively) by 1.66-and 1.54-fold compared with untreated plants. After 24 h, leaves of Salvia yangii and Salvia abrotanoides species treated with 150 M MeJA had the greatest TPC and TFC (80 and 42 mg TAE/g DW, and 28.11 and 15.14 mg QUE/g DW, respectively), which was in line with the patterns of gene expression investigated. Our findings showed that MeJA dosages considerably enhanced the RA, TPC, and TFC contents in both species compared with the control treatment. Since increased numbers of transcripts for PAL, 4CL, and RAS were also detected, the effects of MeJA are probably caused by the activation of genes involved in the phenylpropanoid pathway.
... Plants extracts are an abundant source of active compounds to be used in crop disease control (Islam et al., 2020;Rachidi et al., 2021;Ricci et al., 2019;Shukla et al., 2021). Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus Spenn, syn Rosmarinus officinalis L.) (Drew et al., 2017), belonging to the Lamiaceae family, is a medicinal and aromatic evergreen shrub that grows in several regions all over the world (Ribeiro-Santos et al., 2015). Rosemary extracts has been known for many prominent pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antioxidant, mainly due to its high levels of phenolic compounds (Habtemariam, 2016;Klancnik et al., 2009;Kola et al., 2020;Moreno et al., 2006;Petersen, 2013;Ribeiro-Santos et al., 2015;Yesil-Celiktas et al., 2010). ...
Plant bioactive compounds provide novel straightforward approaches to control plant diseases. Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus)-derived extracts carry many prominent pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial and antioxidant, mainly due to its phenolic compounds, rosmarinic acid (RA), carnosic acid and carnosol. However, the effects of these extracts on plant diseases are still unknown, which constrains its potential application as bioprotectant in the agricultural production. In this study we demonstrate the antiviral effect of the aqueous rosemary extract (ARE) against tobacco necrosis virus strain A (TNVA) in ARE-treated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants. Our results show that ARE-treatment enhances plant defense response, contributing to reduce virus replication and systemic movement in tobacco plants. RA, the main phenolic compound detected in this extract, is one of the main inducers of TNVA control. The ARE-induced protection in TNVA-infected plants was characterized by the expression of H2O2 scavengers and defense-related genes, involving salicylic acid- and jasmonic acid-regulated pathways. Furthermore, treatment with ARE in lemon (Citrus limon) and soybean (Glycine max) leaves protects the plants against Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri and Diaporthe phaseolorum var. meridionalis, respectively. Additionally, ARE treatment also promotes growth and development, suggesting a biostimulant activity in soybean. These results open the way for the potential use of ARE as a bioprotective agent in disease management.
... Salvia officinalis L., also known commonly as sage, is an economically important aromatic and medicinal plant. It belongs to the mint family of Lamiaceae within Lamiales [1]. Salvia means "to heal or save" in Latin, and its species name "officinalis" means "medicinal" [2,3]. ...
Our previous study was the first to confirm that the predominant conformation of mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) sequence of Salvia species contains two circular chromosomes. To further understand the organization, variation, and evolution of Salvia mitogenomes, we characterized the mitogenome of Salvia officinalis. The mitogenome of S. officinalis was sequenced using Illumina short reads and Nanopore long reads and assembled using a hybrid assembly strategy. We found that the predominant conformation of the S. officinalis mitogenome also had two circular chromosomes that were 268,341 bp (MC1) and 39,827 bp (MC2) in length. The S. officinalis mitogenome encoded an angiosperm-typical set of 24 core genes, 9 variable genes, 3 rRNA genes, and 16 tRNA genes. We found many rearrangements of the Salvia mitogenome through inter- and intra-specific comparisons. A phylogenetic analysis of the coding sequences (CDs) of 26 common protein-coding genes (PCGs) of 11 Lamiales species and 2 outgroup taxa strongly indicated that the S. officinalis was a sister taxon to S. miltiorrhiza, consistent with the results obtained using concatenated CDs of common plastid genes. The mapping of RNA-seq data to the CDs of PCGs led to the identification of 451 C-to-U RNA editing sites from 31 PCGs of the S. officinalis mitogenome. Using PCR amplification and Sanger sequencing methods, we successfully validated 113 of the 126 RNA editing sites from 11 PCGs. The results of this study suggest that the predominant conformation of the S. officinalis mitogenome are two circular chromosomes, and the stop gain of rpl5 was found through RNA editing events of the Salvia mitogenome.
... y Calosphace (Benth.) Epling y, al grupo informal Heterosphace (Drew et al., 2017;Kriebel et al., 2019). Calosphace, endémico al continente americano, es el subgénero más diverso de Salvia con 580 especies (González-Gallegos et al., 2020). ...
In this study, Salvia divinorum is described and illustrated as a new record for the state of Veracruz. During the work aimed at carrying out the inventory of the flora from the margins of the rivers that originate in the eastern hillsides of the Cofre de Perote, in the central region of the state of Veracruz, specimens of Salvia (Lamiaceae) that were different from the known species of the state, were registered. When these collected specimens were identified, it was concluded that they belonged to Salvia divinorum, a species previously known as endemic to Oaxaca, where it has ceremonial importance for the Mazatec. The species is represented by a population in the understory of the cloud forest, along the river margins, at 1500 m of elevation, associated with Carpinus caroliniana, Clethra mexicana, Liquidambar styraciflua, Meliosma alba, and Quercus germana. The population is apparently healthy, and it does not show signs of use or management. However, it is necessary to perform more research along the river margins to determine if there are more localities where this species can be found.
... It is a diploid (2n = 24) with hermaphrodite flowers, on which insect mediated pollination is common both resulting in allogamy and self-fertilization (Pottier-Alapetite, 1981;Zaouali et al., 2010;Nunziata et al., 2019). The previously used botanical name of rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis L. has become a synonym of the actual name Salvia rosmarinus since evidence from molecular investigation nested Rosmarinus into the genus Salvia (Drew et al., 2017). ...
Forty-five rosemary genotypes collected from different parts of Ethiopia were evaluated for quantitative morphological traits to estimate the genetic variability, heritability and association of characters. The genotypes displayed significant differences for all of the studied traits, showing the presence of wide variability among the tested genotypes. The genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation were found to be medium and high for all growth and yield traits except for leaf length. Moderately high to high broad-sense heritability (0.66 -0.97) coupled with moderate to high genetic advance as a percent of the mean (10.37 -79.14) values were found for all traits. Correlation coefficient and path coefficient analysis revealed that characters vis. branch number plant-1, fresh leaf weight plant-1, dry leaf weight plant-1, fresh leaf yield ha-1, and essential oil content had a high positive direct effect and significant positive association with essential oil yield ha-1. Thus direct selection for these traits would be quite effective for essential oil yield enhancement in rosemary. In general, the studied accessions were diverse in nature and could be exploited in the conservation, breeding and commercialization of the crop.
... The greatest good obtained from Pretrial is the opening of opportunities for the justice-seeking community, which is quite large, to make corrections to law enforcement in the future. Investigators are becoming more cautious and professional in establishing a person as a suspect (Baker, 2002;Drew et al., 2017). This professionalism will undoubtedly result in justice seekers obtaining their human rights as envisioned by the principle of Habeas Corpus. ...
This study aims to determine the practice of holding pretrial hearings in Indonesia changed in the aftermath of the 2014 constitutional court ruling 21 / PUU-XII / 2014 as well as legal expediency accrue from pre-trial actions against suspects' determinations, both for the suspect himself and for the suspect. This study is a descriptive qualitative research with the use of normative legal research with primary data collection namely Court Decisions, Legislations which are analyzed using Legislative approaches, Case Approaches and Analytical Approaches. The findings reveal that Pretrial hearings were implemented in Indonesia following the constitutional court's decision Number: 21 /PUU-XII/2014, creating a new legal phenomenon in which suspects flocked to file pretrial legal efforts, which naturally clogged up relevant state institutions such as POLRI, KPK, the Prosecutor's Office as well as the District Court, where pretrial which had previously been viewed as a less popular legal effort, was instantly weakened as if it Advocates defending suspects and on the other hand, related institutions can prepare themselves by enacting a series of regulations requiring increased prudence in determining suspects in order to "survive" the new weapons of suspects known as Pretrial. However, when viewed through the lens of legal expediency, it is a positive thing for investigators because it means that Pretrial can be used as a tool of correction.
... This is not surprising because only recently, the genus Rosmarinus was included into the genus Salvia with R. officinalis renamed to S. rosmarinus Spenn. (Drew et al., 2017). Far more interesting is the grouping of some Perilla citriodora TPS genes in cluster C, because the genus Perilla is not closely related to Salvia. ...
The diversity of plant monoterpenes is largely based on the catalytic activity of monoterpene synthases. Additionally, copy number variation of monoterpene synthase genes may contribute to the quantity of transcripts and hence to the essential oil profile. This study used whole-genome sequencing and digital PCR for the measurement of copy number variation and quantification of gene expression in three closely related Salvia species, namely Salvia officinalis, Salvia pomifera and Salvia fruticosa. Twelve, 13 and 15 monoterpene synthase-encoding open-reading frames were predicted for Salvia officinalis, Salvia pomifera and Salvia fruticosa, respectively. In Salvia officinalis, one of the open reading frames was disrupted indicating a pseudogene. Monoterpene synthase genes were generally single copy per haploid genome, only a few were double or triple copy genes. Expression levels of monoterpene synthases in leaves corresponded generally well with essential oil composition. In some cases, a higher expression level of a certain monoterpene synthase could be explained by its duplication or triplication. The very high content of thujones in Salvia pomifera, for example, was accompanied by gene duplication and increased gene expression of (+)-sabinene synthase responsible for the thujone precursor sabinene. In Salvia officinalis, three individuals different in their essential oil profile showed significant differences in their monoterpene synthase expression levels corresponding roughly to the profile of the essential oils. Transcript expression of monoterpene synthase genes were measured in leaf, calyx and corolla. The corolla differed significantly from leaves, while calyces usually showed a profile intermediary between leaf and corolla.
