Manual for small-scale cashew cultivation in Sierra Leone

Full text

MANUAL FOR
SMALL-SCALE
CASHEW CULTIVATION
IN SIERRA LEONE
Sara Costa, Stefano Bocchi
February 2017

MANUAL FOR
SMALL-SCALE
CASHEW CULTIVATION
IN SIERRA LEONE
I

MANUAL FOR
SMALL-SCALE
CASHEW CULTIVATION
IN SIERRA LEONE
The images owners are specified underneath each photo (for more info see
'Figures and tables references')
Sara Costa sara.coc@gmail.com
Stefano Bocchi stefano.bocchi@unimi.it
University of Milan
Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences - Production,
Landscape, Agroenergy (DiSAA) -
Director of Centro Interuniversitario per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo
Agro-alimentare e Ambientale (CICSAA)
Via Giovanni Celoria 2
20133 Milano
+39 02 50316588
UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI MILANO, BRESCIA E PAVIA
Centro Interuniversitario per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo
Agro-alimentare e Ambientale
II

CONTENTS
1. FOREWORD 1
1.1 AIM OF THE MANUAL 1
1.2 ORIGIN AND DIFFUSION 2
1.3 BOTANY 3
1.3.1 CASHEW BREEDING 5
1.4 ECOLOGY 6
1.4.1 SOIL 6
1.4.2 CLIMATE 6
1.4.3 PRDUCTION CYCLE 6
1.5 CASHEW IN SIERRA LEONE 8
2. AGRONOMIC PRACTICES 9
2.1 LAND PREPARATION 9
2.2 PLANTING MATERIAL 10
2.2.1 SEED PROPAGATION 10
2.2.2 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION 13
2.3 PLANTING SYSTEM 14
2.4 INTERCROPPING 15
2.5 WEEDING 16
2.6 IRRIGATION 16
2.7 FERTILIZATION 17
2.8 PRUNING 19
2.9 FENCING 20
III

3. HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING 21
3.1 CASHEW.NUT HARVESTING 21
3.2 CLEANING AND SORTING 22
3.3 DRYING 22
3.4 STORAGE OF NUTS 23
3.5 QUALITY ASSESSMENT 24
4. PROCESSING 27
4.1 CLEANING 27
4.2 SOAKING 27
4.3 ROASTING 27
4.3.1 OPEN PAN 28
4.3.2 DRUM ROASTING 29
4.4 SHELLING 29
4.5 SEPARATION 30
4.6 PRE-GRADING 30
4.7 DRYING 31
4.8 PEELING 31
4.9 GRADING 32
4.10 REHUMIDIFICATION 33
4.11 PACKING 33
5. CASHEW PRODUCTION 34
5.1 WORLD AND AFRICAN CASHEW PRODUCTION 34
5.2 CROP PRODUCTIVITY 36
6. CASHEW PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 37
6.1 PRODUCTS 37
IV

6.1.1 CASHEW NUTS 37
6.1.2 CASHEW APPLE 37
6.2 BY PRODUCTS 39
6.2.1 CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID (CNSL) 39
6.2.2 CASHEW CAKE 39
6.2.3 CASHEW NUT TREE TIMBER 39
6.2.4 CASHEW NUT TESTA 39
6.2.5 CASHEW NUT TREE LEAVES 39
7. PESTS AND DISEASES 40
7.1 PESTS 40
7.1.1 Helopeltis bugs (
Helopeltis schoutedeni
and
H. anacardii
) 40
7.1.2 Coconut bug (
Pseudotheraptus wayi
) 41
7.1.3 The cashew weevil (
Mecocorynus loripes
) 42
7.1.4 Red-banded thrips (
Selenothrips rubrocinctus
) 43
7.1.5 Long-tailed mealybug (
Pseudococcus longispinus
) 44
7.1.6 Cashew stem girdler (
Paranaleptes reticulata
) 45
7.2 DISEASES 46
7.2.1 Anthracnose (
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
) 46
7.2.2 Gummosis (
Lasiodiplodia theobromae
) 47
7.2.3 Powdery mildew
(Oidium sp.)
48
7.2.4 Black mold (
Pilgeriella anacardii)
49
8. CONCLUSIONS 50
REFERENCES 51
V

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ACi African Cashew initiative
APS American Phytopathological Society
ARC Agricultural Research Council
CNSL Cashew Nut Shell Liquid
DCNT Dried Cashew Nut Testa
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GAP Good Agricultural Practices
GIEPA Gambia Investment & Export Promotion Agency
GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
ha hectares
ICIPE International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology
IRD International Relief & Development
lbs pounds
PMD Powdery Mildew
RCN Raw Cashew Nut
SeGaBi Senegal, Gambia and Guinea Bissau
SLARI Sierra Leone Agricultural Research Institute
t tonnes
VI

1. FOREWORD
1.1 Aim of the manual
This manual is part of the project “The northern lands cashew project: strengthening techniques
and approach of small scale farmers to enhance cashew value chain in Sierra Leone”. The overall
plan has focused on the improvement of quality cashew crops production and processing for 1,200
cashew small farmers (members of 48 associations) through the introduction of appropriate
agricultural and transformation practices and the development of commercialization channels.
The manual aims at providing Sierra Leonean small scale farmers with sustainable cultivation
practices and techniques in order for them to be able to turn cashew nut cultivation into a profitable
agricultural activity and thus lift them from hunger and poverty. Maintaining the high quality of
cashew nuts produced in the country is key to a viable cashew sector. The ultimate goal is to
enhance cashew value chain which is currently underdeveloped and disorganized. The cashew
industry already plays an important role in the economic development of countries like Vietnam,
India, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, and Ghana and should thus be considered a key contributor to the
achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Moreover, there are
expectations that the market will remain strong for some time due to the market of cashew valuable
by products. This should affect the cashew industry positively so that it could be exploited for
empowering smallholder farmers.
The manual is structured as follows: Chapter 1 takes a brief look at the origin of cashew and the
reasons for its worldwide diffusion. The botanical traits and the description of its ecology follow and
the chapter ends with a brief paragraph about cashew relevance in Sierra Leone. The best
practices that smallholder farmers could integrate into their farming activities to scale up cashew
productivity are reviewed in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 deals with harvesting and post-harvesting
handling of cashew nuts. In Chapter 4 the main steps in cashew nuts processing are reviewed
whereas Chapter 5 deals with cashew productivity. Cashew products and by-products are
presented in Chapter 6. The most common pest and diseases are outlined in Chapter 7 where the
most cost-effective and efficient pest management techniques are showed. Chapter 8 finally gives
a look to the possible future sector developments.
1

1.2 Origin and diffusion
Cashew is an evergreen tree native to North-eastern Brazil widely cultivated throughout the tropics
for its very nutritious, free-of-cholesterol nuts. Its English name derives from the Portuguese name
for the fruit of the cashew tree that is known as “caju”, which in turn derives from the Tupi Indian
name, acaju (Rosengarten, 1984; Davis, 1999; Maia et al. 2000). It is one of the first fruit trees
from the New World to be widely distributed in the tropics by the Portuguese and Spanish
adventurers (Purseglove, 1988). In the mid-to-late 1500s, Portuguese traders and explorers
introduced the cashew tree to India and to the east coast of Africa in an area that is now
Mozambique with the purpose of afforestation and soil conservation (Red River Foods Inc., 2012).
Dispersal to eastern part of Africa (today, Kenya and Tanzania) must be due to the elephants
known for their love of fruits (Johnson, 1973). Possibly attracted by the vibrant colour of the fruits,
the elephants must have been swallowing the entire apple with the nut and since the nut is too
difficult for digestion, the dung must have carried on this dispersal (Massari F., 1994). Later, in the
second half of the sixteen century it was introduced to the continent’s west coast, where it
presently grows from Senegal to Nigeria (Red River Foods Inc., 2012). Following its introduction
into India, the plant was taken to South east Asia and later it spread to Australia and parts of North
America such as Florida (Nair K.P.P., 2010). From its humble beginning as a crop intended to
check soil erosion, cashew has come out as a major foreign exchange earner in most of the
countries (Cashewinfo.com, 2014).
2

1.3 Botany
The commercially cultivated Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a member of the
Anacardiaceae botanical family, a family which also includes the mango (Mangifera indica) and the
pistachio (Pistacia vera), (Oliver M. et al., 1992). Among the eight species in the genus
Anacardium, Anacardium ooccidentale L. is the only one of economic value, due to its edible
hypocarp and nutritious kernel. Plant height varies considerably, ranging from 5 to 14 m. The
canopy size also varies up to a width of 20 m. The root system is usually deep and widespread.
The root distribution pattern depends on soil type, planting material and method, age, level of crop
nutrition, and irrigation (Dendena et al., 2014).
The trunk is usually irregular and rather short, as the initial branches grow close to the ground (Fig.
1). Leaves are green, elliptic to obovate, with smooth margins and sometimes a notched tip; they
are arranged in a spiral pattern toward the end of the stem with a short stalk. Flowers are gathered
in a panicle which is up to 26 cm long and bears 5 to 11 laterals (Fig.2). The panicles
predominantly constitute of male and hermaphrodite flowers in varying proportion. Flowering
occurs at the end of new shoots in the periphery of the tree canopy over a 30- to 60-day period
during the vegetative flush that usually follows dry periods (Martin et al., 1997). In tropical climates,
which are wet on and off throughout the year, flowering can occur at any time (Dendena et al.,
2014). When open, flowers are receptive to pollen for several days. The stigma becomes
immediately receptive, even though the release of pollen occurs later. This favors cross-pollination
by insects, which largely predominates on self-pollination due to the sticky nature of the pollen
(Aliyu and Awopetu 2008; Freitas and Paxton 1996; Northwood 1966).
3
Fig. 1: Cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale L.), Bishnu
Sarangi, www.pixabay.com

