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Oxidation of persistent environmental pollutants by a white rot fungus
... J. Erikss. & Ryvarden, degraded polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) (Bumpus et al. 1985;Valli et al. 1992). The most general lignin-degrading enzymes are two closely related hemecontaining peroxidases (Martínez 2002;Morgenstern et al. 2008), manganese peroxidase (MnP; EC 1.11.1.13.) and lignin peroxidase (LiP; EC 1.11.1.14.), and a multi-coppercontaining phenoloxidase laccase (Lac; EC 1.10.3.2.). ...
... The most general lignin-degrading enzymes are two closely related hemecontaining peroxidases (Martínez 2002;Morgenstern et al. 2008), manganese peroxidase (MnP; EC 1.11.1.13.) and lignin peroxidase (LiP; EC 1.11.1.14.), and a multi-coppercontaining phenoloxidase laccase (Lac; EC 1.10.3.2.). Studies on Phanerochaete chrysosporium developed a model of 2,7-diclorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,7-DCDD) degradation, which was catalyzed by 1-electron oxidations of LiP (Bumpus et al. 1985;Valli et al. 1992;Joshi and Gold 1994). Takada et al. (1996) also examined the degradation of highly chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (DD) and dibenzofurans by Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Phanerochaete sordida and identified tetrachlorocatechol as one of the metabolites from octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. ...
A degradation experiment on dibenzo-p-dioxin (DD) and 2,7-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,7-DCDD) was carried out using basidiomycetous fungi belonging to the genera Coprinus, Coprinellus, and Coprinopsis. Some species showed a high rate of decrease in DD for the 2-week test period. Among them, Coprinellus disseminatus showed the highest ability to decrease the DD level, close to 100% by the end of 2 weeks. Further examination showed that Coprinellus disseminatus and Coprinellus micaceus, belonging to the genus Coprinellus, were able to metabolize 2,7-DCDD to a monohydroxylated compound, probably mediated by the P450 system. The metabolism of chlorinated DD by fungi capable of living in soil conditions is reported here for the first time.
... Pesticides can be synthetic or natural compounds that are used to control pests. One of the most significant and earliest studies of the environmental effects of pesticides was published in 1962 [12]. In general. ...
... For instance, the nature of adsorbate and adsorbent, the surface area of the adsorbent and its activation. Also, it depends on experimental 12 conditions, such as; pH, temperature and pressure [65]. ...
... Pesticides can be synthetic or natural compounds that are used to control pests. One of the most significant and earliest studies of the environmental effects of pesticides was published in 1962 [12]. In general. ...
... For instance, the nature of adsorbate and adsorbent, the surface area of the adsorbent and its activation. Also, it depends on experimental 12 conditions, such as; pH, temperature and pressure [65]. ...
... These ectomycorrhizal fungi possessing cytosolic oxidative peroxidases and phenol oxidases, hydrolytic β-glucosidases as well as extracellular enzymes, are able to accumulate and recycle the nutrients from the soil organic matter (Rúa et al., 2015). Likewise, being considered to be a model system in the field of mycoremediation, Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been widely studied for its ability to efficiently degrade insoluble and toxic compounds to CO 2 and H 2 O (Bumpus et al., 1985). Most of the important wood lignin decomposers are the white ...
... The extracellular fungal secretions are targeted to attack and convert large molecules to simpler forms that are able to penetrate the cells for further modifications (Levasseur et al., 2014). The enzymes derived from fungi has low specificity that helps them in co-metabolizing structurally complex and diverse organic compounds belonging to various classes of pollutants i.e. the enzyme produced from Phanerochaete chrysosporium helps in degrading organic substances like benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene, N-heterocyclic explosives, nitroaromatic compounds, various organo-chlorides like (chlorolignols, chlorophenols, chloroaliphatics and polycholorinated biphenyls), pesticides, dyes and other complex synthetic polymers Valli et al. (1992); Bumpus et al., 1985). ...
Kingdom fungi include microscopic as well as macroscopic forms in all possible known habitats. Fungi are sensitive to climate perturbations and present climate itself is getting influenced by fungi. Environmental change is perceived differently by different ecosystems and is not homogeneous around the globe. Fungi inhabiting extreme environments that are prone to climate change can go locally extinct or adapt to cope up with the changed environment. To date, only certain number of fungi is classified, however advanced sequencing approach has broadened the scope globally to describe the uncultivable forms, dwelling in extreme environments. Fungi place itself separately from other microbial domain in terms of highest biomass, DNA and metabolic potential; therefore, it deserves special attention in the scenario of climate change. However, fungi inhabiting ecosystems that are less prone to climate change could be harnessed for their excellent metabolic potential due to the peculiar make up of their genome. This chapter is an effort to discuss extreme habitats in context of fungal diversity, their adaptability and mitigation options associated with climate change affecting fungi and vice versa.
... These ectomycorrhizal fungi possessing cytosolic oxidative peroxidases and phenol oxidases, hydrolytic β-glucosidases as well as extracellular enzymes, are able to accumulate and recycle the nutrients from the soil organic matter (Rúa et al., 2015). Likewise, being considered to be a model system in the field of mycoremediation, Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been widely studied for its ability to efficiently degrade insoluble and toxic compounds to CO 2 and H 2 O (Bumpus et al., 1985). Most of the important wood lignin decomposers are the white ...
... The extracellular fungal secretions are targeted to attack and convert large molecules to simpler forms that are able to penetrate the cells for further modifications (Levasseur et al., 2014). The enzymes derived from fungi has low specificity that helps them in co-metabolizing structurally complex and diverse organic compounds belonging to various classes of pollutants i.e. the enzyme produced from Phanerochaete chrysosporium helps in degrading organic substances like benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene, N-heterocyclic explosives, nitroaromatic compounds, various organo-chlorides like (chlorolignols, chlorophenols, chloroaliphatics and polycholorinated biphenyls), pesticides, dyes and other complex synthetic polymers (Kohlmeier et al., 2005;Valli et al. (1992); Bumpus et al., 1985). ...
Fungi by their robust and diverse metabolic capacities are found to effectively remove the toxic and recalcitrant products like pharmaceutical wastes, heavy metals, poly aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, mineral oils and pesticides, now being excessively accumulated in the soil, from the environment, and play a significant role in bioremediation. This chapter widely focuses on the different types of bioremediating fungal groups with the role of their intracellular enzymes (viz. glutathione transferase, cytochrome P450 monooxygenase) and extracellular enzymes (viz. Laccase, catalases) etc. The physico-chemical modes and the parameters affecting the detoxification are vividly examined. The overview altogether cumulates the intricate bioaugmentation strategies and laboratory level microcosm studies that evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility of the myco-remediation process and application of fungi in in-situ and ex-situ bioremediation and analysis of their future prospects.