... Salvia rosmarinus belongs to the genus Salvia in the family Labiataceae and contains various terpenoids and volatile oils: carnosic acid (CA), carnosol (CO), rosmarinic acid, ursolic acid, alpha-pinene, camphor, and camphene (Drew et al., 2017). Notably, CA is a natural antioxidant and has antibacterial properties, and therefore it has been widely used for seasonings and food preservation (Gonz alez-Minero et al., 2020). ...
Salvia rosmarinus is considered a sacred plant because of its special fragrance and is commonly used in cooking and traditional medicine. Here, we report a high‐quality chromosome‐level assembly of the S. rosmarinus genome of 1.11 G in size; the genome has a scaffold N50 value of 95.5 Mb and contains 40,701 protein‐coding genes. In contrast to other diploid Labiatae, an independent whole genome duplication (WGD) event was shown by S. rosmarinus at approximately 15 MYA. Transcriptomic comparison of two S. rosmarinus cultivars with contrasting carnosic acid (CA) content identified 842 genes significantly positively associated with carnosic acid biosynthesis in S. rosmarinus. Many of these genes have been reported to be involved in CA‐biosynthesis previously, such as several MVA/MEP pathways and CYP71‐coding genes. Based on the genomes and these genes, we propose a model of CA biosynthesis in S. rosmarinus. Further, comparative genome analysis of the congeneric species revealed the species‐specific evolution of CA biosynthetic genes. The genes encoding diterpene synthase and the cytochromes P450 (CYPs) family of CA synthesis‐associated genes form a biosynthetic gene cluster (CPSs‐KSLs‐CYP76AHs) responsible for the synthesis of leaf and root diterpenoids, which are located on S. rosmarinus chromosome 1 and 2, respectively. Such clustering is also observed in other sage plants, thus suggesting that genes involved in diterpenoid synthesis are conserved in the Labiataceae family. These findings provide new insights into the synthesis of aromatic terpenoids and their regulation.
... For instance, Salvia miltiorrhiza, endemic to China, is a traditional Chinese medicine that is widely used to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and hyperlipidemia (Wang, 2010). The genus Salvia comprises approximately 1000 species worldwide (Alziar, 1988;Walker et al., 2004;Wei et al., 2015;Drew et al., 2017;Will, Classen-Bockhoff, 2017). In the flora of Uzbekistan, the genus Salvia is represented by 16 species (Vvedensky, 1961). ...
The high-mountain ecosystems of Central Asia consist of very rich biodiversity with unique plant communities and many endemic species. High human pressure and long drought periods due to global warming have caused habitat destruction in these areas and a parallel increase in the number of endangered species. In Uzbekistan, the number of red listed plant species has risen in the last 30 years, from 163 in 1984 to 324 in 2009. Among those red-listed species are 23 species in the Lamiaceae family. The aim of this study was to estimate the current populations of red-listed species Salvia submutica. This species is endemic to the Nuratau ridge, and it is growing under climatic changes and human pressure. We found two populations of this species in the Nuratau ridge. For each population, we measured the plant density and determined the population spectrum. We also describe the plant community where each population grew. At all sites, the population density was low, with most populations being classified as mature with centered ontogenetic structure. These results indicated this species might, in the near future, become extinct in the wild.
Background and Aims—The California Floristic Province (CA-FP) is the most species-rich region of North America north of Mexico. One of several proposed hypotheses explaining the exceptionally diversity of the region is that the CA-FP harbors myriad recently diverged lineages with nascent reproductive barriers. Salvia subgenus Audibertia is a conspicuous element of the CA-FP, with multiple sympatric and compatible species.
Methods—Using 305 nuclear loci and both organellar genomes, we reconstruct species trees, examine genomic discordance, conduct divergence-time estimation, and analyze contemporaneous patterns of gene flow and mechanical reproductive isolation.
Key Results—Despite strong genomic discordance, an underlying bifurcating tree is supported. Organellar genomes capture additional introgression events not detected in the nuclear genome. Most interfertility is found within clades, indicating that reproductive barriers are coincident with genetic divergence. Species are generally not mechanically isolated, suggesting that it is unlikely to be the primary factor leading to reproductive isolation.
Conclusions—Rapid, recent speciation with some interspecific gene flow in conjunction with the onset of a Mediterranean-like climate is the underlying cause of extant diversity in Salvia subgenus Audibertia. Speciation has largely not been facilitated by gene flow. Its signal in the nuclear genome seems to mostly be erased by backcrossing, but organellar genomes each capture different instances of historical gene flow, likely characteristic of many CA-FP lineages. Mechanical reproductive isolation appears to be only part of a mosaic of factors limiting gene flow.
Plant secondary metabolites have great applications in the nutritional and cosmetic aspects of human health. Terpenes, and in particular bioactive diterpenoids, represent an important group of compounds found in Salvia species. Their production in plants is often limited, and chemical synthesis is often not economically feasible. Biotechnological approaches using plant cell and tissue cultures can be routinely established under sterile conditions from explants for biomass production and the extraction of secondary metabolites. The biosynthesis and accumulation of bioactive diterpenoids in vitro in Salvia cells and tissues can be enhanced by strain improvement, techniques to select high-producing cell lines, optimisation of the growth medium, use of specific precursors or elicitors, induction of their release into the culture medium, and the overexpression of genes. This review analyses the biotechnological techniques applied to the in vitro culture of Salvia cells and tissues to enhance the production and accumulation of bioactive diterpenoids and summarises their biological activities.
Essential oil (EO) of Salvia spp. has been widely used for culinary purposes and in perfumery and cosmetics, as well as having beneficial effects on human health. The present study aimed to investigate the quantitative and qualitative variations in EOs in wild-growing and cultivated pairs of samples from members in four Salvia sections or three clades, namely S. argentea L. (Sect. Aethiopis; Clade I-C), S. ringens Sm. (Sect. Eusphace; Clade I-D), S. verticillata L. (Sect. Hemisphace; Clade I-B), S. amplexicaulis Lam., and S. pratensis L. (Sect. Plethiosphace; Clade I-C). Furthermore, the natural variability in EO composition due to different genotypes adapted in different geographical and environmental conditions was examined by employing members of three Salvia sections or two phylogenetic clades, namely S. sclarea L. (six samples; Sect. Aethiopis or Clade I-C), S. ringens (three samples; Sect. Eusphace or Clade I-D), and S. amplexicaulis (five samples; Sect. Plethiosphace or Clade I-C). We also investigated the EO composition of four wild-growing species of two Salvia sections, i.e., S. aethiopis L., S. candidissima Vahl, and S. teddii of Sect. Aethiopis, as well as the cultivated material of S. virgata Jacq. (Sect. Plethiosphace), all belonging to Clade I-C. The EO composition of the Greek endemic S. teddii is presented herein only for the first time. Taken together, the findings of previous studies are summarized and critically discussed with the obtained results. Chemometric analysis (PCA, HCA, and clustered heat map) was used to identify the sample relationships based on their chemical classes, resulting in the classification of two distinct groups. These can be further explored in assistance of classical or modern taxonomic Salvia studies.
Critical species inventories provide primary biodiversity data crucial for biogeographical, ecological, and conservation studies. After six years, a second update to the inventory of the vascular flora native to Italy is presented. It provides details on the occurrence at regional level and, for the first time, floristic data for San Marino. The checklist includes 8,241 species and subspecies, distributed in 1,111 genera and 153 families; 23 taxa are lycophytes, 108 ferns and fern allies, 30 gymnosperms, and 8,080 angiosperms. The species/subspecies endemic to Italy are 1,702, grouped in 71 families and 312 genera. The taxa currently occurring in Italy are 7,591, while 545 taxa have not been confirmed in recent times, 94 are doubtfully occurring in the country, 11 are data deficient, and 236 are reported by mistake and to be excluded at national level. Out of the 545 not confirmed taxa, 28 are considered extinct or possibly extinct.
Critical and updated alien species inventories are crucial to properly manage and contrast biological invasions. After six years, a second update to the inventory of the vascular flora alien to Italy is presented. It provides details on the occurrence at administrative regional level and, for the first time, floristic data for San Marino. The checklist includes 1,782 taxa (1,673 species, 28 subspecies, 69 hybrids, and 12 cultivar groups not attributable to a specific binomial), distributed in 786 genera and 159 families; 2 taxa are lycophytes, 13 ferns and fern allies, 37 gymnosperms, and 1,730 angiosperms. Among these, 154 taxa are archaeophytes and 1,628 neophytes. The alien taxa currently established in Italy are 899 (649 naturalized and 250 invasive), while 796 taxa are casual aliens, 1 are not assessed, 38 have not been confirmed in recent times, 4 are considered extinct or possibly extinct in the country, 40 are doubtfully occurring in Italy, 4 are of unknown regional distribution, and 110 are reported by mistake and to be excluded at national level. This checklist allows to establish an up-to-date number (10,023) of taxa currently constituting the whole (either native or alien) Italian flora.
Introduction
The development of agriculture in terms of sustainability and low environmental impact is, at present, a great challenge, mainly in underdeveloped and marginal geographical areas. The Salvia rosmarinus “Eretto Liguria” ecotype is widespread in Liguria (Northwest Italy), and farmers commonly use it by for cuttings and for marketing. In the present study, this ecotype was characterized in comparison with other cultivars from the same geographical region and Campania (Southern Italy), with a view to application and registration processes for the designation of protected geographical indications. Moreover, the possibility of using the resulting biomass after removing cuttings or fronds as a source of extracts and pure compounds to be used as phytosanitary products in organic farming was evaluated. Specifically, the potential of rosemary extracts and pure compounds to prevent soft rot damage was then tested.