Cashew fruits consist of two main parts (Fig. 3): the accessory fruit known as 'cashew apple' is an
oval or pear-shaped hypocarp deriving from the enlargement of the pedicel. When ripen it is a
yellow or red structure 5-11 cm long. The real fruit is a kidney-shaped drupe that develops at the
bottom of the apple. It is the first part to ripen on the cashew tree (Fig. 4) followed by the cashew
apple (Lim 2012; Johnson 1973; Varghese and Pundir 1964).
4
Fig. 2: Cashew flowers (Bishnu Sarangi,
www.pixabay.com)
Fig. 4: Cashew nuts and apples
(http://ranchodelicioso.com)
Fig. 3: Cashew fruits (Azam-Ali S., 2011)

Within the real fruit, there is a single seed, the cashew nut, which is surrounded by a double shell
containing anacardic acid, an allergenic phenolic compound (Hemshekhar et al., 2011; Lim 2012;
Tyman and Morris 1967) known as Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL). The raw cashew nut is the
main commercial product of the cashew tree and it is mainly consumed as a fresh product.
Cashew apples are used as a by-product in some countries, particularly to make juices.
Apart from the above-listed common features, there are two distinct morphological groups within
the A. occidentale species that differ from one another in terms of size: the common type and the
dwarf type. The former is bigger and generally more vigorous. Adult plants grow from 8 to 14 m in
height and develop a crown span that reaches up to 20 m (Johnson 1973; Ohler, 1979). They
generally flower in their third year from planting, but the minimum age for stable production is
usually 8 years and more commonly between 12 and 14. The individual production capacity varies
considerably, with plants producing less than 1 kg up to more than 100 kg of nuts per year.
Similarly, a nut’s weight can vary between 3 and 33 g, with the pseudo-fruit ranging from 20 to 500
g. The dwarf type generally reaches no more than 5 m in height, with a homogenous canopy 5–6.5
m wide. These plants have a notably shorter juvenile phase as they start flowering within 6 months
so that they have a marketable production in their second or third year from planting (Barros, 1995;
Barros et al., 2002). Other characteristics that differentiate dwarf clones from common types
include smaller and lighter green leaves, a smaller stem diameter, initial branches closer to the
ground, smaller nuts, and larger peduncles (Barros, 1995).
1.3.1 Cashew breeding
As cashew was initially propagated for soil conservation and forestation there was not much
emphasis on its varietal traits. The varietal concept is of recent origin. Initially, the focus was only
on the total yield obtained per tree. Important attributes, such as kernel weight, shelling
percentage, and recovery percentage of whole kernels, received little attention. Today, because of
the emphasis on quality of the nut, there is greater focus on identification of varieties with kernel
weights over 2 g, which fall in the export grade of W 210 and W 240 (Bhaskara Rao , 1998). The
research is moving towards the release of varieties tolerant/resistant to the most common pests
such as thrips and stem-root borers. Varieties able to tolerate drought situations have also been
developed (Kumar, 2006).
5

1.4 Ecology
1.4.1 Soil
Cashew can adapt itself to varying soil conditions from the sandy sea coast to laterite hill slopes,
which has resulted in the selection of the worst soils for cashew where no other crops could give
an economic return (Panda H., 2013). Cashew do not do well in poorly-drained, saline or clay soils.
The land should preferably be rather flat with no large rocks or holes (IRD, 2011). The optimum
organic matter level is 1.4–3.0 % (Sys et al. 1993), even though in several areas devoted to
cashew cultivation, such as in West Africa, organic matter content can be lower than 1 % (Dedzoe
et al. 2001; Jones 1973). For maximum productivity, cashew prefers good well drained aerated
sandy-loam soils with adequate moisture; however those soils are poor in fertility; hence the
cashew tree need to be fertilized regularly (Panda H., 2013).
1.4.2 Climate
Usually, a dry period of 4 months or more is required for a reasonable yield due to the fact that
flowering occurs after dry spells; however, flowering can occur at any time throughout the year in
the case of an undefined dry season (Dedzoe et al., 2001). Nevertheless, an annual precipitation
range of 1,000–2,000 mm is necessary for a good yield (Sys et al., 1993). Yield performances
reaching 3 t/ha are obtained under high temperature, especially within the range 15–35 °C, with
the optimum between 24 and 30 °C. However, the optimal temperature for seed germination is
around 35 °C (Dedzoe et al., 2001). The tree is very sensitive to cold when young but becomes
fairly hardy with age and is capable of withstanding short periods of light frost (Morton J., 1961).
1.4.3 Production cycle
The world cashew trade is balanced on the annual cashew production cycle. Short or poor crops
anywhere or abnormal weather conditions distort the trade pattern, most importantly affecting
prices. Vietnam produces the year’s first crop, and shortly thereafter India’s crop comes in. At
approximately the same time, West African crops are being harvested. Harvest of the Brazilian,
East African, and Indonesian crops begins in August/September, tying the trade over until the new
crops of Vietnam, India, and West Africa are harvested early the following year (Fig.5). Considering
the equator as a reference line it can be pointed out that c ountries north of the equator, including
India, Vietnam, and producers in West Africa, harvest from early in the calendar year to
approximately mid-year whereas countries south of the equator, including Brazil and producers in
East Africa, harvest from September or October to early in the following calendar year (Red River
6

Foods Inc., 2012).
7
Fig. 5 : Production cycle (Red River Foods Inc., 2012)

1.5 Cashew in Sierra Leone
Cashew cultivation in Sierra Leone was started in the late 1980s, when a 600 ha cashew plantation
was established in Kambia District by the Magbema Cashew Farmers Association, with additional
trees being planted by one hundred or so outgrowers. As of January 2005, about 3,600 ha of
cashew trees existed, mostly in the northern and western parts of the country, of which about 1,200
ha were bearing fruit. Since cashew trees start bearing at 4 to 5 years, this implies that two thirds
of the acreage under cashew was planted recently. The 1,200 ha of fruit bearing cashew trees
could potentially produce about 940 tonnes of raw cashew nuts though rough estimates put
production at only about 500 t (Sierra Leone, 2006). In 2010 the Sierra Leonean Government
launched an initiative to promote cashew cultivation country wide through a public-private
partnership in which over 300,000 planting materials have been distributed to farmers and small
holders around the country for cultivation. However, there were still no exports of raw or processed
cashew as sufficient volumes were not produced to warrant exports or investments in processing
(Government of Sierra Leone, 2010b). In 2011 the Sierra Leone Agricultural Research Institute
(SLARI) pointed out that there may also be a potential for small-scale, largely manual processing
of cashews for export, but this industry must be very competitive to survive. The more immediate
challenge will be how to attract international buyers of raw nuts given the low yields of the existing
crop. To do this, growers should aim for large nut with good kernel yield. This may require the
importation of planting materials.
Recently, cashew has been seen as a potentially attractive cash crop even in the traditional cocoa
areas in eastern part of the country. Local farmers seemed to be keen to start or expand cashew
production, as evidenced by the sale of seedlings and by reported plantings in the MAFS’s crop
station at Kpuuwabu-Kenema (SLARI, 2011).
8

2. AGRONOMIC PRACTICES
2.1 Land preparation
To establish a good cashew cultivation the first consideration which has to be done concerns the
land to be destined to the trees growth. Once identified the right place it must be cleared of any
shrub or other wild growth (Fig. 6). Another important element is to consider the ownership; it is
recommended to choose a place where you own the land (IRD, 2011).
In light to medium soils, pits should be dug to a depth of 60 cm×60 cm×60 cm. In case of harder
substrates, pits may be 1 m deep to compensate for the lesser depth of top soil (Fig. 7). While
digging the farmer must put the top soil on one side and the lower layer on the other side because
the top soil is more fertile. Pits are then exposed to direct sunlight for two to four weeks, which help
in removing termites and other harmful insects (FAO 1998).
9
Fig. 6: Land clearing (GIZ-ACi, 2013) Fig. 7: Hole digging (GIZ-ACi, 2013)

2.2 Planting material
Cashew is propagated by both seeds and by vegetative methods. Seed propagation results in an
enormous variability in the seedling progeny. Therefore, high yielding cashew varieties are
commercially propagated by different vegetative methods to produce true to type planting material
(Desai A. R., 2010).
2.2.1 Seed propagation
There are two ways to grow cashew seeds. The cheapest and preferred way is to directly plant the
seed in the desired location. Before sowing, the viability of the seeds to be used as planting
material need to be tested. To this purpose, a simple water test can be conducted (Fig. 8). A hand
full of salt must be added to 10 litres of clean water. Nuts are added and stirred vigorously. After 5
minutes all floaters are discarded. Only sunken nuts are to be used as seed. The residual salt must
be washed away from seeds. Selected seeds must then be soaked for 2 days in clean water to
obtain a good germination and finally air-dried (GIZ-ACi, 2012).
10
Fig. 8: Water test for seed viability (GIZ-ACi, 2012)