... Nonetheless, the use of whole cell cultures can help maintain enzyme activity, which is an effective way to reduce the cost and time required for biological purification and obtain satisfactory results (Bumpus et al., 1985;Cannell, 1998;Dayi et al., 2018;Vulfson, 2008). ...
The study investigated the biological removal of dispersed yellow 4G dye in different concentrations by four types of fungi cells. Firstly, the study determined two fungi species, Morchella esculenta and Trametes versicolor, with the highest biological removal rate, by examining their enzyme activities for laccase and MnP, as well as the biological removal of dyestuff by the free fungi cells. After 120 hours of testing, the biological removal of dye in different concentrations by M. esculenta and T. versicolor in their free forms was 85.86, 83.67, 72.18, 70.38, 60.76, and 84.66, 83.12, 79.37, 67.54, 60.35%, respectively. Next, the study prepared a mixture of the fungi cells with the highest biodegradation rate, and then examined enzyme activity and biological dyestuff removal, firstly with the free fungi cell consortium and then with the calcium alginate-PVA-immobilized cell mixture. Within 120 hours, using immobilized M.esculenta and T. versicolor cell mixture, dispersed yellow 4G dye in different concentrations was degraded by 96.24, 88.37, 85.40, 75.72, and 59.36%, respectively. With the free M.esculenta and T. versicolor cell consortium, degradation rates of 92.47, 85.61, 63.46, 43.72, and 38.36% were observed. These results showed that immobilized cells were more suitable for the biological removal of dispersed yellow 4G dyestuffs. During the study, the roles of laccase and manganese peroxidase enzyme activity control were examined, to investigate whether dispersed 4G dyestuff was biologically degraded by the fungus cells. The study also varied the concentration of dye to investigate its effect on the performance of the fungal cells. ABSTRACT The study investigated the biological removal of dispersed yellow 4G dye in different concentrations by four types of fungi cells. Firstly, the study determined two fungi species, Morchella esculenta and Trametes versicolor, with the highest biological removal rate, by examining their enzyme activities for laccase and MnP, as well as the biological removal of dyestuff by the free fungi cells. After 120 hours of testing, the biological removal of dye in different concentrations by M. esculenta and T. versicolor in their free forms was 85.86, 83.67, 72.18, 70.38, 60.76, and 84.66, 83.12, 79.37, 67.54, 60.35%, respectively. Next, the study prepared a mixture of the fungi cells with the highest biodegradation rate, and then examined enzyme activity and biological dyestuff removal, firstly with the free fungi cell consortium and then with the calcium alginate-PVA-immobilized cell mixture. Within 120 hours, using immobilized M.esculenta and T. versicolor cell mixture, dispersed yellow 4G dye in different concentrations was degraded by 96.24, 88.37, 85.40, 75.72, and 59.36%, respectively. With the free M.esculenta and T. versicolor cell consortium, degradation rates of 92.47, 85.61, 63.46, 43.72, and 38.36% were observed. These results showed that immobilized cells were more suitable for the biological removal of dispersed yellow 4G dyestuffs. During the study, the roles of laccase and manganese peroxidase enzyme activity control were examined, to investigate whether dispersed 4G dyestuff was biologically degraded by the fungus cells. The study also varied the concentration of dye to investigate its effect on the performance of the fungal cells.
... White rot fungi, which secrete enzymes capable of oxidising aromatic compounds, are particularly effective at decomposing PAH and other xenobiotic chemicals (Higson, 1991;Paszczynski & Crawford, 1995). Both lignin peroxidase (LiP) and manganese-dependent peroxidase (MnP), enzymes released by white rots during lignin degradation, have been recognised as particularly important in decomposing PAH (Bumpus et al., 1985;Sanglard et al., 1986). Fungi culture lacking LiP and MnP activity has also been shown to degrade PAH (Bezalel et al., 1996;Dhawale et al., 1992;Morgan et al., 1991) for the first time, the capacity of laccase to oxidise PAH in vitro (Johannes et al., 1996;Johannes et al., 1998); this suggests that laccase, which is secreted by numerous white rot fungi, may be involved in the decomposition of PAH. ...
Purpose: This study aims to investigates Pleurotus ostreatus (P. ostreatus) fungi's strain efficacy in degrading oil contaminants, specifically polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Materials and Methods: The experiment involved spiking sterilized soil samples with PAHs at concentrations of 200 ppm and 20 ppm for 18 different PAHs. The process, conducted twice for reliability, included allowing P. ostreatus mycelium to proliferate over twenty days. Findings: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed a significant 90% degradation rate for certain PAHs. Intriguingly, even in samples without P. ostreatus mycelium, a level of degradation occurred, indicating the participation of indigenous microorganisms or abiotic processes. The study underscores P. ostreatus' potential for PAH degradation and emphasizes the importance of natural remediation techniques for oil-contaminated soils. Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: Recommendations include exploring factors influencing the degradation process and analyzing the soil's microbial community. Further research is needed to maximize P. ostreatus' environmental remediation applications.
... However, enzymes may lose their activity or get deactivated during their application, which is a signi cant drawback of their use. Nonetheless, the use of whole cell cultures can help maintain enzyme activity, which is an effective way to reduce the cost and time required for biological puri cation and obtain satisfactory results (Bumpus et al., 1985;Cannell, 1998;Dayi et al., 2018;Vulfson, 2008). ...
The study investigated the biological removal of dispersed yellow 4G dye in different concentrations by four types of fungi cells. Firstly, the study determined two fungi species, Morchella esculenta and Trametes versicolor , with the highest biological removal rate, by examining their enzyme activities for laccase and MnP, as well as the biological removal of dyestuff by the free fungi cells. After 120 hours of testing, the biological removal of dye in different concentrations by M. esculenta and T. versicolor in their free forms was 85.86, 83.67, 72.18, 70.38, 60.76, and 84.66, 83.12, 79.37, 67.54, 60.35%, respectively. Next, the study prepared a mixture of the fungi cells with the highest biodegradation rate, and then examined enzyme activity and biological dyestuff removal, firstly with the free fungi cell consortium and then with the calcium alginate-PVA-immobilized cell mixture. Within 120 hours, using immobilized M.esculenta and T. versicolor cell mixture, dispersed yellow 4G dye in different concentrations was degraded by 96.24, 88.37, 85.40, 75.72, and 59.36%, respectively. With the free M.esculenta and T. versicolor cell consortium, degradation rates of 92.47, 85.61, 63.46, 43.72, and 38.36% were observed. These results showed that immobilized cells were more suitable for the biological removal of dispersed yellow 4G dyestuffs. During the study, the roles of laccase and manganese peroxidase enzyme activity control were examined, to investigate whether dispersed 4G dyestuff was biologically degraded by the fungus cells. The study also varied the concentration of dye to investigate its effect on the performance of the fungal cells.