Methods
A targeted NMR metabolomic approach was employed, followed by multivariate analysis, to characterize the rosemary accessions. Bacterial soft rot assay and disk diffusion test were carried out to evaluate the activity of extracts and isolated compounds against Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum. Enzymatic assay was performed to measure the in vitro inhibition of the pectinase activity produced by the selected pathogen. Molecular docking simulations were used to explore the possible interaction of the selected compounds with the pectinase enzymes.
Results and Discussion
The targeted metabolomic analysis highlighted those different geographical locations can influence the composition and abundance of bioactive metabolites in rosemary extracts. At the same time, genetic factors are important when a single geographical area is considered. Self-organizing maps (SOMs) showed that the accessions of “Eretto Liguria” appeared well characterized when compared to the others and had a good content in specialized metabolites, particularly carnosic acid. Soft rotting Enterobacteriaceae belonging to the Pectobacterium genus represent a serious problem in potato culture. Even though rosemary methanolic extracts showed a low antibacterial activity against a strain of Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum in the disk diffusion test, they showed ability in reducing the soft rot damage induced by the bacterium on potato tissue. 7-O-methylrosmanol, carnosol and isorosmanol appeared to be the most active components. In silico studies indicated that these abietane diterpenoids may interact with P. carotovorum subsp. carotovorum pectate lyase 1 and endo-polygalacturonase, thus highlighting these rosemary components as starting points for the development of agents able to prevent soft rot progression.
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (RO, rosemary) is a well-known medicinal, aromatic, and culinary herb with traditional use in European folk medicine against memory deficits and neurodegenerative disorders.
This review highlights the different neuroprotective activities of RO investigated in both preclinical and clinical studies, as well as in silico molecular docking of bioactive compounds found in RO.
The neuroprotective effect of RO was searched through databases including PubMed, Web of Science (WoS), Scopus, and Clinical Trials using the keywords “Rosmarinus officinalis, rosemary, neuroprotective effect, memory, cognitive dysfunction, Alzheimer’s disease.”
RO, which is rich in secondary metabolites that have memory-enhancing potential, has displayed neuroprotection through different molecular mechanisms such as inhibition of cholinesterase, modulation of dopaminergic and oxytocinergic systems, mediation of oxidative and inflammatory proteins, involved in neuropathic pain, among others. RO extracts exhibited antidepressant and anxiolytic activities. Also, the plant has shown efficacy in scopolamine-, lipopolysaccharide-, AlCl3-, and H2O2-induced amnesia as well as amyloid-beta- and ibotenic acid-induced neurotoxicity and chronic constriction injury-related oxidative stress memory and cognitive impairments in animal models. A few clinical studies available supported the neuroprotective effects of RO and its constituents. However, more clinical studies are needed to confirm results from preclinical studies further and should include not only placebo-controlled studies but also studies including positive controls using approved drugs.
Many studies underlined that constituents of RO may have the potential for developing drug candidates against Alzheimer’s disease that possess high bioavailability, low toxicity, and enhanced penetration to CNS, as revealed from the experimental and molecular docking analysis.
Salvia subg. Perovskia is an aromatic medicinal plant from the Lamiaceae family. Essential oil (EO) content and composition, along with enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, were evaluated in 18 plant populations under three levels of irrigation for two consecutive years. Based on the GC-MS analysis, the main components of EO were borneol (1.18-36.53%), followed by camphor (0.54-32.17%), 1,8-cineole (12.44-29.26%), δ-3-carene (0.39-21.20%), myrcene (0.59-16.28%), and α-pinene (0.79-12.87%) in the studied treatment. Except for malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide in leaves and roots, all the examined parameters showed lower values in the first harvest year compared to those of the second year. The activities of antioxidant enzymes, total phenolics, and flavonoids of the extracts were substantially enhanced as stress intensified to reach maximum values in leaves under severe stress and in roots under moderate stress conditions. The maximum root tan-shinones content was observed under moderate water deficit conditions, while the highest EO content was obtained in plants exposed to severe stress conditions. Taking into account the evidence provided by this study, it can be inferred that the use of water deficit stress can serve as an effective method to stimulate and improve antioxidant properties, as well as the quantity and quality of secondary metabolites in Salvia subg. Perovskia.
Salvia is one of the largest Angiosperm genera with about 1000 species. Salvia is also a well-known genus due to its medicinal importance and lever like stamens. On the basis of revisional studies and latest scientific publications, there are 115 Salvia (sage) taxa growing in Turkey, 63 taxa of which are endemic (54.7%). Molecular phylogenetic studies have revealed that the Turkish species are represented by seven clades: Zhumeria, Salvia, Sclarea, Glutinaria, Heterosphace, Dorystaechas and Rosmarinus. The distribution of species according to phytogeographical regions is as follows: 57 taxa Irano-turanian element, 31 taxa Mediterranean element, 6 taxa Euro-Siberian element and 21 taxa Multiregional element. The distribution of the threatened species according to national level is as follows: 2 taxa DD (Data Deficient), 17 taxa CR (Critically Endangered), 17 taxa EN (Endangered), 17 taxa VU (Vulnarable) and 15 taxa LC (Least Concern). The species in Turkey grow from sea level to up to ca. 3000 m, in a very wide range of different habitats. Distribution of threatened Salvia species in Turkey and the degree of their endangerement are summarized according to IUCN categories. This chapter is expected to call attention to the need to further protect the already endangered species of the important genus Salvia.
Salvia is widely used as medicine, food, and ornamental plants all over the world, with three main distribution centers, the Central and western Asia/Mediterranean (CAM), the East Aisa (EA), and the Central and South America (CASA). Along with its large number of species and world-wide distribution, Salvia is paraphyletic with multiple diversity. Chloroplast genomes (CPs) are useful tools for analyzing the phylogeny of plants at lower taxonomic levels. In this study, we reported chloroplast genomes of five species of Salvia and performed phylogenetic analysis with current available CPs of Salvia. Repeated sequence analysis and comparative analysis of Salvia CPs were also performed with representative species from different distribution centers. The results showed that the genetic characters of the CPs are related to the geographic distribution of plants. Species from CAM diverged first to form a separate group, followed by species from EA, and finally species from CASA. Larger variations of CPs were observed in species from CAM, whereas more deficient sequences and less repeated sequences in the CPs were observed in species from CASA. These results provide valuable information on the development and utilization of the worldwide genetic resources of Salvia.
The sterol, amino acid, mineral, total phenolic, and total flavonoid contents, and the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antibiofilm activities of Salvia candidissima subsp. candidissima mericarps were investigated. The mericarps were collected in the province of Bayburt, Turkey. Gas chromatography was used for sterol analysis, Prominence ultra-fast liquid chromatography for amino acid analysis, and ICPMS for mineral analysis. Folin-Ciocalteu, Al(NO3)3, and DPPH radical scavenging activity assays were performed on ethanol extracts of the mericarps to evaluate the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant potential, respectively. The ethanol and hexane extracts of the mericarps were tested for their antimicrobial activity against seven bacterial and three fungal strains using the microdilution method and for antibiofilm activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm using the crystal violet staining method. The sterol, amino acid, and mineral contents and antibiofilm activity of the mericarps were studied for the first time. The most abundant components of the mericarps are determined as ?-sitosterol (69.8%), glutamic acid (4895 mg/100 g), and potassium (11474 ?g/g). The results of total phenolic and flavonoid contents and DPPH free radical scavenging activity were 3.47 ?g GAE/mg extract, 0.35 ?g QE/mg extract, and 79.79%, respectively. Both of the tested extracts exhibited antimicrobial activity against all the tested microorganisms, however, the efficiency of the extracts was not as strong as the reference drugs ampicillin and fluconazole. While both extracts were effective in preventing biofilm formation, the ethanol extract was found to be more effective than the hexane extract in preformed biofilm inhibition. In conclusion, S. candidissima subsp. candidissima mericarps have good nutritional potential with high amounts of amino acids, sterols (especially ?-sitosterol), minerals, and phenolics and flavonoids. Additionally, our findings provide important preliminary data for the literature in terms of the antibiofilm activity of Salvia candidissima subsp. candidissima mericarps.
As a consequence of there being several ways in which observed patterns of variation in nature can be conveyed in a generic classification, long recognised genera have changed in size over time. The generic rank has its origins in folk taxonomy, where genera were homogenous units of relatively few kinds. In the era of Bentham there was a widespread preference for large genera, many of which were split during the 20th century. In a survey of contemporary (1998–2007) generic delimitation practice we found a significant dichotomy between studies that incorporate molecular data and those that rely exclusively on morphological data. The former lead to delimitation of larger genera whereas the latter in general do not. This finding spurred a broader investigation into what drives changes in overall generic sizes, new data sources or new concepts? Two new data types have been introduced during the course of history: detailed morphology (anatomy, cytology) and chemical data (amino acid and DNA sequence data). Conceptual development has seen several turns: from language and communication, through memory and stability, to evolution and monophyly. We argue that conceptual change has a greater impact than changes in data do, since new data must be interpreted and translated into a classification and since conceptual changes may spur a search for new kinds of data. We conclude that the current trend toward recognising larger genera is a result of a return to study on a broad scale, rather than of incorporation of molecular data.