Three seeds per hole/mound must be planted at a depth of 5 cm in a triangular pattern so as to
avoid gasps in the plantation in case of seed failure (Dendena et
al., 2014). Seeds must be placed with the 'smile' side down (Fig. 9).
For seeds that have been stored for no longer than 5 to 6 months
in gunny bags, and after been sun dried for 2 or 3 days,
germination takes 15–20 days (Azam-Ali and Judge, 2001). After
germination occurs and when seedlings are near 20 cm in height,
only the most vigorous seedling should be left and the weaker
plants gently removed to allow room for the biggest to continue
growing in the mound. When planted directly into the plantation,
cashew seedlings are easily eaten by small rodents, termites, and
other animals. They also require watering which may not be
available. Moreover, some of the seeds planted may not germinate
or survive.
Another way is to plant the seed in a plastic bag and then transfer the young tree seedling
(approximately three months old) to the desired location (Fig. 10). This type of seedling is usually
developed at a tree nursery where it is easier to protect, care for, and monitor the tree seedlings
(IRD, 2011). Seedlings have been reported to have a delicate root system to which transplanting
may have a negative impact. Hence, when ready, seedlings are placed in the ground in a way to
minimize damage to the root system (Azam-Ali and Judge, 2001).
Transplanting is used because it provides the opportunity to select good seedlings to ensure
uniformity while establishing the cashew orchard, which is not possible with sowing (Azam-Ali and
Judge, 2001). In the case of rainfed plantations, whether they are sown or planted, cashew
11
Fig. 9: Seed smile side down
(IRD, 2011)
Fig. 10: Transplanting (Desai A.R., 2010)

seedlings are placed in the ground during the rainy season, as seedlings and germinating seeds
have to be securely rooted before soils dry out. In this sense, early planting is preferred as it gives
more time for seedlings to develop before the onset of the dry season (Azam-Ali and Judge, 2001).
PLANTING TECHNIQUE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
DIRECT PLANTING
Fewer resources required
Less time consuming
Less labour intensive
Requires more seeds
Lower survival rate
More difficult to manage
seedlings
NURSERIES
Uses less seed
More selective out-planting
process
Higher survival rate
Easy to manage seedlings
Opportunity for economic
gains from selling seedlings to
others
More time consuming
Requires more resources
and materials
Labor intensive
Table 1: Pros and Cons of Establishing a Nursery and Direct Planting (IRD, 2011)
12

2.2.2 Vegetative propagation
In order to make the real difference, farmers need improved planting material to increase the yield
potential of their plantations. Only when the vegetal material is of good quality, a farmer may
increase his harvest from current 3 to 4 kilograms per cashew tree up to 15 kg of RCN per tree
(ACi, undated). Because planting seed can result in a lot of variation among the seedlings, cashew
now is propagated asexually. This can be done through budding, grafting, ground or air layering,
and cuttings (Davis, 1999). Here only grafting will be briefly described.
Grafting is a process whereby the top of a cashew tree or seedling is replaced with the shoot of a
high-yielding variety (Fig. 11). This will take advantage of the well-developed root system and
strength of the existing tree. The process will improve the productivity of the poor-yielding tree in a
shorter time. Grafted trees tend to come into production much earlier than trees grown from seeds:
they usually bear fruits within two years whereas trees grown from seed take up to five years to
mature. The use of grafted trees is very favourable for farmers as they are allowed to select the
high-yielding desired varieties in their plantations. A large uniform nut size can be established and
an increase in the average yield per tree is recorded. Farmers should remember that nuts from
grafted trees cannot be used to grow seedlings because they lose their characteristics. Grafting
requires speciality skills, therefore grafted cashew trees need to be bought at a nursery (IRD,
2011).
When transplanting the grafts, care is taken to place the grafted plant in the pits leaving the graft
joint at least 5 cm above ground level. Normally the scion is staked to avoid damage from wind and
the support should remain up to the third year from planting (Fig. 12). Most orchard growers use a
mulch around the planting hole to suppress weeds and conserve moisture (FAO, 1998).
13
Fig. 12: Seedling support
(Desai A.R., 2010)
Fig. 11: A grafted seedling
(GIZ-ACi, 2013)

2.3 Planting system
The initial plant population is to be decided carefully for every agro-climatic region, considering the
fertility status of the soil, the level of management in terms of fertilization, irrigation and weeding
among others. Normal spacing recommended for cashew is 7.5 m x 7.5 m for poor soils to 10 m x
10 m for rich and deep soils and sandy coastal areas. On lands with steep slope, the rows may be
spaced 10-15 m apart with a spacing of 6-8 m between the trees in a row.
The two most common systems of planting are the square system and the triangular system.·
Square system: In this system of planting, the inter row and intra row spacing will be the
same such that the plants occupy the corners of imaginary squares.
Triangular system: In this system of planting, the inter row and intra row spacing will be
adjusted such that the plants occupy the corners of the imaginary equilateral triangles.
The spacing and plant population in these two systems of planting are as follows:
SPACING Plant population/ha
Square system Triangular system
10 m x 10 m 100 116
8 m x 8 m 156 180
7.5 m x 7.5 m 177 204
Table 2: spacing and plant population (Salam M.Abdul et al., 1999).
Another planting pattern known as high density planting allow farmers to enhance the production of
cashew. This technique involves planting more number of grafts per unit area initially and thinning
them out at later stages. Grafts may be planted at a spacing of 4 m x 4 m or 5 m x 5 m or 8 m x 4
m. While adopting planting at a spacing of 4 m x 4 m in square system of planting, there will be 625
plants per hectare. This population can be retained for a period of seven to nine or ten years
depending upon the canopy expansion rate. If the soil is very rich, the canopy development rate
will be faster. High density planting technique would be more useful in poor soils where the rate of
canopy expansion is slow. Later, after monitoring the canopy pressure between adjacent plants,
the alternate plants are to be removed. Finally, when the plants attain full growth, the spacing
between the plants will be optimum.
If uniform management practices are adopted, during early years of yield the 'per tree nut yield' will
be more or less the same with all the trees, both in the normal density planting and in the high
14

density planting. But the 'per hectare yield' will be more from high density plantations (due to higher
plant population) compared to the normal density plantations. During later years when the plant
population is equalized to that of normal density plantation, the productivity of both the plantations
would be more or less the same. The bonus yield obtained during the early years would be
substantial in high density plantations. In addition to higher yields, substantial quantities of firewood
can be obtained during thinning which may fetch an additional revenue to the farmer. The weed
growth in the interspace can also be checked to a greater extent (Salam M. Abdul et al., 1999).
2.4 Intercropping
Annual crops are used as intercrops for cashew. Early bearing low growing food intercrops should
be preferred, whereas tall intercrops like certain varieties of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench) and millet should not be grown with cashew as they cast too much shade and negatively
affect cashew seedling growth (Ohler, 1979). Intercrop must be established early in the plantation
(up to three to four years) as delay would lead to a smothering effect due to the spreading cashew
canopy (Nair K.P.P, 2010). Intercropping is best done when planting at least 3 meters away from
each cashew tree. When spacing cashew trees 10 meters apart for example, a farmer will have
plenty of room between trees to grow crops such as maize (Fig. 13), groundnut, vegetables,
sesame, and upland rice among other crops that will not damage the sensitive cashew root system
(IRD, 2011). It must be considered that vegetables can only be grown as intercrops when facilities
for supplemental irrigation are available (Nair K.P.P, 2010). The benefits of this practice are well
documented and range from improving the food security of growers by varying their diet, providing
revenues for livelihood, and better exploiting soil resources (Rodrigo et al., 2001). Extra gains can
be seek through intercropping especially while waiting for the cashew tree to mature and start
generating income (IRD, 2011).
15

2.5 Weeding
Weeds are a major issue for cashews as they can prevent seedlings from development. The
detrimental effects of weeds are higher during the early stage of development, as roots of weeds
and seedlings are in the same layer of soil, thus competing for water and nutrients (Opoku-
Ameyaw et al., 2012). Therefore a good land preparation is essential. Weeding should be done
around the tree trunks up to a radius of about 2 m until tree canopies shade out the weeds.
Removal of weeds in and around the cashew orchard must be done in both the dry and rainy
season to help minimize the chance of fire and to allow easier access for collection of nuts and fruit
(IRD, 2011).
Several methods have been used to control weeds: for a long time, manual slashing was the most
widespread but has recently been turned down for other methods due to its short-lived effects
(Ohler, 1979). In low rainfall areas, mulching has been used as weeding practice, which also
contributes to moisture retention and moderation of soil temperature (FAO, 1998). Moreover,
intercropping provides another environmentally sustainable practice for weed control (Opoku-
Ameyaw et al., 2012).
2.6 Irrigation
Cashew is principally a rainfed crop; irrigation is uncommon as in most of the cases where cashew
plantations exist surface water sources are non existent. Nevertheless if available, irrigation can be
beneficial when water requirements reach their maximum ex. during dry periods which coincide
with cashew flowering and nut development (Rejani and Yadukumar 2010).
16
Fig. 13: Maize-cashew intercropping (Giz-Aci, 2013)