... They can enter the environment via wastewater e uents and agricultural runoffs, leading to the evolution Wastewater and sewage sludge may be used as fertilizers, which means that they are constantly re-introduced to the food supply and natural ecosystems, despite containing antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Bouki et Fungi have been used as a natural form of remediation of environmental contaminants. This is because the enzymatic system of fungi is known to remove various chemicals, through sorption or degradation into less toxic/innocuous molecules, as observed in studies with hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs (Tomasini and León-Santiesteban 2019) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, DDT, in water by Phanerochaete chrysosporium (Bumpus et al. 1985). White rot fungi were also shown to transform antibiotics in synthetic wastewater (aqueous solutions of antibiotics) or in bioreactors, although the fungi are Data on the remediation potential of fungi grown in natural environments such as agricultural waste are lacking. ...
Antibiotic-rich effluents from farming and medical applications into waterways pose a serious risk for antibiotic drug resistance, promoting a need for effective strategies of removal from the food chain and the environment. In this work, we show proof-of-concept laboratory-scale bioremediation experiments to remove antibiotics in synthetic wastewater. A white rot fungus, Ganoderma lucidum , was grown on biomass formed by agricultural waste from California (almond shells, cover crop stalks). Water containing or lacking Ganoderma lucidum was inoculated with twenty antibiotics from six different classes. The extent of antibiotic removal was measured at baseline and after 3 days with ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass-spectrometry. The data were analyzed with a two-way repeated ANOVA for 17 antibiotics data sets meeting residuals' normality, and a mixed-effects model for 3 antibiotics sets that did not. Treatment with mycelial biomass caused a statistically significant reduction, compared to the baseline, in the concentration in 3 quinolones and 2 sulfonamides, after just 3 days. Our findings provide a first proof-of-concept to bioremediate certain antibiotics, (particularly quinolones), in synthetic wastewater and with repurposed agricultural waste.
... The biodegradation process of ECs can also consider the regular part of the carbon cycle and on the other as removal of contaminates from the environments. Bumpus et al., (1985) reported the possibility of Phanerochaete chrysosporium in benzo [a]pyrene, 2 3 7 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 3,3′,4,4′-Tetrachlorobiphenyl and lindane bioremediation potential into CO 2 and its role on carbon cycle. If the toxicity level is minimal, emerging organic contaminates is consider a "feast" in terms of carbon and energy and microorganisms prefer to increase biomass to using carbon for energy maintenance through increasing biodegradation. ...
Continuous increase in the level of atmospheric CO2 and environmental contaminates has aggravated various threats resulting from environmental pollution and climate change. Research into plant -microbe interaction has been a central concern of ecology for over the year. However, despite the clear contribution of plant -microbe to the global carbon cycle, the role of plant -microbe interaction in carbon pools, fluxes and emerging contaminants (ECs) removal are still a poorly understood. The use of plant and microbes in ECs removal and carbon cycling is an attractive strategy because microbes operate as biocatalysts to remove contaminants and plant roots offer a rich niche for their growth and carbon cycling. However, bio-mitigation of CO2 and removal of ECs is still under research phase because of the CO2 capture and fixation efficiency is too low for industrial purposes and cutting-edge removal methods have not been created for such emerging contaminants.
... The second experiment aimed to evaluate plant growth and uptake of CLA and DFC by A. donax L. grown in mesocosm under hydroponic solution. The microbial strains used in the first experiment were S. rochei DSM 41,732, P. chrysosporium DSM 1556 and T. versicolor DSM 11,309, which have been considered good candidates for bioremediation because they use a wide range of C sources and are naturally occurring microorganisms in the rhizosphere of plants (Bumpus et al. 1985;Pointing 2001). The second experiment with A. donax L. was performed in mesocosm under hydroponic conditions to avoid the potential interference of soil or other wetland substrate particles that could adsorb the tested PhCs (Liu et al. 2013). ...
Bioremediation
of pharmaceuticals has gained large research efforts, but there is still a need to improve the performance of bioremediation systems by selecting effective organisms. In this study, we characterized the capability to remove clarithromycin (CLA) and diclofenac (DCF) by the bacterium Streptomyces rochei, and the fungi Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trametes versicolor. The macrolide antibiotic CLA and the non-steroid anti-inflammatory DCF were selected because these are two of the most frequently detected drugs in water bodies. Growth and content of the PhCs and a DCF metabolite (MET) by the energy crop Arundo donax L. were also evaluated under hydroponic conditions. The removal rate (RR) by S. rochei increased from 24 to 40% at 10 and 100 µg CLA L−1, respectively, averaged over incubation times. At 144 h, the RR by P. chrysosporium was 84%, while by T. versicolor was 70 and 45% at 10 and 100 CLA µg L−1. The RR by S. rochei did not exceed 30% at 1 mg DCF L−1 and reached 60% at 10 mg DCF L−1, whereas approached 95% and 63% by P. chrysosporium and T. versicolor, respectively, at both doses. Root biomass and length of A. donax were strongly affected at 100 µg CLA L−1. CLA concentration in roots and shoots increased with the increase of the dose and translocation factor (TF) was about 1. DCF severely affected both shoot fresh weight and root length at the highest dose and concentration in roots and shoots increased with the increase of the dose. DCF concentrations were 16–19 times higher in roots than in shoots, and TF was about 0.1. MET was detected only in roots and its proportion over the parent compound decreased with the increase of the DCF dose. This study highlights the potential contribution of A. donax and the tested microbial inoculants for improving the effectiveness of bioremediation systems for CLA and DCF removal.
... Their capacity to break down lignin and a number 7thUMaTBIC, August 2022 of complicated compounds have been reported (Bumpus et al, 1985;Cameron et al., 2000;Li et al., 2011;Xu et al., 2015). These qualities have drawn attention to them in areas of environmental concern, such as pulp bioleaching and bioremediation. ...
One of the harmful leaching reagents typically found in metallurgical waste is cyanide (CN-). The damaging effects of cyanide, as well as its potential environmental consequences, make it a major environmental problem, necessitating the management of its toxicity prior to release into the environment. To avoid cyanide poisoning deaths, which occurs when cyanide attaches to critical iron-containing enzymes and prevents them from providing oxygen-rich blood to the tissues, industries that release cyanide-laden effluents are required to keep concentrations below 0.2 ppm. Chemical, physical, and biological approaches are utilised to reduce the amount of cyanide in wastewater. Biotechnological methods that use cyanotrophic bacteria to clean up cyanide-contaminated surroundings have received a lot of attention recently. The aim of this research is to see whether Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trametes Vesicolor could decompose cyanide under various conditions, such as cyanide concentration, culture mass and time. A control experiment with a 100 ppm cyanide solution and no fungal interaction demonstrated that the cyanide in solution did not degrade naturally or self-degrade. When the effect of biomass (0.2 g, 0.4 g, and 0.6 g) on cyanide degradation was evaluated, the 0.6 g culture mass of P. Chrysosporium and T. Vesicolor resulted in the best myco-detoxification of 90 % and 85 %, respectively, after 48 hours
... Previous studies showed that Phanerochaete crysosporium Burds. degrades PCBs, dioxins, and other chloro-organics (Bumpus et al. 1985;Eaton 1985). Ligninolytic white-rot fungi P. chrysosporium is the most studied fungi that mineralizes xenobiotics. ...
