Food Security Model and the Role of Community Empowerment: The Case of a Marginalized Village in Mexico, Tatoxcac, Puebla

Abstract

Community empowerment has been proved to be a key element in the solution of the food security problem. As a result of a conceptual analysis, it was found that agricultural production, economic development and governance, are the traditional basis of food security models. Although the literature points to social inclusion as an important factor for food security, no model has considered it as the basis of it. The aim of this research is to identify different dimensions that make an integral model for food security, with emphasis on community empowerment. A diagnosis was made in the study community (Tatoxcac, Zacapoaxtla, Puebla), to know the aspects that impact the level of food insecurity. With a statistical sample integrated by 200 families, the Latin American and Caribbean Food Security Scale (ELCSA) was applied, finding that: in households composed by adults and children, have moderated food insecurity, (ELCSA scale has three levels, low, moderated and high); that result is produced mainly by the economic income capacity and the diversity of the diet on its food. With that being said, a model was developed to promote food security through five dimensions: 1. Regional context of the community; 2. Structure and system of local food; 3. Health and nutrition; 4. Information and technology access; and 5. Self-awareness and empowerment. The specific actions on each axis of the model, allowed a systemic approach needed to attend food security in the community, through the empowerment of society. It is concluded that the self-awareness of local communities is an area of extreme importance, which must be taken into account for participatory schemes to improve food security. In the long term, the model requires the integrated participation of different actors, such as government, companies and universities, to solve something such vital as food security.

Full text

 Abstract—Community empowerment has been proved to be a
key element in the solution of the food security problem. As a result
of a conceptual analysis, it was found that agricultural production,
economic development and governance, are the traditional basis of
food security models. Although the literature points to social
inclusion as an important factor for food security, no model has
considered it as the basis of it. The aim of this research is to identify
different dimensions that make an integral model for food security,
with emphasis on community empowerment. A diagnosis was made
in the study community (Tatoxcac, Zacapoaxtla, Puebla), to know the
aspects that impact the level of food insecurity. With a statistical
sample integrated by 200 families, the Latin American and Caribbean
Food Security Scale (ELCSA) was applied, finding that: in
households composed by adults and children, have moderated food
insecurity, (ELCSA scale has three levels, low, moderated and high);
that result is produced mainly by the economic income capacity and
the diversity of the diet on its food. With that being said, a model was
developed to promote food security through five dimensions: 1.
Regional context of the community; 2. Structure and system of local
food; 3. Health and nutrition; 4. Information and technology access;
and 5. Self-awareness and empowerment. The specific actions on
each axis of the model, allowed a systemic approach needed to attend
food security in the community, through the empowerment of
society. It is concluded that the self-awareness of local communities
is an area of extreme importance, which must be taken into account
for participatory schemes to improve food security. In the long term,
the model requires the integrated participation of different actors,
such as government, companies and universities, to solve something
such vital as food security.
Keywords—Community empowerment, food security, model,
systemic approach.
I. INTRODUCTION
OOD security is one of the main lines in the world agenda
since the financial crisis in 2008. The Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) calculated the number of
people with food insecurity in the world after the crisis, with
less than 800 million in 1955-77 increased to more than 1,000
million in 2009 [1]. These numbers are changing the priorities
of both, national governments and international organizations
to make investments on agriculture, food and nutrition
Marco Antonio Lara De la Calleja, PhD Student, and María Catalina
Ovando Chico, Research professor in the Ph.D., are with the Strategic
Planning and Technology Direction, Autonomous Popular University of the
State of Puebla, UPAEP. Puebla, Mexico (e-mail:
marcoantonio.lara@upaep.edu.mx, mariacatalina.ovando@upaep.mx).
Eduardo Lopez Ruiz, Environmental and urban designer in the
Municipality of Puebla, Environmental Bureau (e-mail:
servicioyfuncion@gmail.com).
security, after decades of negligence [2].
The definition of food security is a term in continuous
change. It has established recently that it must have a
multidisciplinary analysis gathering economy, agriculture,
sociology, and nutrition, promoting actions to address hunger
issues in regions [3]. The FAO´s classic definition used for
this work declares “Food Security exists when all people, at all
times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient,
safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and
food preferences for an active and healthy life [4]. Therefore
the lack of capacity to supply food among the countries may
lead to instability, threatening national security [5].
The Food system in Mexico has suffered unfortunate
transformations, for example those occurred in the 80´s where
the state support for the agricultural structure was disarmed
trying to promote a global economy model. From then on the
government has given privileges to importation policies,
delegating to the market dynamics basic elements for
productivity such as: supplies, machinery, financing and
technical training [6].