2.7 Fertilization
Cashew is known as a "poor man's crop" and is good for smallholders because it will grow with
minimal fertility and few inputs. However, just because cashew will tolerate poor soils and low
rainfall does not mean one should look for this agro-climatic conditions to grow the trees. As with
any crop, cashew will produce more nuts with more inputs. Cashew's advantage for the
smallholder is that it will still produce a harvest, although a low one, under these unfavourable
conditions (Davis K., 1999). For an optimal growth and productivity, the use of fertilizers should
start at the planting season when farmers dug holes for the transplant of their seedlings. About
three to four weeks before plantation, a mixture of surface soil and fertilizers should be placed at
the bottom of each hole. The subsoil will then be added. Organic fertilizers as cow dung, poultry
dropping and compost are preferred to chemical fertilizers. Wood ashes can also be added to the
mixture as they are rich in potassium. The rate of application is one bucket (size 34 = 10 kg) per
tree (Fig. 14). This will help the establishment and quick growth of seedlings (GIZ-ACi, 2012).
Moreover, manure slowly releases nitrogen thus limiting leaching and acidification and may
improve soil structure and water content (Ipinmoroti et al., 2011).
Fertilizers application should be repeated also during the growth phase. If the soil is very poor, a
farmers can add some more nutrients one month after transplanting. Both organic and chemical
fertilizers can be used, depending on their availability. For example, in case of chemical fertilizers,
70 g (2/3 of milk tin) of Sulphate of Ammonia (SA) third and 100 g (1 full milk tin) of Triple
Superphosphate (TSP) per plant should be added. That means 10 kg of TSP per ha and 7 kg of
SA per ha (GIZ-ACi, 2012).
A yearly maintenance manuring at the beginning of the rainy season according to the age of the
17
Fig. 14: Manure adding at planting (GIZ-ACi, 2013)

tree should be done:
•1 Kg (5-10 years)
•1,5 Kg (10 to 15 years)
•2 Kg (15 to 20 years)
•2,5 Kg (more than 20 years)
Manure is spread all around the tree diameter, 5 cm under the surface and covered with soil (Fig.
15), whereas inorganic fertilizers should be put not too close to the trunk in order to avoid stressing
the tree (GIZ-ACi, 2013b).
As for inorganic fertilizers the doses vary according to the age of the tree and its yield. For
example, assuming an annual average yield of 5–10 kg nuts/tree, it is recommended to apply 500
g nitrogen, 125 g phosphorus and 125 g potassium per tree annually in two split doses (Panda H.,
2013). 250, 125 and 125 g/plant/year of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are instead suitable
to increase the yield of a 15-year-old cashew tree (Subramanian et al., 1995).
Farmers can both use chemical and organic fertilizers knowing that trees have proven to respond
better to the latter. Effectively they contain other macro-and micro-nutrients like calcium and
magnesium, which are not available from inorganic sources (Ipinmoroti et al., 2011).
18
Fig. 15: Maintenance manuring (GIZ-ACi, 2013b)

2.8 Pruning
Pruning is an essential package for a good cashew orchard management as it stimulates regrowth,
boosts production and guarantees a proper maintenance of the orchard. A proper shaping of a
cashew tree should start just after the planting when lower leaves are discarded to let the seedling
grow taller while deterring cattle (Fig. 16). On adult tree unproductive lower branches should be
removed leaving one metre clear trunk to allow an easier access for collection and maintenance of
the tree. Pruning is also used as a pest control practice: by removing infested or diseased
branches the spread of the infection can be reduced. Branches that cross over to other trees need
to be pruned as cashew are particularly sensitive to overcrowding and thus canopies should not
interfere. The top branches are cut in order to allow sunlight to penetrate the canopy. This also
avoid darkness which is a preferred hideout for insect diseases (Mohamed P., 2014). The tip of
branches that fruited the previous season can be pruned to allow more shoots to form, which in
turn leads to more nuts (Fig. 17).
Moreover, plants are usually kept at a height of 4–5 m by topping off the main stem, in order to
reduce work required for orchard management (Dendena et al, 2014). Pruning provides also
household firewood. Pruning should be done once a year after the collection period and before the
rains start to allow the maximum regrowth (IRD, 2011). Immediately after pruning, Bordeaux paste
(10%) should be applied on the cut surfaces to prevent fungal infections and die-back (FAO, 1998).
19
Fig. 17: Removing tips increases shoots (IRD, 2011)
Fig. 16: Lower leaves removal
(IRD, 2011)

2.9 Fencing
A major problem claimed by cashew farmers is the invasion of plots by pastoralists who allow their
cattle roam about freely (Mohamed P., 2014). This affects especially young trees as animals
scratch their backs against the trunks. Fencing is an element of effective plantation management.
Although it will not guarantee an end to crop losses, it can reduce theft and animal damage. Daily
visits to the plantation and monitoring of the plantation are just as important as fencing. When
choosing a fence, a farmer needs to think about the expected durability or life of the fence, and
then compare that with initial cost. Some fencing materials such as barbed wire or chain link are
relatively easy to put up, but they are expensive and easily damaged by weather (rust) or tampered
with by intruders, reducing its effectiveness. Live fencing, or using plants, bushes, shrubs and
trees, may take longer to establish but as a barrier is less costly in the long run and will last longer.
Some live fencing plant varieties include sisal, acacia, lime tree, mesquite, euphorbia or
bougainvillea. Some of these plants have thorns or spikes that deter animals and humans from
entering the plantation.
Moreover, a fire break 10 metres minimum wide (Fig. 18) should surround all cashew trees in the
orchard to prevent accidental fire from entering the orchard (GIZ-ACi, 2013).
20
Fig. 18: Fire break (GIZ-ACi, 2013a)

3. HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING
3.1 Cashew nut harvesting
The process of collecting the fallen apples/nuts and separating the apple from the nut is time
sensitive. In order to maintain good nut quality, it is important that nuts are collected and separated
daily. Farm labour must be organized in advance to make nut collection as efficient as possible
(IRD, 2011). Before harvesting it is important to weed the area under the trees clean as this will
facilitate the picking of fruits (FAO TECA, 2012).
Here there are some tips (IRD, 2011):
Nuts should be allowed to fall to the ground: don’t pick the cashew apple/nut off the tree.
Nuts should be picked up off the ground daily. Nuts left on the ground for a long time will
cause the inside kernel to become yellowish and higher in oil content. Daily collection also
reduces losses due to animals and theft.
Nuts should be separated from the apples the same day they fall. Nuts can be removed by
simply twisting and pulling the nut away from the apple (Fig. 19) or by using a nylon wire
(Fig.20). Make sure to put the apples in a separate bucket from the nuts once they are
separated. Leaving the nuts attached to the apples will add moisture to the nuts and reduce
the kernel quality. This is done in the field.
Hire labour to speed up collection where family labour is insufficient
21
Fig. 19: Kernel separation by twisting
(GIZ-ACi, 2013a)
Fig. 20: Kernel separation by a nylon wire
(GIZ-ACi, 2013a)

3.2 Cleaning and sorting
Once removed from the apples, kernels must undergo a process of cleaning and grading. These
processes need to be repeated every step from the harvesting to the drying phase. In order to
clean the nut the farmer need to completely remove, if any, the pulp from the nut and then wipe it
with a dry cloth. No pulp residue should be on the nut as this will cause the nut to rot. Water should
not be used because it will damage the nuts. Sorting cashew nuts involve the removal of immature,
atrophic, empty or spotted nuts. All these operations guarantee a high quality product.
3.3 Drying
Drying mature cashew nuts is the most important aspect in producing high-quality raw cashew
nuts. Proper drying requires three days of full exposure to sunlight during the dry season in
Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau cashew growing zones. A late cashew crop harvested during
the rainy season may take a week or more to ensure nuts are properly dried. Nuts may be dried on
cemented drying floors or appropriate sheets such as tarpaulin, mats, bamboo, or rice bags. The
nuts should be spread thinly on the surface away from shade and turned at least four times a day
(Fig. 21). Nuts should be left to cool after drying before they are put into jute or burlap bags (not
polypropylene or used rice bags). Jute bags allow air to circulate through the bags, thereby
reducing damage caused by excessive moisture (IRD, 2011).
Three steps for testing dryness (all three must be true for the nut to be completely dry):
1. Firmly press the nut with your thumbnail. If a dent is left behind in the nut, it needs to dry longer.
If there is no dent, then the nut is completely dry
22
Fig. 21: Nuts drying (GIZ-ACi, 2013a)

2. When shaking the dried nut, a rattle sound will be produced.
3. The color of the nut will look light brown for the dry season crop and dark brown for the rainy
season crop.
The sorting phase is pursued also along the drying.
3.4 Storage of nuts
Jute bags are the best for storing cashew because they help prevent excess buildup of moisture.
Empty rice bags can be used to store cashew nuts, but for only a few weeks and when jute is not
available. If rice bags are used, they should be left open when filled for three days before sewing to
minimize perspiration during storage.
A storage area should have a dry floor, a secure roof, and good ventilation (Fig. 22). The bags
should be stacked on raised platform such as wooden pallets (Fig. 23) or logs to prevent moisture
entering the nuts from the floor. Enough space (at least 0.5 m) should be left between stacks,
between stacks and walls, and also below the roof to allow free circulation of air as well as for
individuals to walk about and check the condition of the stacks (IRD, 2011).
It is important to be able to sell the produce within the same year of harvest in order to prevent loss
in quality (GIZ-ACi, 2012a). By collectively selling cashew nuts, farmers have the ability to bypass
the smallest middlemen and sell directly to an exporter who will give them a higher price (IRD,
2011).
23
Fig. 23: Sack storage (GIZ-ACi, 2013a)
Fig. 22: Storage area (GIZ-ACi, 2013a)

3.5 Quality assessment
Quality assessment is accomplished throughout the raw cashew nut marketing chain at different
levels:
Farmers (they ensure the quality of cashew nut they sell in order to get the right price by
the buyers)
Local buyers (they assess the quality of the cashew nuts they buy in order to avoid the
return of bad batches from their clients, either exporters or local processors)
Exporters (most of the raw cashew nut produced in Africa are then exported to Asian
countries. Exporters always check the quality of cashew nut batches)
Local shelling factories (quality control is carried out when the raw cashew nuts arrive in the
factory)
Nut quality is determined by two key tests, the nut count test and the out-turn test.
The nut count test:
This test is the easiest to perform and gives an indication of the size of the raw nut by measuring
the number of raw nuts per kilo. Nuts selected randomly from the bags are placed on a scale until
the scale reads 1 kg. Then the number of nuts is counted. With smaller nuts, it will take more nuts
to add up to a kilo. The larger the nuts, the fewer the nuts it takes to make a kilo. Therefore, in the
nut count test, the fewer the nuts, the better. Nut counts for medium-sized nuts are typically 168–
199/kg. Some nuts in India and Tanzania have been recorded as low as 160/ kg. Very small nuts
may be in the range of 230– 240/kg. Very small nuts are difficult to process and thus are
considered lower quality (IRD, 2011). Nut count could be used if you have no other means of
evaluating your raw nuts, but this does not tell you much about the quality of the kernel inside. It is
the characteristics of the kernel which matters for the processor and the consumer. Processors use
Out-turn as a common platform to analyse the quality of cashew nuts accepted by all market
players worldwide (ACi, 2010).
24