Parsimony analysis of cpDNA restriction site variation supports monophyly of subfamily Nepetoideae. However, a close relationship among Nepetoideae and other gynobasic-styled Labiatae is not supported, indicating that a gynobasic style has evolved independently in at least two clades of Labiatae. The inferred relationships are congruent with the classification of Cantino, Harley, and Wagstaff (1992, Advances in labiate sciences, 27–37, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) but conflict to varying degrees with traditional classifications. Monophyly of four tribes of Nepetoideae also is supported.
The handling of controversial Proposal 1584 to conserve the name Acacia with a conserved type for the Australian acacias during the Nomenclature Section meeting at the 17th International Botanical Congress (Vienna) in 2005 is reviewed. Through a simple majority vote, this Section adopted rules requiring a 60% majority of votes to approve any proposal to modify the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and a simple majority to approve all other motions; motions not receiving the required majority were to be rejected. However, for the motion addressing Proposal 1584, 45.1 % voted to conserve the type of the name Acacia for Australian acacias, and 54.9% voted to retain the current African type for the name Acacia. Even though this motion failed to get a 60% majority either way as required by the Section's own rules, Section officials have concluded that the name Acacia is to be conserved for Australian acacias. Treating a motion as approved, even though it received only minority support, also violates the fundamental principle of standard parliamentary procedure - the right of the majority to approve proposals. For Acacia to be formally conserved, the Nomenclature Section needed to approve a motion addressing Proposal 1584 with a majority vote, and this never happened in Vienna. Recommendations are made on how this process might be improved.
In its broadest sense, Scirpus consists of a heterogeneous assemblage of up to 250 species, but modern circumscriptions suggest that only 40–50 species are part of the genus. Despite a narrower definition of the genus, atypical species continue to be segregated from Scirpus with a common pattern being the removal of Southern Hemisphere taxa to other genera and tribes. In South America, the morphology of remaining Scirpus species also suggests that they are not closely related to Scirpus s.str., but most of these taxa are only known from their types, making a detailed analysis of their generic affinities difficult. One notable exception is Scirpus asper, a species that is relatively common in the mountains and adjacent lowlands of Peru south to Argentina. Although this species possesses features used in the circumscription of Scirpus, such as cauline leaves, flat leaf blades and anthelate inflorescences, it is known to differ from Scirpus s.str. by its Schoenus-type embryo, and most of its presumed allies are now placed in different genera (e.g., Scirpus analecti ≡ Cypringlea analecta; Scirpus giganteus ≡ Androtrichum giganteum). In this study, we use DNA sequence data from the plastid (matK, ndhF) and nuclear (ETS-1f) genomes to demonstrate that Scirpus asper is not closely related to Scirpus s.str., but sister to Phylloscirpus within the predominantly South American Zameioscirpus clade (Amphiscirpus, Phylloscirpus, Zameioscirpus). When combined with morphological, anatomical and embryological data, results indicate that S. asper is best treated as the sole species of a new monotypic genus, Rhodoscirpus. The implications of these results on the taxonomy of tribe Scirpeae are discussed.
The pollen morphology and ultrastructure of the subtribe Salviinae were investigated with light, scanning electron, and transmission electron microscopy. In addition, cladistic analyses of the obtained morphological data, supplemented with rbcL data from GenBank, were conducted in order to assess the phylogenetic signal of palynological characters. Salviinae pollen is small to large, oblate to prolate in shape, with a circular to slightly elliptic amb, and mostly hexacolpate. Perovskia abrotanoides appears to be distylous and shows a significant pollen dimorphism between pin and thrum flowers. The sexine ornamentation of the genera Lepechinia and Chaunostoma is perforate, while the ornamentation of other genera is bireticulate. Perovskia expresses a unique type of sexine ornamentation. The sexine ornamentation variation in Salvia has systematic importance but only partly corresponds with current phylogenetic hypotheses. Unbranched columellae and a continuous, granular endexine are hypothesized to be a symplesiomorphic condition in the tribe Mentheae. Our combined phy-logenetic analyses show that the addition of palynological characters contributes to improved resolution and also increases bootstrap support values in comparison with molecular phylogenetic analyses.
Phylogenetic relationships among 16 species of Lobelia and single representatives of Monopsis and Sclerotheca (Lobeliaceae) were assessed by mapping restriction sites and major structural rearrangements (deletions and inversions) in the large single-copy region of the chloroplast genome. Eleven inversions and five different gene arrangements were found. A deletion involving ORF512 is associated with many of the inversions, and all inversion endpoints are located in intergenic spacer regions. Analysis of 132 phylogenetically informative restriction sites produced three equally parsimonious trees of 219 steps, with a consistency index of 0.60. The restriction-site and inversion data yield congruent trees, indicating that the giant lobelias from around the world are derived from diploid herbaceous ancestors. The giant lobelias consist of a Chilean hexaploid group and a pantropical tetraploid group. The woody genus Sclerotheca is clearly derived from a giant Lobelia ancestor, while the herbaceous Monopsis is probably derived from herbaceous lobelias. The giant lobelias from eastern Africa are weakly supported as monophyletic with the inclusion of the Brazilian L. organensis. Relationships among the Pacific and Asian giant lobelias are not fully resolved and await more detailed study.
Premise of the study: The pantropical, species-rich Psychotrieae and Palicoureeae are sister tribes of mostly drupe-bearing and nonbacterial leaf-nodulating species with problematic generic limits. This problem is more complicated in Psychotrieae due to the paraphyly of the genus Psychotria , the lack of diagnostic characters for some major lineages, and the poor sampling from some biodiversity hotspots. Schizocarps and bacterial leaf nodules have been used for recognizing formal groups in Psychotrieae, but their evolution and taxonomic value have not been studied using a robust phylogeny of the tribe.
• Methods: We analyzed 287 samples from the entire ranges of the tribes, with particular emphasis on the Western Indian Ocean region, with the Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo method.
• Key results: All allied Psychotria genera investigated are nested within a paraphyletic Psychotria . Schizocarps evolved independently two times within Psychotria , and one reversal back to the drupaceous condition is inferred. The Malagasy leafnodulated Psychotrieae (except Apomuria bullata ) and the Comorian non-leaf-nodulated Psychotria conocarpa are nested within the (African) leaf-nodulated clade. Within Palicoureeae , Chassalia is paraphyletic with respect to Geophila sensu stricto, and the Malagasy Geophila gerrardii and the African Hymenocoleus are closely related.
• Conclusions: A widely circumscribed Psychotria encompassing the entire Psychotrieae is supported. Within Psychotria , two separate origins of schizocarps from drupes, one reversal back to the drupaceous condition, and two independent origins of the Malagasy leaf-nodulated species are inferred. A new genus Puffia is described to accommodate Geophila gerrardii , and a narrow circumscription of Chassalia is adopted. Thirty-two new combinations, two lectotypifi cations, and 25 new names are presented.
The monotypic genus Holocheila was originally placed in Teucrium sect. Holocheila but was later treated as a distinct
genus and variably affiliated with subfamilies Ajugoideae, Scutellarioideae, or Lamioideae. We investigated the phylogenetic
position of this enigmatic genus using likelihood, parsimony, and Bayesian methods based on six plastid DNA sequences. The
preliminary results from a concatenated ndhF and rbcL dataset that covered all seven subfamilies of Lamiaceae suggested
that Holocheila is part of subfamily Lamioideae. To examine its position within Lamioideae more thoroughly, a dataset was
assembled that included representatives of 59 of the 63 genera of Lamioideae and data for four genetic markers: trnL intron,
trnL-trnF spacer, rps16 and matK. The results showed that Holocheila is part of tribe Pogostemoneae. Glossy mericarps and
unilocular anthers are apomorphies that Holocheila shares with some members of Pogostemoneae. The genera Acrymia and
Cymaria, which have been considered incertae sedis, were found to be the closest relatives of Lamioideae. Four other incertae
sedis genera (Garrettia, Hymenopyramis, Peronema, Petraeovitex) appear to form a clade that is sister to the clade comprising
Lamioideae, Acrymia, Cymaria, and Scutellarioideae.
Phylogenies are increasingly used in all fields of medical and biological research. Moreover, because of the next generation sequencing revolution, datasets used for conducting phylogenetic analyses grow at an unprecedented pace. RAxML (Randomized Axelerated Maximum Likelihood) is a popular program for phylogenetic analyses of large datasets under maximum likelihood. Since the last RAxML paper in 2006, it has been continuously maintained and extended to accommodate the increasingly growing input datasets and to serve the needs of the user community.
I present some of the most notable new features and extensions of RAxML, such as, a substantial extension of substitution models and supported data types, the introduction of SSE3, AVX, and AVX2 vector intrinsics, techniques for reducing the memory requirements of the code and a plethora of operations for conducting post-analyses on sets of trees. In addition, an up-to-date, 50 page user manual covering all new RAxML options is available.
The code is available under GNU GPL at https://github.com/stamatak/standard-RAxML.
Alexandros.Stamatakis@h-its.org.
Floral features used for characterization of higher-level angiosperm taxa (families, orders, and above) are assessed following a comparison of earlier (precladistic/premolecular) and current classifications. Cronquist (An integrated system of classification of flowering plants. Columbia University Press, New York, 1981) and APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) (Bot J Linn Soc 161:105–121, 2009) were mainly used as the basis for this comparison. Although current circumscriptions of taxonomic groups (clades) are largely based on molecular markers, it is also important to morphologically characterize these new groups, as, in many cases, they are completely novel assemblages, especially at the level of orders and above. Features used in precladistic/premolecular classifications are often much more evolutionarily plastic than earlier assumed. A number of earlier neglected but potentially useful features at higher levels are discussed based on our own and other recent studies. As certain features tend to evolve repeatedly in a clade, it appears that apomorphic features in the strict sense are less helpful to characterize larger clades than earlier assumed, and rather apomorphic tendencies of features are more useful at this level.