In 2012, data from the national health and nutrition survey
(ENSANUT) revealed that the majority of Mexican families
are in the mild food insecurity classification (41.6%); these
families are constantly concerned about food access and may
even be sacrificing the quality of the family´s diet [7].
According to data reported in 2010 by the National Council
for the Evaluation of Social Development Policies (Coneval),
there is a slight trend to moderate and severe food insecurity
[8]. The food problem in Mexico is serious considering the
high rate of obesity and malnutrition; it is evident that the
policies to address food poverty have had results with low
impact [6]. Mexico also faces a high rate of marginalization in
its population, affecting food security by having obstacles to
access adequate food. According to the marginalization index
of the National Population Council (CONAPO), which
measures four dimensions: education, housing, income per
job, and population distribution, found that 35.63% of the
inhabitants in Mexico (40,028,527 people), are in high or very
high marginalization [9]. The regions in Mexico with more
population in high and very high marginalization are:
Guerrero, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz and in the fifth position
Puebla [9]. The present work is Puebla specifically in a
community called Tatoxcac, located in the municipality of
Zacapoaxtla, with a 4,297 population, classified with high
marginalization. Another relevant aspect of the community is
that more than 50% of the population is sponsored by
Food Security Model and the Role of Community
Empowerment: The Case of a Marginalized Village
in Mexico, Tatoxcac, Puebla
Marco Antonio Lara De la Calleja, María Catalina Ovando Chico, Eduardo Lopez Ruiz
F
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“PROSPERA” a government program, created in 1997 under
the name PROGRESA, the main objective is to grant money
as a strategy to reverse poverty, the program has been
implemented since the 90´s and it would be expected to have
had an effect on reducing food poverty since then, but it is
important to note that trends in food poverty nationally have
not been uniform through the past 20 years, increasing
between 1992 and 1996, declining steadily between 1996 and
2006 to reach 13.8%, and increasing again to 18.8% between
2006 and 2010 [10].
To face the challenge to improve the food security
conditions in the community, it is necessary to place at the
center of the analysis the people themselves and the way they
create networks as part of their culture, to obtain regionalized
and contextualized strategies responding to their own
necessities, this way we can achieve better implementation
and execution of governmental programs for social support.
Empowerment of people as the basic element promotes
community involvement, mental health, community
intervention, social participation, strong social networks and
justice. For this it is required to see the subject as an active
participant and as creator of elements that improve his quality
of life and well being [11]. Thus, many community
organizations need to "promote empowerment through a
formation and accompaniment process of leaders and
organizations to execute democratic leadership" [12].
Empowerment is considered "as one of the fundamental ways
to achieve the development and transformation of
communities" [13].
In this work, community empowerment is the basis for
generating community actions, the basis that allows the
creation of integrated participation schemes through different
actors, working together to address the food security problem
in the country.
The objective of this study is to identify the food security
rate in the community of Tatoxcac and the factors that impact
on its improvement. This will allow the creation of a model
with special attention on community empowerment, food
security improvement. This will represent a strong analysis to
develop accurate strategies, and orientate the capacity of
public policies.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Ontological Approaches
The concept of Food Security has more than 200 definitions
and it has generated numerous debates since its adoption by
the FAO. The ambiguities and controversies have their origin
in the in the complex and heterogeneous global agriculture and
food situation [14].
The FAO´s definition considers four dimensions about food
security, including availability, access, utilization, and
stability:
1. Availability. Stands for physical disposition of the food
and is determined by the level of food production, reserve
and trade.
2. Access. It refers to physical and economic proximity of
the food.
3. Utilization. It refers to the biological way the body makes
the best out of the nutrients, and the preparation of the
food, dietary diversity and distribution among the family
members.
4. Stability. It connects the permanency of the three previous
dimensions along the process, which implies continuous
availability, access and utilization [1].
Consequently, when these dimensions are successfully
reached the result is food security. However, over time there´s
been requests to modify this definition in order to create a
greater inclusion to achieve food security.
Experts have considered the need of a new definition for
food security, changing from a macro paradigm, which
concerns to national governments and international
community, to consider a new micro social dimension with
space to individual decision capacity inside this basic social
unit. In addition, it converges the complex relation and
interdependence among the members of domestic social unit
and the community it is part of, also the nation and the
international context [15].
According to Putnam Godek under this more local
perspective, taking into account participation of farmers
communities, civil society organizations, academic and
research institutions, the concept of food sovereignty was
created, used mainly for the organization “Vía Campesina”,
stating that in order to reach food security, it is required
certain actions and mechanisms in a particular context,
centered in justice and human rights, to really protect the food
system and secure the well-being of people [16].