The Out-turn test:
Out-turn means the amount of usable kernels after deshelling the nuts. It is expressed in lbs quality
which means the weight of usable kernels weighted in pounds in one 80 kg jute bag of RCN (ACi,
2010). After taking random samples from the bags of raw nut and cutting open the nuts, the kernels
are sorted into the five categories listed below:
1. GOOD KERNELS
(good shape, size and white colour)
Fig 24:Good kernels (ACi, 2010)
2. SPOTTED KERNELS
(having black or dark spots)
Fig. 25: Spotted Kernels (ACi, 2010)
3. PREMATURE KERNELS
(not well developed, lightweight, and wrinkled)
Fig. 26: Premature kernels (ACi, 2010)
25

4. WET KERNELS
(high percentage of moisture that
can be felt or seen)
5. ROTTEN KERNELS
(diseases, showing signs of insect damage,
or other factors)
Fig. 27: Rotten kernels (ACi, 2010)
A calculation is then done to give an out-turn score that typically range from 48 lbs to 58 lbs (IRD,
2011). 48 lbs quality and above is the standard grade; buyers normally prefer 48 – 54 lbs quality.
Less than 43 lbs quality is a poor grade and is usually rejected (Aci, 2010). In general, the higher
the out-turn score the better (IRD, 2011).
These two tests, nut count and out-turn, are then combined to determine the overall quality score.
For example, if you have large nuts (low nut count) but very little kernel inside (low out-turn score),
the quality will be considered poor, because the buyer is buying only shell. On the other hand, one
can have a higher nut count (smaller nuts) but inside the kernels are excellent. This is to say, it is
not always the case that bigger nuts are better. Buyers need to pay attention to both tests in order
to ensure they are purchasing good-quality nuts. The bottom line is that a quality cashew nut is the
combination of a large nut (low nut count/kg) and a high percentage of kernel inside of the shell
(high out-turn) (IRD, 2011).
26

4. PROCESSING
Processing essentially involves roasting, removal of the shell and testa surrounding the kernel,
sorting kernels into grades and packing. The kernel weight to nut weight percentage is about 23%
(ranging from 20 to 25%), that is, 1 t of raw nuts yields about 230 Kg of kernels. Processing
systems range from manual to relatively mechanical systems though still labour intensive (Oliver
M. et al., 1992).
4.1 Cleaning
All raw nuts carry foreign matter, consisting of sand, stones, dried apple etc. The presence of
foreign matter in the roasting operation can be avoided by cleaning the nuts. The raw nuts can be
sieved by hand using a ¾ inch mesh sieve.
4.2 Soaking
The next stage is to soak the nuts in water to avoid scorching them during the roasting operation.
This can be done by placing the nuts in a 40-45 gallon drum or vat and filling it with water until all
the nuts are covered. After being left to stand for about ten minutes, the water should be drained
off via a plug near the base of the drum. The nuts should then be left for periods of not less than
four hours in order to allow the water left on the surface of the nuts to be absorbed. This three step
process should be repeated until a moisture content of 9% is reached.
4.3 Roasting
The application of heat to the nut releases the nut shell liquid and makes the shell brittle which
facilitates the extraction of the kernel when breaking the shell.
Three methods of roasting exist:
1. Open pan
2. Drum roasting
3. ‘Hot oil’ method
The latter ('hot oil') is more suitable to medium scale operations with associated higher equipment
costs and viability of Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) collection so I'll just focus on the first two.
27

4.3.1. Open pan
An open, mild steel, circular dished pan of around 2 feet in diameter is supported on a basic earth
fireplace (Fig. 28 and Fig. 29). When heated, 2-3lbs (1kg) of nuts are placed on the pan at one
time and stirred constantly. The CNSL starts to exude and then ignites (Fig. 30). This produces a
long flame and black smoke. After approximately two minutes, the pan is dowsed and the charred,
swollen and brittle nuts are thrown out of the pan. The moisture evaporates quickly leaving the nuts
ready for shelling.
28
Fig. 28: Cashew roasting
(https://twistedbyshannon.wordpress.com)
Fig. 29: Cashew roasting
(https://twistedbyshannon.wordpress.com)
Fig. 30: Igniting Cashew Nut Shell Liquid
(https://twistedbyshannon.wordpress.com)

4.3.2. Drum roasting
The idea of continually feeding the nuts into a rotating drum over a fire developed from the pan
method. A slight horizontal slope in the mounting ensures the movement of the nuts through the
drum. The drum is pierced so that the flames touch the nuts and the smoke is controlled by a hood
and chimney arrangement (Fig. 31). The nuts are dowsed using a continuous spray (Azam-Ali S.,
2001).
4.4 Shelling
The objective of shelling is to produce clean, whole kernels free of cracks. It is traditionally done
manually especially for small-scale productions. Nevertheless a semi-mechanical process will be
also described.
In the manual shelling process, the nuts are placed on a flat stone and cracked with a wooden
mallet. As the CNSL is caustic and because of the residues after roasting, it is important to wear
gloves or spread wood ashes over the nut before shelling. An average sheller can open one nut in
about six seconds or ten nuts per minute. In an eight-hour working day, this amounts to about
4,800 nuts or about 5kg of kernels. At an extraction rate of 24%, this quantity corresponds with
about 21 kg of raw nuts per day or about 7 tons per year. However, experienced shellers in India
can produce around half as much again, with a quality of 90% whole kernels.
A semi-mechanised process that has been used predominantly in Brazil, uses a pair of knives,
each shaped in the contour of half a nut (Fig. 32). When the knives come together by means of a
foot operated lever, they cut through the shell all around the nut, leaving the kernel untouched. Two
29
Fig. 31: Scheme of a drum roasting machine (Azam-Ali S., 2001)

people work at each table; the first cuts the nuts and the second person opens them and separates
the kernel from the shell. Daily production is about 15kg of kernels per team (Azam-Ali S., 2001).
4.5 Separation
After shelling, shell pieces and kernels are separated and the unshelled nuts are returned to the
shelling operation. Usually blowers and shakers are used to separate the lighter shell pieces from
the kernels. The greatest problem is to recover small pieces of kernel sticking to the shell. This is
usually done manually from a conveyor belt used to carry all the sorted semi-shelled nuts (Azam-
Ali S., 2001).
4.6 Pre-grading
In this phase the whole from the broken kernels should be separated and sometimes the different
size groups of whole kernels. This process may greatly reduce the final grading work.
4.7 Drying
The shelled kernel is dried because this process will facilitate the removal of the 'testa' surrounding
the nut. This also protects kernels from pest and fungus attacks at this vulnerable stage. Therefore
they must be handled with care and moved to the next stage of peeling as quickly as possible. Sun
drying, where the kernels are spread out in thin layers under strong sunshine is possible, however
artificial drying becomes necessary for medium or larger-scale producers. The moisture content
30
Fig. 32: Shelling scissor (ACi, 2010)

should be 3% after drying (Azam-Ali S., 2001).
4.8 Peeling
At this stage, the 'testa' is loosely attached to the kernel, although a small amount of kernels may
have already lost the 'testa' during the previous operations. Manual peeling is done by gentle
rubbing with the fingers (Fig. 33). Those parts still attached to the kernel are removed by the use of
a bamboo knife. One person can peel about 10-12kg of kernels per day. The mechanization of that
phase is still not well developed as operations have a low efficiency and the amount of breakages
can be as high as 30% (Azam-Ali S., 2001).
31
Fig. 33: Cashew manual peeling
(http: www.bolas.co.in)

4.9 Grading
This is an important operation as it is the last opportunity for quality control on the kernels. With the
exception of a few grading aids, all grading is done by hand (Azam Ali S., 2001). Cashews are
graded into three general categories, based on size and condition (Fig. 34):
•White wholes
•White piece
•Scorched
White, whole kernels are graded according to their size on the basis of the number of kernels per
pound (equivalent to 454 g). The most common count for Indian and African kernels is 300 to 320
per pound (W320) followed by 400 to 450 (W450), 220 to 240 (W240) and 200 to 210 (W210) per
pound (Panda H., 2013). White piece are sorted according to the way in which the kernels are
broken, whereas scorched cashews are graded according to the coloration or blemishing of the
whole kernel or kernel piece (Red River Foods Inc., 2012).
32
Fig. 34: Major grades of kernels for export
(Red River Foods, Inc. 2012)

4.10 Rehumidification
Before the kernels are packed it is necessary to ensure that their moisture content rises from 3%
up to around 5%. This is to make the kernels less fragile, thus lessening the risk of breakage
during transport. In humid climates, the kernels may absorb enough moisture during peeling and
grading to make a further rehumidification process unnecessary (Azam-Ali S., 2001).
4.11 Packing
The normal packaging for export of kernels is in air-tight tins of 25lbs (11.5 kg) in weight. The
packing needs to be impermeable as cashew kernels are subject to rancidity and go stale very
quickly. The tin will be familiar to most tropical countries as it is a replica of the four gallon
kerosene or paraffin oil tin. If possible use locally made tins as movement of empty tins overseas is
expensive (Azam-Ali S., 2001).
33