Trees, shrubs, subshrubs or perennial or annual herbs, rarely climbers, aromatic or not. Roots rarely tuberous. Stems often quadrangular, erect to prostrate, somtimes forming usually present, of glandular, rarely scale-like, usually multicellular-uniseriate, simple, branched, dendroid or stellate, sometimes gland-tipped, large-headed subsessile glands rarely absent.
This review analyses the retypification of Acacia Mill. by the International Botanical Congress in 2005, from an African type to an Australian one. It explores the cultural, historical and trans-national context of what proved much more than a routine scientific decision. It contributes to a growing critique of historian Alfred Crosby's thesis Ecological Imperialism, and provides a historical review of the ecological literature leading to the discipline of invasion biology in South Africa, Australia and elsewhere, particularly the work of Charles Elton. The aim of the article is to narrow the gap between the historically ecological and the ecologically historical literature through a closely worked case study that reveals the role of national identity in even the most arcane and international science. The history of the ‘wattle wars’ (or the ‘battle for Acacia’) in Australia, South Africa and the rest of the world reveals a need for a new literacy in both culture and nature and increasingly sophisticated conversations between C.P. Snow's ‘Two Cultures’.
The floral morphology and pollination of Hemigenia R.Br. and Microcorys R.Br. (Lamiaceae) were examined in the field and laboratory. The protandrous flowers have tubular, two-lipped corollas. Nine floral morphotypes are described. The stamens may be completely sterile (staminodal) or have one theca reduced or absent. The anthers typically have elongated connective tissue and are mobile on the filament. When the lower end of the anther is pushed, the upper end is levered towards the mouth of the corolla tube, hence dusting the pollinator precisely where receptive stigmas will later touch. Bearding on the anthers of the adaxial stamens catches adjacent anthers so that they lever in unison. Staminodes guide insect pollinators into the throat to allow precise pollen dusting. Detailed field observations show that bees and flies are the principle pollinators of most species. Floral morphologies are related to pollinator castes, and reproductive isolation and efficiency is enhanced by precise pollen deposition. Bird pollination is likely to have arisen independently in several taxa. The floral arrangement of these taxa is superficially similar but the syndrome is achieved through different anatomy.
The phylogeny of tribe Westringieae (Lamiaceae: subfamily Prostantheroideae) was examined on the basis of combined morphological and molecular chloroplast trnT–trnF data. The analyses confirm that the tribe is monophyletic, with Prostanthera Labill. sister to the remaining genera. Both Hemigenia R.Br. and Microcorys R.Br. are shown to be polyphyletic, hence changes to generic delimitations are inevitable. Of note, the typical section of Hemigenia is polyphyletic with a large group of Western Australia species placed in a separate clade. A new section of Hemigenia is required to accommodate species currently placed in the typical section which do not belong with the type species, H. purpurea R.Br.
Parsimony analysis of cpDNA restriction site variation supports monophyly of subfamily Nepetoideae, However, a close relationship among Nepetoideae and other gynobasic-styled Labiatae is not supported, indicating that a gynobasic style has evolved independently in at least two clades of Labiatae. The inferred relationships are congruent with the classification of Cantino, Harley, and Wagstaff (1992, Advances in labiate sciences, 27-37, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) but conflict to varying degrees with traditional classifications. Monophyly of four tribes of Nepetoideae also is supported.
Seventy-nine accessions representing forty-seven taxa of Clerodendrum s.l. (Lamiaceae) and seven putative outgroup genera are included in an analysis of chloroplast DNA restriction sites for ten enzymes. Parsimony analysis of 456 potentially informative characters identifies four large discrete clades (Clades I-IV) within Clerodendrum s.l and shows that Clerodendrum s.l. is polyphyletic. Clades I and II comprise Asian and African taxa respectively. Clade III comprises coastal species from Africa, Asia and central America and presents an hypothesis of relationship within Clerodendrum that has not previously been explicit in classifications of the genus. Clade IV comprising subg. Cyclonema and sect. Konocalyx (subg. Clerodendrum pro parte) emerges as a lineage distinct from the rest of Clerodendrum. Traditional sections Squamata, Odontocalyx (subg. Clerodendrum), Cyclonema and Stacheocymosa (subg. Cyclonema) are well-supported monophyletic groups. Subgenus Clerodendrum and sections Clerodendrum and Axilliflora (subg. Clerodendrum pro parte) are shown to be polyphyletic. The polyphyly of Clerodendrum s.l. is also supported by a separate analysis of chloroplast ndhF sequences, in which a smaller sampling of Clerodendrum is included in a broader sample of labiate genera. The ndhF sequence data suggest that Tetraclea belongs in Clade I of Clerodendrum and support the monophyly of the recently circumscribed subfamily Teucriodeae.
Senecioneae is the largest tribe of Asteraceae, comprised of ca. 150 genera and 3,000 species. Approximately one-third of its species are placed in Senecio, making it one of the largest genera of flowering plants. Despite considerable efforts to classify and understand the striking morphological diversity in Senecioneae, little is known about its intergeneric relationships. This lack of phylogenetic understanding is predominantly caused by conflicting clues from morphological characters, the large size of the tribe, and the absence of a good delimitation of Senecio. Phylogenetic analyses of nrITS and plastid DNA sequence data were used to produce a hypothesis of evolutionary relationships in Senecioneae and a new, monophyletic, delimitation of Senecio. The results of separate and combined phylogenetic analyses of the two datasets were compared to previous taxonomic treatments, morphological and karyological data, and biogeographic patterns. These studies indicate that the subtribal delimitation of Senecioneae needs to be revised to reflect exclusively monophyletic subtribes. This would involve abolishing subtribes Adenostylinae, Blennospermatinae, and Tephroseridinae and recognizing subtribes Abrotanellinae, Othonninae, and Senecioninae. Moreover, Tussilagininae may need to be split into three or four subtribes: Brachyglottidinae, Chersodominae, Tussilagininae, and perhaps Doronicinae. On the intergeneric level, these phylogenies provide new insights into evolutionary relationships, resulting in a first approximation of a comprehensive phylogeny for the tribe. Most species currently assigned to Senecio form a well supported clade. Thus, a new delimitation of Senecio is proposed, which involves transferring the species of Aetheolaena, Culcitium, Hasteola, Iocenes, Lasiocephalus, and Robinsonia to Senecio and removing several Senecio groups that are only distantly related to the core of Senecio. Area optimization analyses indicate a strong African influence throughout the evolutionary history of Senecioneae, predominantly in subtribes Senecioninae and Othonninae.
This paper briefly reports on the developments surrounding the Acacia name conservation controversy since the Nomenclature Section meeting at the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress at Vienna in 2005. Actions taken at Vienna led to the listing of Acacia Mill. with a conserved type in Appendix III (p. 286) of the current printed version of the International code of botanical nomenclature. While decisions taken at Nomenclature Sections generally tend to resolve nomenclatural disputes, the actions taken in Vienna with regard to Acacia—i.e., treating the proposal to conserve the name Acacia with a conserved type as approved even though the majority of the votes cast were opposed to the proposal—has only resulted in increased controversy. Today, the Acacia listing in the Code continues to be met with considerable resistance from the global plant taxonomic community and beyond. We believe the “minority rule approach used in Vienna was contrary to the procedural rules established in Vienna. As a result, an objection to the acceptance of the Vienna Code as currently printed with the Acacia listing will be raised at the Nomenclature Section meeting during the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress in Melbourne in 2011. A procedure is outlined for handling this objection that we hope will allow the botanical community to finally resolve this matter.
Despite the broad acceptance of phylogenetic principles in biological classification, a fundamental question still exists on how to classify paraphyletic groups. Much of the controversy appears due to (1) historical shifts in terminology and definitions, (2) neglect of focusing on evolutionary processes for understanding origins of natural taxa, (3) a narrow perspective on dimensions involved with reconstructing phylogeny, and (4) acceptance of lower levels of information content and practicability as a trade‐off for ease of arriving at formal classifications. Monophyly in evolutionary biology originally had a broader definition, that of describing a group with common ancestry. This definition thus includes both paraphyletic and monophyletic groups in the sense of Hennig. We advocate returning to a broader definition, supporting use of Ashlock's term holophyly as replacement for monophyly s.str. By reviewing processes involved in the production of phylogenetic patterns (budding, merging, and splitting), we demonstrate that paraphyly is a natural transitional stage in the evolution of taxa, and that it occurs regularly along with holophyly. When a new holophyletic group arises, it usually coexists for some time with its paraphyletic stem group. Paraphyly and holophyly, therefore, represent relational and temporal evolutionary stages. Paraphyletic groups exist at all levels of diversification in all kingdoms of eukaryotes, and they have traditionally been recognized because of their descent‐based similarity. We review different methodological approaches for recognition of monophyletic groups s.l. (i.e., both holophyletic and paraphyletic), which are essential for discriminating from polyphyly that is unacceptable in classification. For arriving at taxonomic decisions, natural processes, information content, and practicability are essential criteria. We stress using shared descent as a primary grouping principle, but also emphasize the importance of degrees of divergence plus similarity (cohesiveness of evolutionary features) as additional criteria for classification.