B. Related Works
According to Loring and Gerlach, in their bibliometric
analysis for food security analyzing 62 papers published
between 1997 and 2013 found in the Web of science and
Google Scholar [17]. Considering the frequency and the
number of publications, four problematic areas were found.
1. Connections with the global system. The food production
activities are highly dependent on non-inclusive
technologies, related to gasoline and petroleum and prices
in the supply chain for production. Fazzino and Loring
[18]; Skinner, [19]; explore the problem of production
costs increase and the purchase of food, in some cases
people must choose whether to buy food or pay for
heating, framing the job access issue and subsistence
activities.
2. Contamination and pathogens impact in the food quality.
Many researchers had studied the risks for health, framing
fish and mammals in the studies of Loring [20]; and
caribous in the work of de Schuster [21].
3. Climate change and its impact in the environment. There
are several papers related to climate change and supply
activities, for example the studies Loring and Gerlach
[17]; Wesche and Chan [22] about fishing.
4. Governance and administration. The obstacles for
sustainable production have been widely discussed; the
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economic and government policies keep no relation to the
food security problems, along with the lack of
participative governance for the decision making in the
work of McNeeley [23]; and Gadamus [24].
This is how Loring and Gerlach [17] show the trends in the
food security research; however, they also conclude with the
necessity to increase studies to know the direct relation
between culture and health considering the importance of local
culture; as a result, in recent year’s research about food
security have been reduced exclusively to caloric intake.
To talk about food security from a local view it is important
to mention the community empowerment, which is the social
action process where people, community and organizations
take control in the improvement of its environment and life
quality [11]. Due to the complexity of the topic and the
temporary reach of the previous investigations it is hard to
find study cases where community empowerment is the main
element. There lies the interest of the present work to show the
process created in order to promote empowerment in the
community studied.
A reference in terms of cultural context is the study
developed by Beuchelt and Badstue [25]; see Fig. 1, where
they point at the importance to incorporate a gender
perspective and human development as an opportunity to
improve agriculture and at the same time the nutrition system
in communities. Proposing various categories to identify
opportunity areas, and consequently, develop interventions
with a multidisciplinary participation [25].
TABLE I
QUESTIONS FROM ELCSA
1. Have you ever been worried about running out of food in your home?
2. Have you ever been without food in your home?
3. Have you ever stopped eating healthy at home?
4. Have you or anyone in your household ever had a little variety of
foods?
5. Have you or any adult in your household ever stopped having breakfast,
lunch, or dinner?
6. Have you or an adult in your household ever eaten less than you should eat?
7. Have you or any adult in your household ever felt hungry but did not eat?
8. Have you or any adult in your household ever eaten once a day or stopped
eating for a whole day?
9. Has anyone under the age of 18 years in your household ever had a healthy
diet?
10. Has anyone under the age of 18 years in your household ever had little
variety of foods?
11. Has anyone under the age of 18 years in your household ever stopped
having breakfast, lunch, or dinner?
12. Has anyone under the age of 18 years in your household ever eaten less
than they should?
13. Have you ever had to reduce the amount served at meals to someone under
the age of 18 years in your household?
14. Has anyone under the age 18 years at home ever felt hungry but did not
eat?
15. Has anyone under the age of 18 years at home ever eaten once a day or
stopped eating for a whole day?
The categories in the model are the result of a human rights
perspective, particularly for agriculture and nutrition related to
women. In spite of focusing on the human rights and gender
perspective, community empowerment is not included in the
model as a change factor.
Fig. 1 Gender perspective and food security model [25]
III. METHODOLOGY
In order to establish the food security diagnosis in the
community of Tatoxcac in Zacapoaxtla Puebla, the Food
Security Scale for Latin America and the Caribbean (ELCSA)
was applied; this instrument belongs to direct measuring based
in household experience scale group. According to the user´s
guide, the scale was built from previous experiences taken
from the Household Food Security Supplement Module,
(HFSSM), the Food Insecurity Brazilian Scale (EBIA), and
the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, HFIAS. Due to
its inclusive and international development it has proven its
high effectiveness and reliability in different successful
applications for the local and international scale, in
government reports, academic studies and public opinion
surveys [26].
The scale is formed by 15 questions to measure the food
insecurity rate, as seen in Table I, exploring household
changes in alimentation, lack of money or resources during a
certain time interval (three months previous to the survey).
The questions allowed a distinction between adults and
members of the family of less than 18 years old. Every
question can be answered with “yes” or “no”. If all the
answers are “no” the family have food security, the
affirmative answers are measured to identify the food
insecurity level, as follows mild, moderate and severe, as seen
in Fig. 2.