... There are more lignivorous species with the same capabilities, such as Pleurotus ostreatus, Trametes versicolor, Lentinula edodes or Bjerkandera adusta. White rot fungi are the basis of a whole system of bioremediation by mushrooms [10] . ...
The increase in human population brings an increase in consumption, higher pressure in often limited space and growth of waste, particularly in communal environments. Out of the huge volume of communal waste, a portion is composed of biologically degradable and other waste, that could be recycled utilizing eco-friendly means � e.g. fungal activity. This includes plant waste from gardens, yards, parks, orchards and forests, or plant debris not utilized by other ecologically and economically useful means. In this contribution, we present results obtained by inoculation of woody and herbaceous waste by the fungus Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm. Appropriate means of inoculation resulted in faster, more efficient and near-natural decomposition of woody debris after felling � tree stumps, coarse and fine parts of trunks and branches, as well as a mix of wood, bark and other substrates, including ash after burning of wood. Based on a detailed economical assessment, it was demonstrated that production of oyster mushroom fruiting bodies obtained via decomposition of woody waste material may provide significant financial gain. Preliminary results corroborate the presumption of the oyster mushroom�s ability to eliminate negative environmental impacts of ash generated in heat production. Mycelial filaments are able to mechanically bind ash particles, decompose some of its components into a near-natural form, and absorb heavy metals, ultimately resulting in soil purification. Thus, near-natural utilization of various species of lignicolous fungi for the decomposition of unused parts of natural products may prove useful for both humans and nature.
... The second experiment aimed to evaluate plant growth and uptake of CLA and DFC by A. donax L. grown in mesocosm under hydroponic solution. The microbial strains used in the first experiment were S. rochei DSM 41,732, P. chrysosporium DSM 1556 and T. versicolor DSM 11,309, which have been considered good candidates for bioremediation because they use a wide range of C sources and are naturally occurring microorganisms in the rhizosphere of plants (Bumpus et al. 1985;Pointing 2001). The second experiment with A. donax L. was performed in mesocosm under hydroponic conditions to avoid the potential interference of soil or other wetland substrate particles that could adsorb the tested PhCs (Liu et al. 2013). ...
Bioremediation of pharmaceuticals (PhCs) has gained large research efforts, but there is still a need to improve the performance of bioremediation systems by selecting effective organisms. In this study, we characterized the capability to remove clarithromycin (CLA) and diclofenac (DCF) by the bacterium Streptomyces rochei, and the fungi Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trametes versicolor. Growth and content of the PhCs and a DCF metabolite (MET) by the energy crop Arundo donax L. were also evaluated under hydroponic conditions. The removal rate (RR) by S. rocheiincreased from 24 to 40% at 10 and 100 µg CLA L-1, respectively, averaged over incubation times. At 144 h, the RR by P. chrysosporium was 84%, while by T. versicolor was 70 and 45% at 10 and 100 CLA µg L-1. The RR by S. rochei did not exceed 30% at 1 mg DCF L-1 and reached 60% at 10 mg DCF L-1, whereas approached 95% and 63% by P. chrysosporium and T. versicolor, respectively, at both doses. Root biomass and length of A. donax were strongly affected at 100 µg CLA L-1. CLA concentration in roots and shoots increased with the increase of the dose and translocation factor (TF) was about 1. DCF severely affected both shoot fresh weight and root length at the highest dose and concentration in roots and shoots increased with the increase of the dose. DCF concentrations were 16-19 times higher in roots than in shoots and TF was about 0.1. MET was detected only in roots and its proportion over the parent compound decreased with the increase of the DCF dose. This study highlights the potential contribution of A. donax and the tested microbial inoculants for improving the effectiveness of bioremediation systems for CLA and DCF removal.
... As propriedades biológicas dos compostos fenólicos estão relacionadas com a atividade antioxidante que cada fenol exerce sobre determinado meio. A atividade dos antioxidantes, por sua vez, depende da estrutura química, podendo ser determinada pela ação da molécula como agente redutor (BUMPUS et al., 1985, DAÍ et al., 2015. ...
O presente trabalho objetivou selecionar fungos filamentosos resistentes a condições adversas, isoladas de águas residuárias de lagoas de tratamento de uma indústria metalúrgica, capazes de degradar compostos fenólicos. Foram isolados e purificados quatro fungos filamentosos dessas águas residuárias, que são: Aspergillus flavus (I4 ), Cladosporium sp . (I-6 ), Penicilium sp. (I-10) e Phoma sp . (I-13). Dentre as espécies fúngicas isoladas foi observado que elas pertencem ao grupo de fungos filamentosos de pigmentação escura. Devido ao complexo melanínico em suas paredes celulares, estes são chamados de dematiáceos ou fungos negros, os quais comumente apresentam melanina formada pelo polímero 1,8-dihidroxinaftaleno (DNH), produzido no citoplasma e excretado na parede celular. Os níveis de degradação dos compostos fenólicos, expressos em mg de equivalente de ácido gálico, foram diferentes para cada um dos fungos avaliados, sendo que a maior degradação ocorreu nos tempos de 24 e 48 horas de crescimento. Verificou-se que a linhagem I-10 de Penicilium sp . foi a que apresentou os melhores resultados, degradando 478mg em 48 horas, tendo, também, produzido os maiores índices de biomassa fúngica. O mesmo comportamento foi verificado com o consumo da glicose na qual a linhagem I-6 de Cladosporium sp. consumiu glicose fornecida.
... Commercial production of HCH typically results in a mixture of four major isomers (α-HCH (60-70%), β-HCH (5-12%), γ-HCH (10-12%), δ-HCH (6-10%)) [3,6], of which only γ-HCH has insecticidal activity while the other isomers are discarded as HCH-muck, thereby generating stockpiles of persistent toxic waste [3,[6][7][8]. Microorganisms including fungi [5,9,10] and bacteria [7,11,12] are able to degrade HCH isomers. However, an elaborate degradation pathway and the respective catabolic enzymes for complete mineralization of HCH have only been reported for bacterial members of the family Sphingomonadaceae under ideal laboratory conditions [3,7,11,12]. ...