This paper briefly reports on the developments surrounding the Acacia name conservation controversy since the Nomenclature Section meeting at the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress at Vienna in 2005. Actions taken at Vienna led to the listing of Acacia Mill. with a conserved type in Appendix III (p. 286) of the current printed version of the International code of botanical nomenclature. While decisions taken at Nomenclature Sections generally tend to resolve nomenclatural disputes, the actions taken in Vienna with regard to Acacia—i.e., treating the proposal to conserve the name Acacia with a conserved type as approved even though the majority of the votes cast were opposed to the proposal—has only resulted in increased controversy. Today, the Acacia listing in the Code continues to be met with considerable resistance from the global plant taxonomic community and beyond. We believe the “minority rule” approach used in Vienna was contrary to the procedural rules established in Vienna. As a result, an objection to the acceptance of the Vienna Code as currently printed with the Acacia listing will be raised at the Nomenclature Section meeting during the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress in Melbourne in 2011. A procedure is outlined for handling this objection that we hope will allow the botanical community to finally resolve this matter.
The genus Clerodendrum s.l. is polyphyletic. Although recent studies have resulted in C. subg. Cyclonema and C. sect. Konocalyx being removed to the resurrected genus Rotheca, and the unispecific genus Huxleya being sunk into Clerodendrum, it has been unclear whether Clerodendrum as currently circumscribed is monophyletic, particularly in relation to the American genera Aegiphila, Amasonia, and Tetraclea. This phylogenetic study employs four relatively fast‐evolving chloroplast DNA regions, trnT‐L, trnL‐F, trnD‐T, and trnS‐fM, to clarify the generic boundaries of Clerodendrum and its relationship to allied genera. The results corroborate previous studies that there are three well‐supported clades in the currently recognized Clerodendrum: an Asian clade, an African clade, and a Pantropical Coastal clade. The Asian clade and African clade are sister groups and together form a monophyletic group. However, the Pantropical Coastal clade is more closely related to the three American genera than it is to the other two Clerodendrum clades. In addition, a Caribbean species, C. spinosum, is found to be more closely related to the American genera than it is to any of the three major Clerodendrum groups. These results indicate that Clerodendrum as currently circumscribed is not monophyletic. We propose to separate the Pantropical Coastal clade and C. spinosum by reviving the genera Volkameria (including Huxleya) and Ovieda, respectively for these, and to restrict Clerodendrum to the Asian and African clades. Brief descriptions of the genera to be recognized are provided. All Neotropical 'Clerodendrum' taxa are referred to other genera, necessitating six new combinations, which are also provided, where required, for two other well‐studied Old World Volkameria species; all names ever used in Ovieda are given their modern placings (two placed newly in synonymy). The study also sheds light on the evolution of an intriguing breeding strategy that avoids self‐pollination or/and sexual interference. This strategy involves presentation of pollen and stigma in the centre of the flower in a sequential fashion by moving the filaments and style. It appears to have evolved in the common ancestor of Clerodendrum, Volkameria, Ovieda, Amasonia, Tetraclea, Aegiphila and Kalaharia, and still occurs in all of these taxa except Aegiphila, where it has been succeeded by a heterostylous system.
Abstract—Two new Salvia species from Durango are described and illustrated. These were revealed while preparing a preliminary list of Salvia for this Mexican state. Salvia durangensis is characterized by ovate leaves, subcordate at the base, deciduous floral bracts, calyx less than 8 mm long, 3-veined upper calyx lip, red corollas without white nectar guides, corolla tube less than 21 mm long, shortly deflexed lower corolla lip, included stamens, glabrous style, and acute lower stigmatic branch. Whereas, Salvia odam can be distinguished by its oblong-lanceolate to ovate leaves with white abaxial surface, deciduous floral bract, yellowish-green calyces, 3 (or sub-5) veined upper calyx lip, white upper corolla tube and lip, dark blue lower corolla lip with white nectar guides, included stamens, pilose style, and acute lower stigmatic branch. Both species are compared with other morphologically similar species and an identification key to native Salvia species of Durango is provided.
Plant classification and nomenclature are in a continuing state of flux and heated debate between two opposing schools - 1) traditional taxonomists supporting "evolutionary" or "Linnaean taxonomy"; and 2) cladists supporting "phylogenetic systematics" or "cladonomy." While it is a multifaceted controversy that has spanned several decades, relatively little attention has been focused specifically on the ramifications for floristics. The two goals of this paper are 1) to give special emphasis to the implications of the controversy for the writers of floras, and 2) to provide an overview of some of the arguments in a format accessible to a diverse audience of botanists interested in floristics. We examine some of the issues we have confronted in our floristic work, discuss how we are attempting to balance the strengths and weaknesses of both approaches, and indicate what we believe is the best, albeit imperfect, approach to the writing of floras at the present time. We argue that, for both practical and theoretical reasons, a modified traditional system (binomial nomenclature, ranked hierarchies) be used in floras (allowing paraphyletic groups but eliminating all polyphyletic groups despite some nomenclatural instability). Further, these floras should incorporate information on newly discovered phylogenetic relationships (even if too preliminary, tentative, or inappropriate for nomenclatural change) and discuss these in appropriate family and generic treatments in order to facilitate as complete an understanding of plant evolution as possible.
Abstract— In the California Floristic Province (CA-FP) and nearby deserts, 19 species of Salvia (Lamiaceae, Mentheae) form a small radiation but an important component of the chaparral and desert communities. Traditionally, two groups within these Californian Salvia have been recognized (usually treated as sections), but relationships within each, to each other, and to other Salvia are unclear. Phylogenetic relationships of all species, with multiple accessions for most, were obtained using chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) and nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) markers. Ancestral character state reconstruction of both vegetative and floral features was done on the resulting nrDNA tree. Biogeographical analysis of the groups within the CA-FP and adjacent floristic provinces was done in BioGeoBEARS and species diversification assessed with BAMM. Significant conclusions drawn from the study include: 1) California Salvia should be classified into two monophyletic sections, Audibertia (15 species) and Echinosphace, (four species) in the new subgenus Audibertia; 2) subg. Audibertia and the Neotropical subg. Calosphace are sister clades, most closely related to Asian groups, and are likely Asian in origin; 3) nrDNA provides a fairly resolved tree for subg. Audibertia with all species monophyletic; 4) cpDNA and nrDNA trees are strongly incongruent and provide evidence that hybridization and chloroplast capture have played an important role in the evolution of subg. Audibertia; 5) ancestral character reconstruction of states in habit, possession of spines, calyx lobing, and staminal features highlights a complex (sometimes convergent) evolutionary history of this iconic CA-FP lineage; 6) subg. Audibertia arose in desert areas and more recently diversified into the southwestern California region and adjacent regions with the formation of the Mediterranean-like climate; and 7) this diversification exhibits a slight decrease in speciation and an increase in extinction rates over the group’s 11 million year history.
Salvia L. in its traditional circumscription is the largest genus within the mint family. To date, the magnitude of the task has rendered it difficult to provide a genus-wide revision based on morphological data. Current molecular investigations based on a dense taxon sampling representing the whole phenotypic diversity and distribution range of Salvia confirmed that the genus is polyphyletic. Salvia species fall in 4 distinct clades, although all of them, except Clade IV, also include non-Salvia genera. A taxonomic revision is thus urgently needed with two different approaches that have to be considered: (1) to include the 5 morphologically distinct non-Salvia genera in Salvia or (2) to split Salvia s.l. into Salvia s.s. and several additional genera. Since Salvia is already highly heterogeneous in species distribution, morphology, and chromosome number, we prefer to split the genus into molecularly well-supported clades. This new concept may facilitate monographic studies and more focused analyses of character evolution within or between the clades. Species representing Salvia sect. Eremosphace Bunge (subclade III-A) were chosen exemplarily to provide arguments for elevating this particular group to the level of genus (Pleudia Raf.).
The theoretical basis for cladistic classification into monophyletic (holophyletic) ranked taxa is fatally flawed and is promoting bad taxonomy. Biological classification that takes account of evolutionary history may be based on two main factors—lines of descent and extent of divergence represented by morphological and other characters. In taxonomy a balance must be found between lines of descent and characters, and insistence on one at the expense of the other will give unacceptable results. Much confusion has arisen in systematics from the failure to appreciate that taxonomy, which groups organisms into ranked taxa (families, genera, etc.), is essentially different from grouping them into clades. These two processes are based on conflicting hierarchies and have different methodologies and functions. For several decades, however, the cladistics movement has adopted lines of descent rather than characters as the sole basis of taxonomy, insisting that only complete clades should be recognized as taxa. But as soon as one imposes ranks on a phylogeny, one must create paraphyletic taxa. These are natural products of evolution, which should be recognized in taxonomy. When ranks are adopted without acceptance of paraphyletic taxa, taxonomic free fall sets in, and every clade sinks into those taxa to which its original ancestor is referable. The clash of hierarchies results in absurdity, extending to sinking the entire plant kingdom into one family and one genus, but this has been strangely overlooked by the cladistic side. Adoption of ranked taxa is incompatible with recognition of only complete clades. Merely because one taxon falls phylogenetically within the clade of another taxon at the same rank does not necessarily mean that it must be included in it taxonomically. New characters will have arisen during evolution, which should be taken into account. A monophyletic (= holophyletic) system recognizing only complete clades is logically possible only if ranks are abandoned, as in the PhyloCode. It may be referred to as a “cladification” and the process producing it as “cladonomy,” which are quite different concepts from a “classification” and “taxonomy.” In a classification we have a hierarchical series of taxa at different ranks, while in a cladification we merely have a hierarchy of clades nesting within successively bigger clades. Cladistic taxonomy is particularly nonsensical in paleobotany, where our Linnaean taxonomic system and our code of nomenclature apply just as they do for extant plants. Cladograms are not classifications, and they need critical taxonomic assessment. The great majority of users of taxonomy are interested in characters and not cladistic theory. A general purpose classification is needed, requiring acceptance of paraphyletic taxa that are defined by characters as well as lines of descent. Examples in the dicot flowering plant families are given in which cladistic principles have imposed excessive insistence on lines of descent at the expense of evolution of characters, producing what many regard as bad taxonomy.