In Tatoxcac there are 1,173 families sponsored by the
governmental program “PROSPERA”, a representative
sample was created as a result of (1) in Arkin and Colton [27];
a sampling error of 0.07 was considered and the final sample
for the study was 200 families.
n 
 (1)
N: Total Population, K: Sampling Error.
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Fig. 2 Degree and evolution of perceptions in the ELCSA
On April of 2016, the ELCSA scale was applied, with the
following scale:
TABLE II
SCALE FOR FOOD INSECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Classification of food insecurity
Type of home Security Mild
insecurity
Moderate
insecurity
Severe
insecurity
Households integrated
only by adults 0 1 to 3 4 to 6 7 to 8
Households integrated by
adults and under 18 years
old
0 1 to 5 6 to 10 11 to 15
IV. RESULTS
After application of the instrument in Tatoxcac, it was
found the following: From 200 households interviewed, 183
formed by adults and family members less than 18 years old
have a 5.1 affirmative answers average, in other words mild
food insecurity. In 17 households integrated only by adults,
the affirmative answer average is 2.8; this result is in the
border of moderate food insecurity. In addition, it was possible
to determinate two main elements affecting the food security
perception, on one side, 83% of the families mentioned being
concerned about access to food related to economic income,
while on the other side 46% considers their diet variety
limited.
It is important to mention that the governmental program
called “PROSPERA” sponsors every family interviewed. It is
necessary to establish models with a local approach
considering and promoting the community capacities to
improve food security.
With that in mind the following community empowerment
model was designed: Integrating different dimensions:
Community empowerment: Integrated as a basic and
transversal element in the model, to promote the collaboration
and social innovation in the community. It is through
motivational activities considering the cultural barriers and
community context to generate change and awareness. This
dimension also incorporates entrepreneur and financial skills
development.
Fig. 3 Food security model in highly marginalized communities
1. Regional context of the social group: In order to create an
efficient food security policy it is necessary to know the
financial situation and income per family, also the
physical and environmental characteristics in the region,
and the social networks in the community to collaborate
with formal and non-formal leaders.
2. Local Food System: To promote the local production it is
necessary to know all the elements involved in the current
way to produce food, with the aim to generate added
value in the products and increase the variety of
production.
3. Health: It is necessary to encourage quality nutrition
through a healthy and diverse diet without this
representing a big spend for families. And in the same
way, the incorporation of more government policies and
programs dedicated to increase health conditions.
4. Technology and Information Access: Here it is necessary
to integrate in a systemic way the resources available in
higher education institutions, as well as public and private
organizations in the region, so the community can have
access to them and create or improve skills.
Fig. 4 Group of volunteer participants to develop the food security
model
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The model is currently being applied with families from
Tatoxcac trying to create an open space for other researchers
to continue. To evaluate the effectiveness of the model, a
group has been defined within the region, but in a different
community with almost the same geographic, social and
economic characteristics; however, there will be no
intervention in this place, to measure and compare the
obtained results.
V. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS
In Mexico food security is an urgent topic that must be
managed in the short term and prioritized in the public policies
agenda, as it has been said more than 35% of the population in
the country lives in marginalization conditions, which
represents a high rate of people with problems to access an
adequate diet.
Thanks to the diagnosis made using the ELCSA scale, it
was possible to determinate that Tatoxcac has moderate food
insecurity, and its population it is evidently concerned about
economic income.
The evidence found shows that the implementation of
“PROSPERA” has not been enough to fight food insecurity, as
a consequence, one can say that other communities in high
marginalization or very high marginalization might have the
same result. On the other hand, it is proven that income
capacity is not the only element to consider when talking
about food security in the communities, it is also found the
lack of diet variety is making evident the influence of factors
such as culture, education and information access to achieve a
healthy diet.
To improve the impact of public policies with a social focus
like “PROSPERA” it is necessary to consider the context and
culture of every region and understand how the people live
and build their reality. Community empowerment will allow to
develop strong and useful skills in the population, from the
self-production of food, to the conformation of support
networks with different institutions and players. The designed
model pays special attention to the capacity of people to
produce solutions. Developing as an initial phase, a diagnosis
of the regional context, and then analyze the local food
system, it also considers the health impact in people´s health,
and last, but not least, the information and technology access,
all those elements to diminish the rate of food vulnerability.
The food security model is currently in operation, and
therefore through data and experiences, it is expected to
improve to ensure its efficiency. It is important to say that
during the development process of the model, interdisciplinary
participation was necessary and we have as allies in the
project agronomists, forestall engineers, administrators, health
promoters, and so on, working in a systemic way with the
main objective being social improvement. The actions to
promote food security in high marginalization communities
will continue.
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