Biotransformation of soil organochlorine pesticides (OCP) is often impeded by a lack of nutrients relevant for bacterial growth and/or co-metabolic OCP biotransformation. By providing space-filling mycelia, fungi promote contaminant biodegradation by facilitating bacterial dispersal and the mobilization and release of nutrients in the mycosphere. We here tested whether mycelial nutrient transfer from nutrient-rich to nutrient-deprived areas facilitates bacterial OCP degradation in a nutrient-deficient habitat. The legacy pesticide hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), a non-HCH-degrading fungus ( Fusarium equiseti K3), and a co-metabolically HCH-degrading bacterium ( Sphingobium sp. S8) isolated from the same HCH-contaminated soil were used in spatially structured model ecosystems. Using ¹³ C-labeled fungal biomass and protein-based stable isotope probing (protein-SIP), we traced the incorporation of ¹³ C fungal metabolites into bacterial proteins while simultaneously determining the biotransformation of the HCH isomers. The relative isotope abundance (RIA, 7.1–14.2%), labeling ratio (LR, 0.13–0.35), and the shape of isotopic mass distribution profiles of bacterial peptides indicated the transfer of ¹³ C-labeled fungal metabolites into bacterial proteins. Distinct ¹³ C incorporation into the haloalkane dehalogenase (linB) and 2,5-dichloro-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-diol dehydrogenase (LinC), as key enzymes in metabolic HCH degradation, underpin the role of mycelial nutrient transport and fungal-bacterial interactions for co-metabolic bacterial HCH degradation in heterogeneous habitats. Nutrient uptake from mycelia increased HCH removal by twofold as compared to bacterial monocultures. Fungal-bacterial interactions hence may play an important role in the co-metabolic biotransformation of OCP or recalcitrant micropollutants (MPs).
... Previous studies showed that Phanerochaete crysosporium Burds. degrades PCBs, dioxins, and other chloro-organics (Bumpus et al. 1985;Eaton 1985). Ligninolytic white-rot fungi P. chrysosporium is the most studied fungi that mineralizes xenobiotics. ...
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are toxic organic compounds and pose serious threats to environment and public health. PCBs still exist in different environments such as air, water, soil, and sediments even on ban. This review summarizes the phyco-and myco-remediation technologies developed to detoxify the PCB-polluted sites. It was found that algae mostly use bioaccumulation to biodegradation strategies to reclaim the environment. As bio-accumulator, Ulva rigida C. Agardh has been best at 25 ng/g dry wt to remove PCBs. Evidently, Anabaena PD-1 is the only known PCB degrading alga and efficiently degrade Aroclor 1254 and dioxin-like PCBs up to 84.4% and 37.4% to 68.4%, respectively. The review suggested that factors such as choice of algal strains, response of microalgae, biomass, the rate of growth, and cost-effective cultivation conditions significantly influence the remediation of PCBs. Furthermore, the Anabaena sp. linA gene of Pseudomonas paucimobilis Holmes UT26 showed enhanced efficiency. Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm is the most efficient PCB degrading fungus , degrading up to 98.4% and 99.6% of PCB in complex and mineral media, respectively. Combine metabolic activities of bacteria and yeast led to the higher detoxification of PCBs. Fungi-algae consortia would be a promising approach in remedia-tion of PCBs. A critical analysis on potentials and limits of PCB treatment through fungal and algal biosystems have been reviewed, and thus, new insights have emerged for possible bioremediation, bioaccumulation, and biodegradation of PCBs.
... Biodegradation of dioxin by microorganisms was first reported by white-rot fungi Phanerochaete sortida YK-624 (Kanan & Samara 2018). Bumpus et al. (1985) evaluated the biodegradation potential of P. chrysosporium in degrading the 2,3,7,8-TCDD. Takada et al. (1996) reported that P. sortida could degrade highly chlorinated dioxins and furans. ...
Waste generation is becoming increasingly prominent in the environmental arena due to the increase in population and living standards of life. Dioxin and Dioxin-related compounds are a set of hazardous chemicals that are ubiquitously distributed. Polychlorinated dioxins are introduced into our surroundings by both spontaneous and induced activities like combustion, incineration of waste, recycling of e-waste, and paper and pesticide manufacturing. They are chloroaromatic compounds that are found to be lethal and possess carcinogenic properties and are one of the primary examples of persistent environmental pollutants (POP). Removal of these compounds from the environment is very challenging due to their recalcitrant nature. An alternative technique is the use of microbial technology which includes the use of bacteria and fungi to detoxify the dioxins that are considered to be a more effective, economical, and environmentally sustainable alternative. Different microbial interactions were studied for their degradation potential. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and furans (PCDD/F) are found to be degraded by bacteria by adopting either aerobic or anaerobic pathways and the details regarding the diversity, distribution, bioremediation potential, metabolic pathway have been analyzed. This review provides an overview of the source of contamination, its potential toxicity assessment, and various bioremediation techniques that are employed are discussed in detail. It also highlights the nanoremediation technique-a promising tool in which nanoparticles are used in the treatment of toxic organic pollutants.
... The white-rot fungi had been manifested that it could abstract one electron from the refractory organic compounds, and thereby initiated the free radical depolymerization nonspecifically due to the extracellular peroxidases [16][17][18]. It was showed that the white-rot fungi mode strain Phanerochaete chrysosporium (P. ...
Manganese peroxidase (Mn P) is capable of effectively degrading anionic polyacrylamide (HPAM). However, the interaction of Mn P with HPAM at molecular level is lacking until now. Here, the HPAM model compounds, HPAM-2, HPAM-3, HPAM-4, and HPAM-5, were selected to reveal their binding mechanisms with Mn P. The results showed that the most suitable substrate for Mn P was HPAM-5, and the main reason for MnP-HPAM-5 with maximal affinity was strong hydrogen bond. LYS96 was the important key residue in all complexes, and the number of key residue was largest in MnP-HPAM-5. The optimal THR27ILE mutant may enhance the affinity of Mn P to HPAM-4. The stability of Mn P binding to HPAM-4 was the optimal. These results were helpful in designing highly efficient Mn P against HPAM to protect the ecological environment.
... Numerous white rot fungi were tested for their ability to decompose PCBs (Covino et al. 2016). Among the ligninolytic white rot fungi that mineralizes xenobiotics, Phanerochaete chrysosporium is most extensively studied and it can degrade polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other chloro organics (Bumpus et al. 1985;Pointing 2001;Kamei et al. 2006). Several other white rot fungi including Lentinus edodes, Trametes versicolor, Bjerkandera adusta, P. magnoliae, Irpex lacteus, Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, Phlebia brevispora, and Pleurotus ostreatus can successfully perform PCB removal (Kamei et al. 2006;Cvancarova et al. 2012). ...