5. CASHEW PRODUCTION
5.1 World and African cashew production
The world production of raw cashew nuts grown from 0.29 million tons in 1961 to reach 4.44 million
tons in 2013 (Fig. 35) registering a growth rate of 7,98% (FAOSTAT, 2013). Vietnam is the top
producer of raw nuts, and India is the first processor and exporter of processed nuts.
Fig.35: World raw cashew nut production (average, Mt) from 1961 to 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2013)
Overall cashew production in Africa steadily increased during the 1950s and 1960s, until the mid-
1970s when the continent was the prime producer of cashew nuts. The year 1975 (0.36 million t)
was the start of a fifteen year period of decline in production throughout the continent due to a
combination biological, agronomic and socio-political factors. The decline in prices at the end of the
1970s, combined with lower levels of production, dissuaded many farmers from improving
cultivation techniques and replanting their cashew plantations (Azam-Ali and Judge, 2001). Since
the early 1990s, production has recovered and has continued to increase steadily over the last two
decades reaching 2.14 million t in 2013 (Fig. 36), accounting for 48% of the worldwide production
(FAOSTAT, 2013).
34

Fig. 36: Production (average, in Mt) of raw cashew nut in Africa from 1961 to 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2013)
The cashew market is expected to remain strong due to the high growth of production in some
areas such as West Africa (Fig. 37). However, a lack of cashew processing facilities has created
major market inefficiencies and denies Africans the economic benefits that accompany jobs in the
cashew processing sector (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2009).
Historically, Mozambique and Tanzania were the main cashew-producing countries in Africa, with
smaller amounts produced in a number of other countries. During the last decade of 1990s, Nigeria
has emerged as a leading producer of cashew nuts in Africa (Azam-Ali and Judge, 2001): annual
nut production has been on the steady increase, from 30,000 metric tons in the 1990 to 925,000
metric tons in the 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2013). Cross-border activity, particularly in West Africa, prohibit
accurate counting by country in that region. Further, there is little processing in West African
countries, hence there are few factory sources from which reasonable estimates can be made
(Red River Foods Inc., 2012).
Fig. 37: Western Africa raw cashew nut production from 1993 to 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2013)
35

5.2 Crop productivity
According to the Cashew Investment Proposal paper, the current yields in cashew farming in the
Senegal, Gambia and Guinea-Bissau (SeGaBi) region stands at around 0.4 t/ha. This is low
considering the potential yield of 1.5 t/ha if best cashew farming practices were adopted (GIEPA,
2011). In Nigeria, first Western African cashew producer, raw cashew nut yields registered 2.20
t/ha in 2008 and 1.76 t/ha in 2009 (Olawale M.A., 2012). The average yield of cashew production
in The Gambia is estimated at 0.45 t/ha, which is low when compared with the world average of
0.84 t/ha. The average yields in The Gambia are partly explained by limited use of good
agricultural practices (GAP) and post-harvest losses caused by inadequate handling practices
(Government of Gambia, 2013). In India (Goa) a general yield trend of improved varieties
according to the tree age is presented below (Desai A.R. et al., 2010).
AGE OF TREE NUT YIELD
(kg/tree)
APPLE YIELD
(kg/tree)
YIELD (t/ha)
NUT APPLE
4th 0.7 5.0 0.15 1.0
5th 1.5 10.0 0.3 2.0
6th 3.0 20.0 0.6 4.0
7th 6.0 40.0 1.2 8.0
8th 8.0 60.0 1.6 10.0
9th 10.0 70.0 2.0 15.0
10th 12-15 85-100.0 2.5-3.0 17.0-20.0
Table 3. Average raw cashew nut and cashew apple production per tree and per ha (200 grafts/ha
with a 7×7 spacing), (Desai A.R. et al., 2010).
About 10-15 kg per tree (2.5 – 3 tonnes/ha) of raw nut yield and about 80-100 kg per tree of
cashew apple yield may be expected at 10th year and onwards, with adoption of all the production
practices on time (Desai A.R. et al., 2010).
36

6. CASHEW PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS
6.1 Products
Cashew has been cultivated essentially for food and medicine purposes by using the whole
cashew fruit, i.e., the apple and the kernel. During the World War II, cashew gained further added
value due to the exploitation of a major by-product, the cashew nut shell liquid, which has then
been extensively used for industrial applications (Azam-Ali and Judge, 2001).
6.1.1 Cashew nuts
The kernel is the main product that cashew is cropped for. It has been estimated that about 60%of
cashew nut is consumed in the form of snacks, mostly roasted and salted. The remaining 40% is
instead used in confectionary and bakery products, often as a substitute for peanut and almond
(Azam-Ali and Judge 2001). Apart from its pleasant flavor, the widespread consumption of cashew
nut is due to its nutritional properties. The nut makeup is 47% fat, 21% protein, and 22%
carbohydrate (Ohler, 1979).
6.1.2 Cashew Apple
The cashew apple has several uses and applications; its consumption as processed is far more
widespread than as a raw fruit, which is restricted to South America. In the main producing areas of
East Africa and India, 95% or more of the apple is not eaten, as the taste is not popular. However,
in some parts of South America and West Africa, local inhabitants regard the apple, rather than the
nut kernel, as a delicacy. The fresh apples are highly perishable and don’t transport well (see
'Cashew apples drying'). Most people enjoy the cashew apple not far from the plantation, but it can
be found in local markets during the cashew season. Throughout West Africa, young children
especially are known to love cashew apple (IRD, 2011). In Brazil, the apple is used to manufacture
jams, and soft and alcoholic drinks. In Goa, India, it is used to distil a cashew liquor called “feni”
(Azam-Ali S., 2001). Cashew apple residues remaining after juice extraction are nutritious since
they contain 9 % protein, 4 % fat, 8 % crude fibre, and almost 10 % pectin. Their use to
manufacture various products such as candies, jam, and drinks is widespread, as well as cattle
feed after drying (Nair K.P.P., 2010).
37

Cashew apple has also been traditionally consumed for its medicinal properties as it is thought to
heal diarrhea and prevent cholera (Azam-Ali and Judge, 2001). Moreover it is applied to treat
neurological pain and rheumatism (FAO, 2004).
38
CASHEW APPLES DRYING
(Meitzner et al., 1996)
•Boil the apples in salty water for 15 minutes to remove the bitter taste that is
unpleasant to some.
•Pierce and compress the apples with a wooden device
•Boil the compressed apples in sugar for two hours. Some 350 kg of sugar are
used with every 1,000 apples with enough water to cover the apples. The sugar
is re-used twice.
•Dry the boiled apples in a solar drier. The apples are put in 1.2m x 0.6 m wire
trays to a depth of 2.5 cm, inside a 1.5 m x 1.2 m wooden cabinet which is
covered with plastic film. Underneath the wire trays there is a black collector
plate. The cabinet is inclined at 80

, set toward the east in the morning and
moved during the day. The apples are dried in one day.
•Apples have now a shelf-life of 6-8 months.

6.2 By-products
6.2.1 Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL)
The cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is used in brake linings of cars because it absorbs heat
efficiently. CNSL is also used in preserving and waterproofing, in paints, enamels and lacquers.
The CNSL also has been used to treat scurvy, warts, ringworm, and even for tattooing (Davis K.,
1999).
6.2.2 Cashew cake
It is composed of discarded cashew nuts and the residues of cashew apple after juice extraction
(peels, fibrous pulp) (http://www.feedipedia.org). It contains 42 percent crude protein, 46 percent
lysine, 1.6 percent methionine and 1.3 percent tryptophan. It also has a higher content of sulphur-
containing amino acids than soybean and groundnut meals (Piva et al., 1971) thus making it a very
rich source of feed for livestock and poultry (FAO, 1985).
6.2.3 Cashew nut tree timber
It is a source of energy: it provides good firewood and can make valuable charcoal. In the same
way, the nut shells can be burnt to produce heat (http://www.feedipedia.org).
6.2.4 Cashew nut testa
The Dried Cashew Nut Testa (DCNT) that remains on the kernel after de-husking can also be used
as animal feed for example as in pig diets especially during seasonal increases in the prices of
conventional feedstuffs like maize and fish meal (Donkoh et al., 2012).
6.2.5 Cashew nut tree leaves
Cashew nut tree leaves can also be cut and eaten fresh or cooked (http://www.feedipedia.org)
39

7. PEST AND DISEASES
7.1 Pests
The most widespread biological constraints that hamper cashew productivity in Africa are the mirid
bugs, Helopeltis sp., the coreid coconut bug, Pseudotheraptus wayi, and the powdery mildew
(PMD), Oidium anacardii which can lead to 60-100% yield losses. In addition to the mirid pests, a
complex of stem borers also severely hampers production and greatly reduces the income of
smallholder farmers, especially in West Africa (ICIPE, 2011). A brief description of these and other
major pests of cashew and their damage is given and some tips for their control are listed below.
7.1.1 Helopeltis bugs (Helopeltis schoutedeni and H. anacardii)
Also known as mosquito bugs or mirid bugs, are the most important pests of cashew. These bugs
are slender, delicate insects, about 7- 10 mm long with long legs and antennae (Fig. 38). They lay
eggs inserted into the soft tissue near the tips of flowering or vegetative shoots. Both adults and
nymphs feed on young leaves, young vegetative and flowering shoots, and developing fruits. Bug
feeding on developing apples and nuts causes brown sunken spots. Attacked leaves are deformed
and show angular lesions, particularly along the veins, which may drop off, so that the leaves
appear as if attacked by biting insects. Feeding on the stalks of the tender shoots causes
elongated green lesions, sometimes accompanied by exudation of gum. Severely damaged shoots
die back due to the effect of bug saliva in combination with fungi, which enter the plant tissue
through the feeding lesions; the subsequent development of numerous auxiliary buds causes a
bunched terminal growth known as 'witches broom'. In case of serious infestations the trees may
appear as if scorched by fire. The growth of trees is seriously retarded and fruit formation of
attacking flowering shoots is reduced (http://www.infonet-biovision.org/).
Control:
Monitor the crop regularly. Helopeltis attack occurs very suddenly and great vigilance is
very important to control this pest, particularly during the rainy season or when water is
available leading to flushing (production of young shoots) when Helopeltis populations
normally build up.
Conserve natural enemies. Weaver ants build nests on cashew trees providing good
protection against this and other bug pests.
Do not intercrop cashew with crops that are host for Helopeltis bugs, such as cotton, tea,
sweet potato, guava and mango.
40