Genera of flowering plants that are endemic to oceanic islands are often of great biological interest. These groups represent adaptive complexes that confer distinction to the islands or archipelagos in which they are found, and this often results in a focus on their conservation. In recent decades, numerous molecular phylogenetic (and other evolutionary) studies have been done on island genera, hence providing much valuable new information on relationships and evolution of island groups. Genera restricted to oceanic islands derive evolutionarily from parental stocks usually in continental regions. These parental genera are often themselves evolutionarily successful, being particularly adept at dispersal, adaptation, and speciation. These immigrants to isolated oceanic islands derive from common ancestors of large and diverse parents or directly from within the lineages themselves. If in the latter case the island derivatives are treated at the generic level, then the parental genus becomes paraphyletic in a cladistic sense. In this circumstance there are three alternatives to classification of the island group: (1) treat both the island complex as a distinct holophyletic genus and the progenitor as a coordinate, but paraphyletic, genus; (2) submerge the island complex into the parental genus, perhaps at the subgeneric or sectional level, creating a larger holophyletic genus; or (3) divide the parental genus and island complex into a series of smaller genera in such a manner that all become holophyletic. A synthesis of recent investigations on 100 endemic island genera and relatives was completed in the Bonin Islands, Canary Islands, Galápagos Islands, Hawaiian Islands, Madeiran Islands, Robinson Crusoe Islands, and St. Helena. The results show that 64 genera are still accepted and remain uninvestigated or are seen as holophyletic in phylogenetic analyses. Seven have already been submerged based on non-cladistic results, and 29 are viewed as being nested within larger parental genera. Of this latter group, 15 of the genera are still being recognized at this time; six have been recommended as belonging within their parental genera; and eight have been formally transferred into the progenitor genera with combinations made. If further actions were to be taken based on strict holophyly, following the second alternative mentioned above, then these 29 genera would disappear as endemics in their islands or archipelagos. This would result in an overall average drop of 31.9% endemic genera in oceanic islands worldwide (based on the sample analyzed). With the third alternative, new generic concepts for the island and progenitor taxa would need to be worked out. Instead of recognizing genera on the basis of simple holophyly, genera should be based on cohesiveness, distinctness, and monophyly s.l. (i.e., including paraphyly and holophyly). A statistic is provided as a means for making these assessments quantitatively. The importance of unique and/or divergent character change for classification of island lineages is also stressed.
Hybridization and polyploidization are now recognized as major phenomena in the evolution of plants, promoting genetic diversity, adaptive radiation and speciation. Modern molecular techniques have recently provided evidence that allopolyploidy can induce several types of genetic and epigenetic events that are of critical importance for the evolutionary success of these plants: (1) chromosomal rearrangements within one or both parental genomes contribute toward proper meiotic pairing and isolation of the hybrid from its progenitors; (2) demethylation and activation of dormant transposable elements may trigger insertional mutagenesis and changes in local patterns of gene expression, facilitating rapid genomic reorganization; (3) rapid and reproducible loss of low copy DNA sequences appears to result in further differentiation of homoeologous chromosomes; and (4) organ‐specific up‐ or down‐regulation of one of the duplicated genes, may result in unequal expression or silencing one copy. All these alterations also have the potential, while stabilizing allopolyploid genomes, to produce novel expression patterns and new phenotypes, which together with increased heterozygosity and gene redundancy might confer on allopolyploids an elevated evolutionary potential, with effects at scales ranging from molecular to ecological. Although important advances have been made in understanding genomic responses to allopolyploidization, further insights are still expected to be gained in the near future, such as the direction and nature of the diploidization process, functional relevance of gene expression alterations, molecular mechanisms that result in adaptation to different ecologies/habitats, and ecological and evolutionary implications of recurrent polyploidization.
Problems with classifications that attempt to serve multiple purposes and which are formed by methodologies which conflict with evolutionary thought are discussed. Multiple- or general-purpose classifications are inherently unsuitable for dealing with particular problems since such classifications are optimal for no one problem and the goals of the user will conflict with the constraints of the classification. The value of having a classification that attempts to be congruent with our best estimate of phylogeny is stressed.
Sytsma, K. J. & Pires, J. C.: Plant systematics in the next 50 years—re‐mapping the new frontier. ‐ Taxon 50: 713–732. 2001. ‐ ISSN 0040‐0262.
In the historical context of plant systematics over the last 50 years, systematics is examined in terms of where it is now, where it is headed, where it should be, and how it should get there. Issues and concerns of the past decades are still with us today. Molecular systematics has become the over‐arching field in systematics, but each of eight other areas (genome, chromosomes, morphology and anatomy, development, population biology, speciation, floristics and monography, nomenclature and classification) are evaluated. A revolution in systematics is not necessary for the next 50 years in plant systematics. What is needed is a re‐mapping of our discipline that involves four elements for the future growth and health of botanical systematics: plant systematics and its utility, dialogue with other disciplines, multi‐disciplinary training, and a pluralistic viewpoint.
We present an updated circumscription of Lepechinia (Lamiaceae) based on molecular phylogenetic analyses of chloroplast, nuclear ribosomal, and low-copy nuclear genes. In particular, the relationships between Lepechinia mexicana, Neoeplingia leucophylloides, and
Chaunostoma mecistandrum, which range from central Mexico down to northern Central America, are explored in detail. We provide strong evidence for recent hybridization/introgression, and not incomplete lineage sorting, between adjacent populations of Lepechinia mexicana and Neoeplingia
leucophylloides. The molecular data demonstrate that Neoeplingia leucophylloides and Chaunostoma mecistandrum, two species from monotypic genera with extremely narrow distributions, are embedded within Lepechinia. We formally rename the first as Lepechinia leucophylloides;
the latter was previously renamed as Lepechinia mecistandrum. Both of these new Lepechinia species are exceedingly rare and worthy of protection.
The genus Aster in a broad sense has been a catchall genus. It has long been known that there are as many as six different base chromosome numbers in the group ranging from x = 4 to x = 13. This is usually a good indication that we are dealing with significantly dissimilar elements. In 1994, Guy Nesom attempted to reclassify the genus into a number of smaller genera based mainly on morphology and cytology. In the same year, If we look at Wyoming's species in this complex, it is fairly easy to recognize most of these segregated genera. The genus Eucephalus, which was recognized as a genus in 1841, contains the species with chaffy (non-herbaceous) involucral bracts. Eurybia has the species with large, broad leaves largely confined to the stem (no basal tuft). Ionactis, recognized in 1897, has small crowded leaves with solitary heads on nearly naked peduncles. Oreostemma, recognized in 1896, has very narrow leaves in a basal tuft and solitary heads, and is mostly alpine or subalpine. Almutaster usually has rhizomes, narrow leaves, is glandular above, and grows mostly in alkaline areas.
With approximately 2000 species, tribe Cariceae (Cyperaceae) comprises a morphologically distinctive cosmopolitan clade, with holocentric chromosomes (N = 6 to 56), complex biogeographical patterns, and habitat diversity ranging from rainforests to deserts. Such a remarkable combination of characteristics should make Cariceae an ideal model for studying the evolution of biodiversity, although they also obscure their relationships in Cyperaceae, complicating attempts to identify the contributing factors to diversity of Cariceae. Recent molecular studies place Cariceae in a strongly supported clade consisting of tribes Dulichieae, Scirpeae s.s, and the enigmatic monotypic genus Khaosokia, although relationships in this clade are unresolved. Using the plastid genes matK and ndhF and a greatly improved taxonomic sampling covering 16 of 17 genera and 55% of the species outside Cariceae, our analyses firmly position Dulichieae and Khaosokia (79% and 85% bootstrap support) as successive sisters to a clade consisting of five major lineages (Calliscirpus, Trichophorum + Oreobolopsis + Cypringlea, Cariceae, Scirpus + Eriophorum, and Amphiscirpus + Phylloscirpus + Zameioscirpus), the first four of which receive good to strong support (> 80% bootstrap support). Cariceae are sister to the Trichophorum clade, although topological tests cannot exclude either Calliscirpus or a Scirpus clade + Zameioscirpus clade as sister to the tribe. Trichophorum appears to be paraphyletic and Eriophorum is firmly nested in Scirpus. There appears to be a trend in the increase of chromosome numbers in Scirpus and Eriophorum and a trend in the reduction and proliferation of the inflorescence throughout the major Cariceae-Dulichieae-Scirpeae clades. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, ●●, ●●–●●.
With 84 native species, China is a center of distribution of the genus Salvia (Lamiaceae). These species are mainly distributed in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces (southwestern China), notably the Hengduan Mountain region. Traditionally, the Chinese Salvia has been classified into four subgenera, Salvia, Sclarea, Jungia, and Allagospadonopsis. We tested this classification using molecular phylogenetic analysis of 43 species of Salvia from China, six from Japan, and four introduced species. The nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region and three chloroplast regions (rbcL, matK, and trnH-psbA) were analyzed by maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods. Our results showed that the Chinese (except Salvia deserta) and Japanese Salvia species formed a well-supported clade; S. deserta from Xinjiang grouped with Salvia officinalis of Europe. In addition, all introduced Salvia species in China were relatively distantly related to the native Chinese Salvia. Our results differed from the subgeneric and section classifications in Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae. We suggested that sections Eusphace and Pleiphace should be united in a new subgenus and that sect. Notiosphace should be removed from subg. Sclarea and form a new subgenus. Our data could not distinguish a boundary between subg. Allagospadonopsis and sect. Drymosphace (subg. Sclarea); the latter should be reduced into the former. Further clarification of the phylogenetic relationships within Salvia and between Salvia and related genera will require broader taxonomic sampling and more molecular markers.