The rapid and unchecked human population growth has contributed to accelerated urbanization and industrialization causing severe environmental consequences. Human activities such as agriculture, industrial, forest fires, sewage and waste disposal, ocean oil spills, surface petroleum pollution, crude oil transport incidents, etc., aid in the incremental production of persistent-toxic contaminants, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, fungicides, antibiotics in various ecosystem niches. Mycoremediation is an ecofriendly and relatively cheaper way to manage all these pollutants and restore the ecosystem. Biological approaches based on industrial and environmental biotechnology focus on the creation of "clean technologies" which emphasize in some useful way on maximum output, reduced waste generation, waste treatment and conversion. Further, these clean technologies focus on the use of biological methods for the remediation of waste. One such biological method is mycoremediation, which is based on the use of fungi and mushrooms to remove waste from the environment. It is an in situ remediation strategy that utilizes the ability of the fungus to recycle. Fungal associations in nature are known to break down complex substances into simpler ones by producing a wide range of extracellular enzymes that are well exploited for toxic waste degradation and remediation of polluted sites. This chapter deals with different sources of pollutants and ecological niches where mycoremediation can be exploited. Also, different fungi used for mycorestoration and their mechanism will be discussed. An attempt has also been made to highlight past experiences in which mycoremediation has proved to be an effective and beneficial strategy for restoring the ecosystem.
... Ligninolytic enzymes produced by white-rot fungi (WRF) are comparatively non-specific and implicate the free radical mechanism for degrading plenty of organic pollutants (Singh et al., 2021a,b). In the 1980s, these enzymes were first used for the degradation of various organic compounds such as dyes, pesticides, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, etc. (Bumpus et al., 1985), and the researchers in the 1990s revealed their potential to degrade pharmaceutical compounds (Martens et al., 1996;Bauer et al., 1999). This work spotlights the biocatalytic efficiency of ligninolytic enzymes (free and immobilized forms) for the degradation and removal of pharmaceutically active compounds from aqueous environments (Fig. 1). ...
The discharge of an alarming number of recalcitrant pollutants from various industrial activities presents a serious threat to environmental sustainability and ecological integrity. Bioremediation has gained immense interest around the world due to its environmentally friendly and cost-effective nature. In contrast to physical and chemical methods, the use of microbial enzymes, particularly immobilized biocatalysts, has been demonstrated as a versatile approach for the sustainable mitigation of environmental pollution. Considerable attention is now devoted to developing novel enzyme engineering approaches and state-of-the-art bioreactor design for ameliorating the overall bio-catalysis and biodegradation performance of enzymes. This review discusses the contemporary and state of the art technical and scientific progress regarding applying oxidoreductase enzyme-based biocatalytic systems to remediate a vast number of pharmaceutically active compounds from water and wastewater bodies. A comprehensive insight into enzyme immobilization, the role of mediators, bioreactors designing, and transformation products of pharmaceuticals and their associated toxicity is provided. Additional studies are necessary to elucidate enzymatic degradation mechanisms, monitor the toxicity levels of the resulting degraded metabolites and optimize the entire bio-treatment strategy for technical and economical affordability.
... Pleurotus ostreatus Pozdnyakova et al., (2006) Tetrahymena pyriformis Guiraud et al., (2008) Armillaria sp. Hadibarata et al., (2013) 6. Benzo ( Bumpus et al., (1985) Haemmerli et al., (1986) Bezalel et al., (1996a Bogan and Lamar, (1996) Trametes versicolor Collins et al., (1996) Bezalel et al., (1996a, b, c) Cunninghamella elegans Cerniglia and yang, (1984) Pleurotus ostreatus Pozdnyakova et al., (2006) Asgher et al., (2005) 26. Cibacron Red C-2G Bjerkandera adusta Robinson and Nigam, (2008) 27. ...
Aquatic pollution is one of the grim ecological threats that the world faces, with maintenance of appropriate water quality being a major challenge nowadays. Pollution of aquatic ecosystems has adverse impacts on environment, public health and economy. In view of that, there is an imperative obligation to safeguard health of our aquatic ecosystems and restoration of polluted aquatic environs has attracted worldwide attention. This review provides an overview of different types of aquatic pollutants, their consequences and mitigation of these pollutants through mycoremediation. Emphasis is laid on different fungal species with their role in mycoremediation of chemical, suspended matter, microbiological, nutrient, ground water and oxygen depleting aquatic pollutants into environmentally less detrimental products via diverse mechanisms. Fungi execute a key function in environment cleanup through remediation of aquatic pollutants owing to their diverse metabolic capability comprising well-known fungal enzymes viz., catalases, cellulases, chitinases, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, laccases, ligninase, lignocellulases, pectinases, peroxidases, oxidases, and xylanases. Further, this chapter provide comprehensive information about mycoremediation potential of vast fungal diversity and can serve as baseline for selection and use of fungi either independently or in consortium for forthcoming mycoremediation projects of aquatic ecosystems.
... Pleurotus ostreatus Pozdnyakova et al., (2006) Tetrahymena pyriformis Guiraud et al., (2008) Armillaria sp. Hadibarata et al., (2013) 6. Benzo ( Bumpus et al., (1985) Haemmerli et al., (1986) Bezalel et al., (1996a, b, c) Bogan and Lamar, (1996 Trametes versicolor Collins et al., (1996) Fusarium flocciferum Pleurotus ostreatus Trametes versicolor Trichoderma sp. Atagana et al., (2006) Aspergillus ochraceus Passarini et al., (2011) 9. Bisphenol A (5) Ganoderma lucidum Irpex lacteus Pleurotus eryngii Polyporellus brumalis Schizophyllum commune Trametes versicolor Shin et al., (2007) 10. ...
... These fungi also have a remarkable ability to degrade various refractory environmental pollutants that pose threats to human health. Since the 1980s, scientists have evaluated the use of white-rot fungi in removing pollutants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, synthetic textile dyes, and neonicotinoids) from aquatic ecosystems (Bumpus et al. 1985;Xiao et al. 2011;Wang et al. 2017;Xiao and Kondo 2019). In our previous study, the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624 was shown to dimerize BPA to form a BPA polymer under ligninolytic conditions (Wang et al. 2013). ...
Bisphenol F (BPF) is widely used in the plastic manufacturing industry as a replacement for bisphenol A (BPA) because BPF and BPA have similar structures and comparable properties. However, BPF is ubiquitously present in the environment and has higher toxicity to humans. This study is the first to report BPF degradation using the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624 under ligninolytic conditions (pH=4.5, 30 °C). P. sordida YK-624 almost completely degraded BPF within 4 days. Moreover, functional genes involved in BPF degradation were detected by RNA-Seq. Metabolic processes and peroxidases were enriched by GO analysis, and the metabolic pathway was enriched according to the KEGG pathway analysis. These results suggested that P. sordida YK-624 could secrete higher levels of ligninolytic enzymes lignin peroxidase (LiP) and manganese peroxidase (MnP) for BPF degradation. The results indicated that LiPs and MnPs are important for BPF degradation and cytochrome P450s play a small role. Furthermore, reliability of the RNA-Seq results was validated by qRT-PCR.