7.1.2 Coconut bug (Pseudotheraptus wayi)
Coconut bug (Fig. 39) feeding causes necrotic bruise-like depressions; a hard lump develops,
which can be easily removed when the fruit is peeled. The bug sucks on the developing fruits
causing pockmarks. The kernels are also affected showing spots, which lower their market value.
Control:
Conserve natural enemies. Weaver ants nest on cashew trees deterring and feeding on
coconut bugs (Fig. 40).
41
Fig. 38: Helopeltis schoutedeni (ICIPE)
Fig. 39: Adult coconut bug (P. Wayi) A.M.
Varela, ICIPE (www.infonet-biovision.org)
real size 1-1.5 cm long
Fig. 40: Weaver ants (O. longinoda)
preying on scale insects (B. Agboton,
ICIPE)

7.1.3 The cashew weevil (Mecocorynus loripes)
The cashew weevil is large weevil, about 20 mm long, and of a knobbed appearance (Fig. 41). It is
dark grey-brown in colour. The female weevil lays single eggs in small holes in the bark of the trunk
or branches. The larvae are legless grubs, whitish in colour with a brown head. They bore through
the bark and move downwards tunnelling under the bark while feeding on the sapwood. Brown-
black gummy frass is seen on the trunk and main branches. Heavily attacked trees become ringed
by damaged sapwood and eventually die (Fig. 42). Neglected plantations are likely to be severely
attacked. Fully-grown larvae pupate in a chamber about 2 cm below the bark.
Control:
Cut away bark from damaged areas of lightly infested trees and kill the larvae and pupae
underneath. Repeat this every month for a further six months if required.
Destroy severely infested trees. First collect and destroy all adult weevils; then fell the tree
and remove the bark to expose all larval galleries; kill all larvae and pupa and burn the tree.
42
Fig. 41: Cashew weevil (Mecocorynus
loripes) A.M. Varela - real size about 20
mm long - (www.infonet-biovision.org)
Fig. 42: Damage caused by
Mecocorynus loripes
(http://www.memoireonline.com)

7.1.4 Red-banded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus)
Adults of the red banded thrips are dark brown or blackish (Fig. 43). Nymphs are pale yellow with a
broad transverse red band on the dorsal side of the abdomen (Fig. 44). Thrips attack older leaves,
flowers and shoots. The lower leaf surfaces are darkly stained, rusty in appearance and with
numerous small shiny black spots of excreta (Fig. 45). Leaf edges are curled. Attacked leaves drop
off leaving bare shoots with few young leaves at the tip. Infestation of flowers causes poor fruit
formation. Locally limited infestations may cause considerable damage.
Control:
Conserve natural enemies. Anthocorid bugs (Orius thripoborus, Orius jeanelli, Orius
tantillus and Orius albidipennis) are important in natural control of thrips.
43
Fig. 43: Adult redbanded thrip (Lyle J. Buss)
Fig. 45: Lower leaf surface with excrement
pellets (Lyle J. Buss)
Fig. 44: Pupae of redbanded thrips (Lyle J. Buss)

7.1.5 Long-tailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus)
The Long-tailed mealybug (Fig. 46) attacks shoots, inflorescences, apples and nuts. By sucking
the sap a heavy infestation can kill young plants. Some leaf ans shoot deformations are not
uncommon (Hill D.S, 2008). Affected parts appear completely white. Trees infested during the
flowering stage fail to produce fruits, whereas those infested at the nut swelling stage produce
discoloured nuts, which result in a lower grade. However, cutting tests showed no difference in
kernel out-turn between clean and discoloured nuts. Mealybugs have been a problem for cashew
growers in Tanzania.
Control:
Conserve natural enemies. Mealybugs are usually controlled by a wide range of natural
enemies. However, use of pesticides may kill these natural enemies leading to mealybug
outbreaks.
44
Fig. 46: Female adult mealybug (Cappaert D.)

7.1.6 Cashew stem girdler (Paranaleptes reticulata)
Adult beetles (Fig. 47) girdle branches from 3-8 mm in diameter leaving a V-section cut; only a
narrow, central pillar round the pith zone is left, which eventually breaks off. Female beetles lay
elongated eggs in transverse slits made in the bark of the girdled branch at points above the girdle.
Larvae are yellow in colour and reaches a length of 45 mm when fully grown. They mine in dead
wood of the girdled branches. Pupation takes place in the dead wood. The life cycle takes one
year. This beetle is a common but usually minor pest of cashew in the Coast Province of Kenya.
However, neglected plantations may be severely damaged. It is also found in Tanzania.
Control:
•Once a year (in November or December) collect and burn all girdled branches. Only the
dead or dying part of the branch above the girdle needs to be collected (Hill D.S., 2008)
45
Fig. 47: Paranaleptes
reticulata G. Chemin
(http://www.galerie-
insecte.org/)

7.2 Diseases
Among diseases caused by pathogens, those brought by fungi are the most dangerous and
cashew is susceptible to over 10 of them (Cardoso et al., 2013). Anthracnose foliar blight and fruit
rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. & Sacc.) and gummosis of twigs and trunk
[Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & Maubl.] are often considered the most relevant diseases
causing severe damages across cashew producing countries (Ghini et al., 2011). In Brazil,
although an increase in gummosis severity has been reported in all north-eastern producing states
(Cardoso et al., 2004; Cysne et al., 2010; Moreira et al., 2013), anthracnose is by far the most
important disease in the field, leading to significant yield losses (e.g., Freire et al., 2002; Araújo,
2013). Other foliar infections, namely black mold [Pilgeriella anacardii (Bat., J.L. Bezerra, Castr. &
Matta) Arx & E. Müll.] and powdery mildew (Oidium anacardii F. Noack), also occur but with
almost negligible consequences in cashew orchards (Freire et al., 2002; Ghini et al., 2011).
Presently, anthracnose is highly prevalent in all cashew growing regions and provinces of Brazil
and Mozambique (Cardoso and Viana, 2011; Uaciquete et al., 2013). In contrast, the general
panorama in West African countries is largely unknown and few studies are available. In Nigeria,
studies were conducted on the incidence and impact of these diseases, reporting the identification
of C. gloeosporioides among other fungi (Otuonye et al., 2014), and evidences of cashew
gummosis (e.g., Adejumo, 2005; Adeniyi et al., 2011). Twig dieback (L. theobromae) has remained
a major factor limiting cashew production for decades in Nigeria especially on young cashew plots
(Hammed and Adedeji, 2008). Lasiodiplodia theobromae can also affect the inflorescence, thus
reducing the fruit bearing.
Recently, a new pathogenic fungus (Cryptosporiopsis spp.) causing cashew blight disease was
reported in Tanzania (Dominic et al., 2014).
7.2.1 Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
Anthracnose caused by members of the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species complex is an
important disease in cashew nut producing countries worldwide (Comé M.J., 2014). The disease
attacks young plant tissues and can cause severe crop loss when it infects flowers, which turn
black and die (Fig. 48). Young leaves, cashew apples and nuts are similarly affected. Infected
young terminal shoots die back. The disease is promoted by warm, damp conditions.
46

Control:
Prune dead branches and twigs and remove from the field. They constitute the principal
source of infection
7.2.2 Gummosis (Lasiodiplodia theobromae)
Gummosis is one of the most important diseases of cashew, especially in Brazil. Although the
disease shows as early as at the first year of cropping, it is only after the second year that severe
damage to the cashew tree occurs. Gummosis symptoms are characterized by swollen cankers in
the trunk or in woody branches, which may eventually crack and ooze a transparent resin-like gum;
hence the name of the disease (Freire et al., 2002). It is presumed that damage to the plant by
gummosis is brought about by reduction in water and nutrient transport and destruction of
branches, leading to reduced photosynthesis; and plant death (Freire, 1991).
Control:
No practical measures for controlling the disease have proved efficient under epidemic situation.
When infected tissue is located in the trunk, the surgical removal of the canker, followed by a
copper fungicide treatment to protect the cut surface until healing, has been recommended (Freire,
1991).
47
Fig. 48: Anthracnose on cashew (www.agritech.tnau.ac.in)

7.2.3 Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.)
This is one of the major diseases that affect cashew production in Africa and worldwide. In
Tanzania, Powdery mildew is the most serious tree disease. Infected panicles (Fig. 49) and leaves
(Fig. 50) are coated with white, powdery fungal growth. In severe attacks the entire panicle may be
infected and the fruit and nuts fail to set (infonet.org).
Control:
sprays of powdered kelp, potassium/sodium bicarbonate and sulphur provide good control
of powdery mildew
As Powdery mildew does not tolerate high temperatures or high ultraviolet light
concentrations pruning suckers on lower branches to let in more sunlight can help. These
tend to be highly infected by powdery mildew and a source of spores for future infection.
Many farmers pruning trees in adjacent areas can significantly delay the initiation of the
disease (Hilton B., undated).
48
Fig. 50: Powdery mildew on leaves (José
Emilson Cardoso, Embrapa agroindustria
tropical, APS)
Fig. 49: Powdery mildew on inflorescence
(B. Agboton, ICIPE)

7.2.4 Black mould (Pilgeriella anacardii)
The pathogen grows profusely on the lower surface of leaves showing a black layer of mycelium
and fruiting bodies which accounts for the common name of the disease (Freire et al., 2002).
Fungus penetration occurs through stomata which become blocked to gas exchanges, thus
reducing leaf and shoot growth. Initial symptoms are chlorotic spots on the upper surface of leaves
(Cardoso et al., 1999). Later, on the lower surface the pathogen forms dark colonies giving a
velvet-like appearance. Black mould can only be observed in old, mature leaves.
Control:
•Use of disease resistant cashew cultivars
49