Acacia has a complicated taxonomic history including a recent controversial retypification. We suggest that the entire recent Acacia debate is due to inadequacies of the International Code of Nomenclature (ICN), particularly that it requires that all taxa be classified in ranks. The ICN system was not designed for phylogenetic classification and the Acacia nomenclatural fallout reflects this shortfall. We recommend an alternate phylogenetic classification based on the PhyloCode. We propose the name Acacia for the most inclusive clade including the non-monophyletic ICN-based genus Acacia s.l., thereby retaining the name Acacia for use on all descendant lineages including Mimosa and Ingeae. Additionally we provide PhyloCode-based names for five monophyletic lineages of genus Acacia s.l. but not for a sixth until additional information is available. This rankless phylogenetic classification system provides an elegant solution to the Acacia controversy and provides stable, relevant information about this branch of the tree of life.
Background and aims:
Salvia is the largest genus in Lamiaceae and it has recently been found to be non-monophyletic. Molecular data on Old World Salvia are largely lacking. In this study, we present data concerning Salvia in Africa. The focus is on the colonization of the continent, character evolution and the switch of pollination systems in the genus.
Methods:
Maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference were used for phylogenetic reconstruction. Analyses were based on two nuclear markers [internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and external transcribed spacer (ETS)] and one plastid marker (rpl32-trnL). Sequence data were generated for 41 of the 62 African taxa (66 %). Mesquite was used to reconstruct ancestral character states for distribution, life form, calyx shape, stamen type and pollination syndrome.
Key results:
Salvia in Africa is non-monophyletic. Each of the five major regions in Africa, except Madagascar, was colonized at least twice, and floristic links between North African, south-west Asian and European species are strongly supported. The large radiation in Sub-Saharan Africa (23 species) can be traced back to dispersal from North Africa via East Africa to the Cape Region. Adaptation to bird pollination in southern Africa and Madagascar reflects parallel evolution.
Conclusions:
The phenotypic diversity in African Salvia is associated with repeated introductions to the continent. Many important evolutionary processes, such as colonization, adaptation, parallelism and character transformation, are reflected in this comparatively small group. The data presented in this study can help to understand the evolution of Salvia sensu lato and other large genera.
Psychotria is one of the largest genera of angiosperms as currently delimited, with approximately 1650 species estimated worldwide. A molecular phylogenetic study was undertaken using ITS and rbcL sequence data to address the generic circumscription of Psychotria and its allies in the tribe Psychotrieae and to compare traditional subgeneric groupings with relationships inferred from phylogenetic analysis. ITS sequences from 85 taxa were sampled representing the genus Psychotria and members of the tribe Psychotrieae, with Gaertnera and Mitchella used as outgroups. Sequences from the rbcL gene were analyzed for a subset of these taxa, plus genera in the closely related tribes Coussareae, Morindeae, Ophiorrhizeae, and others. Our results suggest that Psychotria is broadly paraphyletic and defined by lack of characters used to define other genera in the tribe. Two groups formerly assigned to Psychotria (sect. Notopleura and subg. Heteropsychotria plus Palicourea) are more closely related to other genera in the Psychotrieae than they are to other species of Psychotria. In addition, subg. Psychotria includes species formerly assigned to the Malesian epiphytic myrmecophytes of subtribe Hydnophytinae. We propose that the genus Psychotria be restricted to include subg. Psychotria, subg. Tetramerae, and members of the subtribe Hydnophytinae.
Although the polyphyletic genus Scirpus L. s.l. (formerly > 200 species) has been divided into more than 50 separate genera and now consists of only 64 species, its circumscription remains problematical. Three new genera have been segregated from Scirpus s.s. in the past decade, and the delimitation of Scirpus from its possible sister genus Eriophorum L. (c. 18 species) is still unresolved. The primary character used to delimit Eriophorum from Scirpus is ≥ 10 smooth, elongate perianth bristles vs ≤ 6 short, serrulate bristles or a lack of bristles, but some species display character combinations that make it difficult to place them in either genus. Eriophorum crinigerum (A. Gray) Beetle (= Scirpus criniger A. Gray), endemic to the California Floristic Province, USA, is one such species, possessing a unique combination of bristle and inflorescence features that suggest affinities with both Scirpus and Eriophorum. In this study we use molecular (matK, ndhF), morphological, and embryological data to demonstrate that E. crinigerum is not closely related to either Scirpus or Eriophorum, but represents a new generic lineage, here named Calliscirpus C. N. Gilmour, J. R. Starr & Naczi (tribe Scirpeae). Within the genus, molecular (matK, ETS 1f) and morphological data strongly support the recognition of two species, each of which is restricted to a distinct region of high endemism. Calliscirpus criniger (A. Gray) C. N. Gilmour, J. R. Starr & Naczi comb. nov. is common to the Klamath-Siskiyou and North Coast mountain ranges of Oregon and California, whereas a new species, Calliscirpus brachythrix C. N. Gilmour, J. R. Starr & Naczi, is unique to the Sierra Nevada mountain range of California. Scirpus maximowiczii C. B. Clarke, another transitional species that has blurred the limits of Scirpus and Eriophorum, and has been cited as morphologically similar to Calliscirpus species in the past, is strongly placed within a Scirpus s.s. + Eriophorum s.s. clade (100% bootstrap) on the basis of molecular and embryological data. Tree support and taxonomic sampling are not sufficient to resolve the delimitation of Eriophorum s.s. from Scirpus s.s.
Floral key innovations play a significant role in the discussion of adaptive radiation in plants. The paper brings together a brief review of morphological key innovations in plants, elucidating their evolutionary significance in flower–pollinator interactions, and new data on Salvia, a genus being examined as an example for presumed adaptive radiation. We hypothesize that the characteristic staminal lever mechanism functions as a key innovation. It is defined as a functional unit including the modification of stamens to lever-like structures, their reversible movement, and the organization of the remaining floral structures involved in the process of pollen transfer. We follow the assumption that structure and functioning of the staminal levers play a major role in the process of pollen deposition on the pollinator’s body, and that minute changes of both their proportions and their interactions with pollinators may have significant consequences for the pollination system. The functioning of the staminal lever mechanism is tested by field investigations, biomechanical experiments and pollination simulations. First results are presented, and possible modes of allopatric and sympatric speciation are discussed, based on morphometry of Salvia flowers and pollinators as well as on the operating mode of the staminal lever mechanism. Special attention is given to species-specific patterns of pollen deposition on the pollinator’s body. We assume that, depending on the precision of the lever movement, sympatric Salvia species flowering during overlapping periods and sharing the same pollinating species may be either mechanically isolated from each other or able to hybridize. The latter may result in speciation, as may spontaneous mutations influencing the flower-pollinator interaction, e.g. by significant changes in morphometry of the staminal lever system and/or other flower structures. As a consequence, Salvia individuals may deposit pollen on a different part of the pollinator’s body, or even adapt to a new pollinator species, both resulting in reproductive isolation from the parental population.
Approximately one-fourth of the more than 900 world-wide distributed Salvia species (Lamiaceae) is ornithophilous. With few exceptions they occur in the New World, being predominantly pollinated by hummingbirds. In the Old World only Salvia africana-lutea and the recently described Salvia thermarum, both from the Cape Province of South Africa, were observed to be pollinated by sunbirds and white-eyes. Among the 23 South African Salvia species Salvia lanceolata is a further candidate for being bird pollinated. For the first time we describe and illustrate its pollination by Nectarinia chalybea and Zosterops pallidus. We compare the ornithophilous syndrome of the three mentioned Salvia species and relate them to the morphological fitting of the most common nectarivorous birds of the Southwestern Cape (Cape peninsula to Worcester). We conclude that each of the birds could act as a pollinator and that the three co-occurring Salvia species are not mechanically isolated from each other. The degree of specialisation towards bird pollination, possible hybridisation events and evolution of bird pollination in South African Salvia species are discussed.
Salvia subgenus Calosphace (Lamiaceae) is economically and ethnomedicinally significant and comprised of more than 500 species. Although strongly supported as monophyletic, it has received no comprehensive systematic research since the initial establishment of 91 taxonomic sections in 1939. Representative taxa of 73 sections of Calosphace were sampled to investigate the phylogenetic relationships and identify major lineages using chloroplast (intergenic spacer psbA-trnH) and nuclear ribosomal DNA (internal transcribed spacer). Phylogenetic analysis of the combined data sets established monophyly of seven sections (Blakea, Corrugatae, Erythrostachys, Hastatae, Incarnatae, Microsphace, and Sigmoideae) and four major lineages (S. axillaris, "Hastatae clade", "Uliginosae clade", and "core Calosphace"). Sections spanning two or more centers of diversity are not supported by our results; rather, supported relationships exhibit significant geographic structure. Mexico is supported as the geographic origin of Calosphace, and no more than seven dispersal events to South America are required to account for current disjunct distributions.
The conservation of Acacia with an Australian type has been perhaps the most controversial issue to have been dealt with under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in many years. Before, during and since the vote on the matter at the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress in Vienna, strong opinions have been expressed in print, on the web and in the popular media. Opponents of the Vienna decision are currently focusing on details of the process by which the vote was conducted, rather than on the merits or otherwise of the original proposal. They have signalled an intention to challenge and to try to overturn the Vienna decision at the Melbourne Congress. We are a group of taxonomists, from a range of backgrounds and with a range of opinions on the original proposal, who believe that the Vienna process was fundamentally sound, and that continuance of this argument in its current form is damaging to the international nomenclatural consensus. We provide this paper as, we hope, an objective, non-partisan summary of the issue and conclude with the recommendation that the international taxonomic community should accept the retypification of Acacia and move on.