... In nature, lignin degradation by basidiomycetes is the key step in lignocellulose decay. It is known that some microorganisms can degrade lignin, but only white-rot fungi can degrade it to carbon dioxide and water (5). This biodegradation process is initiated by one-electron oxidation and is mediated by some ligninolytic enzymes, including lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), laccase and versatile peroxidase (VP). ...
Lignocellulosic biomass is an organic matrix composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. In nature, lignin degradation by basidiomycetes is the key step in lignocellulose decay. The white-rot fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624 (YK-624) has been extensively studied due to its high lignin degradation ability. It was demonstrated that YK-624 can secrete lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase for lignin degradation. However, the underlying mechanism for lignin degradation by YK-624 remains unknown. Here, we analyzed YK-624 gene expression following growth under ligninolytic and nonligninolytic conditions and compared the differentially expressed genes in YK-624 to those in the model white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium by next-generation sequencing. More ligninolytic enzymes and lignin-degrading auxiliary enzymes were upregulated in YK-624. This might explain the high degradation efficiency of YK-624. In addition, the genes involved in energy metabolism pathways such as the TCA cycle, lipid metabolism, carbon metabolism and glycolysis were upregulated under ligninolytic conditions in YK-624. The first differential gene expression analysis of YK-624 under ligninolytic and nonligninolytic conditions was reported in this study. The results obtained in this study indicated that YK-624 produces more enzymes involved in lignin degradation and energy metabolism.
... Recently, fungi have more concerns about its biodegradable capability through enzymes production which applied for degrada-tion lignin and different environmental contaminants like hydrocarbons and pesticides (Bumpus et al., 1985). Fungi are superior bacteria for biodegradation process via hyphae production which penetrates soil and biodegrade hydrocarbon in deep contaminated soil surface (Novotny et al., 1999;April et al., 2000). ...
Twenty five yeasts isolated were isolated from Khurais oil field in Saudi Arabia and assayed to evaluate their biodegradability. Only five isolates (namely, A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5) showed potential use of oil as sole carbon source. During incubation period, highest growth rate were recorded for A1, A2 and A3 isolates. Low growth distinguished A4 isolate; A5 isolate could not degrade oil.
Spectrophotometrical analysis for four yeast isolates biodegradation activities indicated that, A1 isolate was superior for oil degradation (61%) comparing with A4 isolate which reflected lowest degradation % (33%). A2 and A3 isolates showed moderate biodegradation activity (56 and 51 % respectively).
D1/D2 domain of the 26S rRNA gene sequence was used as molecular marker to identify five yeast isolates. After comparing 26S rRNA gene sequences of five yeast isolates with highly similarity isolates, five yeast isolates (A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5)were submitted to database as Candida tropicalis (MW488263), Candida tropicalis (MW488264), Rhodotorula mucilaginosa (MW488265) and Rhodosporidium toruloides (MW488266) respectively. Using OXF1/ACR1 primer, specific lipase gene amplicon with 250 bp were detected with in all four yeast isolates
... The first fungus which was reported to successfully degrade a diverse group of environmental pollutants was Phanerochaete chrysosporium (Bumpus et al. 1985;Eaton 1985). The fungi are able to procure the contaminant from the environment and store it in their tissue such as mycelia or fruiting mushroom bodies. ...
The incessant and indiscriminate use of chemicals, agriculture fertilizers, sewage disposal, tar, accidental spillages, and explosives has been cardinally contaminating soil, water bodies, and air, which has created an alarming situation globally. The exuberant industrial growth and various developments and establishments have added to the exponential increase in the production of various municipal, industrial, and domestic wastes. All these waste materials are discarded either in landfill/soil or in the sea without undergoing initial treatment, thus annexing to the contamination of the environment as a whole. Among other chemical remediation technologies fungi have the high potency for remediation. Mycoremediationis rapidly emerging as a robust methodology to deal with abiotic metal/organic contaminant stress. Fungi can act as pivtol role because their efficient adaptation in varied surroundings and emerge as key players in reducing the heavy metal contamination, high tolerance to lethal metal environments, and an inherent elaborate detoxification mechanism make them an ideal tool against heavy metal toxicants.
... These white-rot fungi can degrade toxic or insoluble compounds more efficiently than another group of fungi. Several white-rot fungi, such as Lentinula edodes, Pleuritic ostreatus, Bjerkandera adusta, Trametes versicolor, and Irpex lacteus, are well-known fungi that are able to degrade insoluble compounds (Siddiquee et al. 2015;Adenipekun and Lawal 2012;Hamman 2004;Shah et al. 1992;Bumpus et al. 1985). These have lignin degradation systems, such as manganese peroxidase (MnP), lignin peroxidase (LiP), H 2 O 2 producing enzymes (Kirk and Farrell 1987) and laccase. ...
The traditional way of monocropping and current strategies of use of inorganic chemical-based pesticides and fertilizers are the main barriers in development of sustainable agriculture. Similarly, sickness is a growing issue because of degradation of agricultural land due to continuous sole cropping. On the other hand, intercropping is an old but efficient and eco-friendly way to get rid of soil sickness and to improve crop production. During intercropping, two or more crops either work symbiotically to facilitate each other or compete on available resources for their survival. These both ways can be utilized for the purpose of reclaiming degraded agricultural soils, utilization of resources, management of disease and pests, and eventually increase in crop production. This chapter explains the mechanisms underlying intercropping facilitating plant acquisition of nitrogen and phosphorus and suppressing insect pest and disease incidence with examples of some effective intercropping systems. Moreover, the phenomenon of soil sickness has been described to understand how intercropping can be manipulated to reclaim agricultural land.
... These white-rot fungi can degrade toxic or insoluble compounds more efficiently than another group of fungi. Several white-rot fungi, such as Lentinula edodes, Pleuritic ostreatus, Bjerkandera adusta, Trametes versicolor, and Irpex lacteus, are well-known fungi that are able to degrade insoluble compounds (Siddiquee et al. 2015;Adenipekun and Lawal 2012;Hamman 2004;Shah et al. 1992;Bumpus et al. 1985). These have lignin degradation systems, such as manganese peroxidase (MnP), lignin peroxidase (LiP), H 2 O 2 producing enzymes (Kirk and Farrell 1987) and laccase. ...