8. CONCLUSIONS
Cashew is a crop suitable to many areas of Sierra Leone where climatic conditions and soils
favourable to its growth exist. Its profitability could be easily improved starting from the most
important element of cashew value chain: the planting material. The Government of Sierra Leone
has already (2008) distributed a batch of improved varieties to farmers. The access to good
planting material is essential to establish a good orchard able to produce steadily over the years.
Farmers should be able to produce right quantities at the right times for the export market or for
sale to local processors. Farmers organization into larger groups will be beneficial both as a
contact point for potential buyers but also to disseminate information. Indeed, the high quality
seedlings are not sufficient to sustain the sector. The application of good practices in the
management of the orchard is also essential, thus farmers should be able to acquire and exchange
the necessary knowledge
Together with cocoa, cassava and ginger, cashew is a key agricultural crop for Sierra Leone.
Although nowadays not exported (no data is available), it is an export potential crop (Gov. of Sierra
Leone, 2006). Smallholder farmers are key actors. Beside the production level also the processing
phase could be boosted through them. Traditionally, most of the raw cashew African production
has been shipped to India for processing, but today processing units exist also in Africa. Although
long, home based cashew processing has a very low energy requirement as fuel is required only
for cooking and drying. Workers shell and clean the cashews during daylight hours. The cashew
shelling machines which were originally imported from Brazil, are manually operated and are now
made in Africa. Cashew processing is as a low-input activity that is suitable for the small-scale or
domestic level. The Indian example of small-scale manual processing is the most appropriate
example which could provide opportunities for small-scale processors. Moreover, sale of the
processed nuts will provide year round employment opportunities, unlike the sale of raw nuts for
processing abroad which only provides a few months of employment a year.
The long-term prospects for cashew are very good. Long-term consumption trends on the world
market have been high for years. There is therefore a chance to build a sustainable cashew value
chain through which smallholder farmers could improve their livelihood and at the same time
stimulate the economic growth of their country.
50

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FIGURES AND TABLES REFERENCES
Fig, 1: Cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale L.). Bishnu Sarangi
(https://pixabay.com/it/alberi-anacardi-noci-253422/ )
Fig. 2: Cashew flowers. Bishnu Sarangi
(https://pixabay.com/it/albero-di-anacardio-wildflower-fiori-253423/ )
Fig. 3: Cashew fruits. Dr Azam-Ali Sue (Cashew nut processing. Practical Action technical brief)
http://answers.practicalaction.org/our-resources/item/cashew-nut-processing
Fig. 4: Cashew nuts and apples. Hallie Clancy
(http://ranchodelicioso.com/cashew-nuts-cashew-apples/)
Fig. 5: Production cycle. Red River Foods Inc. Cashew. Highlights of the cashew industry (2012)
Fig. 6 (Land clearing) and fig. 7 (Hole digging): Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit -
African Cashew initiative, GIZ-ACi (2013). Comment Créer Un Nouveau Verger d’Anacardiers.
Support de vulgarisation et d'appui-conseil. In Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO TECA).
Fig. 8: Water test for seed viability. Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit - African
Cashew initiative, GIZ-ACi (2012). Good practices for the establishment of a new Cashew farm. In
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO TECA).
Fig. 9: Seed smile side-down. International Relief and Development – IRD - (2011). Cashew
Business Basics. The Gambia River Basin Cashew Value Chain Enhancement Project (CEP).
Fig. 10: Transplanting. Desai A. R., Singh S.P., Faleiro J.R., Thangam M., Pryia Devi S., Safeena
S.A and Singh N. P. (2010). Technical bulletin No. 21. Techniques and Practices for Cashew
Production. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. ICAR Research Complex for GOA. Ela, Old
Goa- 403402, Goa, India
56

Fig. 11: A grafted seedling. Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit - African Cashew
initiative, GIZ-ACi (2013). Comment Créer Un Nouveau Verger d’Anacardiers. Support de
vulgarisation et d'appui-conseil. In Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO TECA).
Fig. 12: Seedling support. Desai A. R., Singh S.P., Faleiro J.R., Thangam M., Pryia Devi S.,
Safeena S.A and Singh N. P. (2010). Technical bulletin No. 21. Techniques and Practices for
Cashew Production. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. ICAR Research Complex for GOA.
Ela, Old Goa- 403402, Goa, India
Fig. 13 (Maize-cashew intercropping) and fig.14 (Manure adding at planting): Gesellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit - African Cashew initiative, GIZ-ACi (2013). Comment Créer Un
Nouveau Verger d’Anacardiers. Support de vulgarisation et d'appui-conseil. In Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO TECA).
Fig.15: Maintenance manuring. Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit - African Cashew
initiative, GIZ-ACi (2013b) Bonnes pratiques d’entretien des vergers d’anacardiers. Support de
Vulgarisation et d’Appui-Conseil. In Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO TECA).
Fig. 16 (Lower leaves removal) and fig.17 (Removing tips increases shoots). International Relief
and Development – IRD - (2011). Cashew Business Basics. The Gambia River Basin Cashew
Value Chain Enhancement Project (CEP).
Fig. 18 (Fire Break), fig. 19 (Kernels separation by twisting), fig. 20 (Kernels separation by a nylon
wire), fig. 21 (Nuts drying), fig. 22 (Storage area) and fig. 23 (Sack storage): Gesellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit - African Cashew initiative, GIZ-ACi (2013a). Bonnes pratiques de
récolte et post-récolte des noix de cajou. In Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO TECA).
Fig. 24 (Good kernels), fig. 25 (spotted kernels), fig. 26 (Premature kernels), fig. 27 (Rotten
kernels): African Cashew Initiative - ACi (2010). Quality of Cashew Nuts. "Out-turn" and "Total
defective nuts". What you need to know about it (Flipcharts).
Fig. 28 (Cahew roasting), fig. 29 (Cashew roasting) and fig. 30 (Ingniting cashew nut shell liquid).
https://twis tedbyshannon.wordpress.com
Fig. 31: Scheme of a drum roasting machine. Dr Azam-Ali Sue (Cashew nut processing. Practical
Action technical brief) http://answers.practicalaction.org/our-resources/item/cashew-nut-processing
Fig. 32: Shelling scissors. African Cashew Initiative - ACi (2010). Quality of Cashew Nuts. "Out-
turn" and "Total defective nuts". What you need to know about it
(Flipcharts).http://www.africancashewinitiative.org/imglib/downloads/training%20material
%20EN/ACI_GH_QUALITY_CASHEW_FLIPCHART_2012.pdf
Fig. 33 Cashew manual peeling. http://www.bolas.co.in/cashew-processing
Fig. 34: Major grades of kernels for export. Red River Foods Inc. Cashew. Highlights of the cashew
industry (2012).
Fig. 35, fig, 36 and fig. 37. http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E
Fig. 38: Helopeltis schoutedeni. http://www.icipe.org/index.php/all-publications.html
Fig. 39: Adult coconut bug (P. Wayi). A.M. Varela, ICIPE (www.infonet-biovision.org)
Fig. 40: Weaver ants (O. longinoda) preying on scale insects (Dr Bonaventure Agboton, ICIPE)
57

Fig. 41: Cashew weevil (Mecocorynus loripes) A.M. Varela ICIPE (www. infonet-biovision.org )
Fig. 42: Damage caused by Mecocorynus loripes. Kuoaka Jean-Luc Kouassi
http://www.memoireonline.com/02/12/5223/m_Analyse-technique-et-socio-economique-dune-
exploitation-agricole-cas-de-lexploitation-de-m21.html
Fig. 43 (Adult redbanded thrip), fig. 44 (Pupae of redbanded thrips) and fig. 45 (Lower leaf surface
with excrement pellets). Lyle J. Buss, Entomology & Nematology Dept., University of Florida.
http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/thrips/redbanded_thrips.htm
Fig. 46: Female adult mealybug. David Cappaert, Michigan State University.
http://bugguide.net/user/view/4514
Fig. 47: Paranaleptes reticulata. Gerard Chemin
http://www.galerie-insecte.org/galerie/ref-52073.htm
Fig. 48: Anthracnose on cashew.
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/horti_plantation%20crops_cashewnut.html
Fig. 49: Powdery mildew on inflorescence. Dr. Bonaventure Agboton
http://www.giz.de/expertise/downloads/giz2011-en-factsheet-icipe-integrated-management-insect-
pests.pdf
Fig. 50: Powdery mildew on leaves. José Emilson Cardoso, Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical
Fortaleza, Ceara state, Brazil
http://www.apsnet.org/publications/imageresources/Pages/fi00212.aspx
Table 1: Pros and Cons of Establishing a Nursery and Direct Planting. International Relief and
Development – IRD - (2011). Cashew Business Basics. The Gambia River Basin Cashew Value
Chain Enhancement Project (CEP), pp. 15
Table 2: Spacing and plant population. Salam M.Abdul, Mohanakumaran N. and Balasubramanian
P.P. (1999). Cashew Cultivation. Science and techniques. Directorate of cashew & Cocoa
development. Govt. of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Cochin – 682016, pp. 9
Table 3: Average raw cashew nut and cashew apple pruduction per tree and per ha (200 grafts/ha
with a 7 x 7 spacing). Desai A. R., Singh S.P., Faleiro J.R., Thangam M., Pryia Devi S., Safeena
S.A and Singh N. P. (2010). Technical bulletin No. 21. Techniques and Practices for Cashew
Production. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. ICAR Research Complex for GOA. Ela, Old
Goa- 403402, Goa, India, pp. 29.
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