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are the photosynthetic organisms that are widely grown in all sorts of habitats including aquatic and terrestrial environments. Today, the agricultural sector is highly dependent on chemical fertilizers to enhance the crop production in order to meet the demand for food around the globe which have severe negative effects on both mankind and environment. Due to its pool of properties that are beneficial for sustainable agroecosystem, cyanobacterial biofertilizers are eco-friendly and can be an effective and economical alternative for synthetic fertilizers with less input of cost and energy. They can be explored for producing natural fertilizers, which provide positive alterations for both biotic and abiotic components. Cyanobacteria are potential sources of nitrogen fixation, cost-effective, and a major component of the nitrogen-fixing biomass. They have become paramount microbes for producing natural fertilizers, plant growth-promoting hormones, bioactive compounds, etc. These properties enable them in boosting soil fertility, control the activity of other microorganisms, and also can play a role in bioremediation of pesticides, herbicides, and combating pollution attributed to heavy metals and other toxicants as well. The agricultural importance of cyanobacterial biofertilizers is directly related to their nitrogen fixation ability and other effects for plants and enhances soil fertility. This chapter emphasizes on the use of cyanobacteria as a sustainable microbiome and biofertilizer in agriculture sector to enhance crop production and yield.
... The WSGL liquid fermentation is popular for its medicinal properties including control of blood glucose levels, anti-cancer, modulation of the immune system, hepato-protection, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, and antioxidants (Wachtel-Galor et al. 2011;Wan-Mohtar et al. 2016a, b, 2017. It possesses extracellular enzymatic (ligninolytic) systems (Peralta et al. 2017) capable to oxidatively breakdown pollutant substrates having carbon skeletons similar to lignin and resistance to biodegradation such as textile dyes, endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and halogenated compounds (Tuomela and Hatakka 2019;Peralta et al. 2017;Singh 2017;Bumpus et al. 1985). Utilization of G. lucidum has shown potential as green alternatives for tertiary wastewater treatments in removing herbicides such as bentazon (Coelho-Moreira et al. 2010) and diuron (Coelho-Moreira et al. 2018), PAHs (e.g., phenanthrene and pyrene) (Ting et al. 2011), pharmaceutical products such as metoprolol (Jaén-Gil et al. 2019), anti-inflammatory (e.g., diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen), and antiepileptic (carbamazepine) drugs (Rodarte-Morales et al. 2012). ...
The fungi-based technology, wild-Serbian Ganoderma lucidum (WSGL) as myco-alternative to existing conventional microbial-based wastewater treatment is introduced in this study as a potential alternative treatment. The mycoremediation is highly persistent for its capability to oxidatively breakdown pollutant substrates and widely researched for its medicinal properties. Utilizing the nonhazardous properties and high degradation performance of WSGL, this research aims to optimize mycoremediation treatment design for chemical oxygen demand (COD) and ammonia nitrogen (AN) removal in domestic wastewater based on proposed Model 1 (temperature and treatment time) and Model 2 (volume of pellet and treatment time) via response surface methodology (RSM). Combined process variables were temperature (0C) (Model 1) and the volume of mycelial pellets (%) (Model 2) against treatment time (hour). Response variables for these two sets of central composite design (CCD) were the removal efficiencies of COD (%) and AN (%). The regression line fitted well with the data with R2 values of 0.9840 (Model 1-COD), 0.9477 (Model 1-AN), 0.9988 (Model 2-COD), and 0.9990 (Model 2-AN). The lack of fit test gives the highest value of sum of squares equal to 9494.91 (Model 1-COD), 9701.68 (Model 1-AN), 23786.55 (Model 2-COD), and 13357.02 (Model 2-AN), with probability F values less than 0.05 showing significant models. The optimized temperature for Model 1 was at 25 °C within 24 h of treatment time with 95.1% COD and 96.3% AN removals. The optimized condition (temperature) in Model 1 was further studied in Model 2. The optimized volume of pellet for Model 2 was 0.25% in 24-h treatment time with 76.0% COD and 78.4% AN removals. Overall, the ascended sequence of high volume of pellet considered in Model 2 will slow down the degradation process. The best fit volume of pellet with maximum degradation of COD and AN is equivalent to 0.1% at 25 °C in 24 h. The high performance achieved demonstrates that the mycoremediation of G. lucidum is highly potential as part of the wastewater treatment system in treating domestic wastewater of high organic loadings.
... Therefore, lipidomics can be used to determine lipid biomarkers against a specific contaminant exposure that affects certain biochemical pathways, including FA biosynthesis, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress (Albergamo et al. 2016). Several biological systems have been evaluated for biodegradation of dioxins, such as bacterial angular dioxygenases (Sato et al. 1997;Armengaud et al. 1998;Habe et al. 2001), peroxidases of white-rot fungi and anaerobic dehalogenases from microbial consortia (Bumpus et al. 1985;Bunge et al. 2003). The effects of dioxins on lipid metabolism of soil microorganisms have been studied in vitro using a selected microorganism isolated from dioxin-exposed environment and this approach has been used with a large variety of soil microorganisms, including bacteria, yeast and fungi (Hanano et al. 2014c(Hanano et al. , 2019a. ...
Dioxins are the most toxic known environmental pollutants and are mainly formed by human activities. Due to their structural stability, dioxins persist for extended periods and can be transported over long distances from their emission sources. Thus, dioxins can be accumulated to considerable levels in both human and animal food chains. Along with sediments, soils are considered the most important reservoirs of dioxins. Soil microorganisms are therefore highly exposed to dioxins, leading to a range of biological responses that can impact the diversity, genetics and functional of such microbial communities. Dioxins are very hydrophobic with a high affinity to lipidic macromolecules in exposed organisms, including microbes. This review summarizes the genetic, molecular and biochemical impacts of dioxins on the lipid metabolism of soil microbial communities and especially examines modifications in the composition and architecture of cell membranes. This will provide a useful scientific benchmark for future attempts at soil ecological risk assessment, as well as in identifying potential dioxin-specific-responsive lipid biomarkers. Finally, potential uses of lipid-sequestering microorganisms as a part of biotechnological approaches to the bio-management of environmental contamination with dioxins are discussed.
... chrysosporium (Bumpus et al., 1985). Ce champignon a également été utilisé avec succès pour dégrader le congénère 27-DCDD (Valli et al., 1992). ...
Célèbres depuis l'accident de Seveso en 1976, les dioxines/furanes (PCCD/F) restent, malgré une forte baisse de leurs émissions, un sujet de préoccupation permanent en France et dans le monde. Le rémanence de ces composés organochlorés dans le sol et le risque toxique qu'ils représentent pour l'homme et l'environnement font que la gestion et la remédiation des sols contaminés par les PCDD/F sont devenues une priorité des industriels, législateurs et scientifiques. La phytoremédiation compte parmi les méthodes émergentes de dépollution des sols contaminés en raison de son adéquation avec le développement durable. Elle combine les capacités naturelles des plantes et de leur microbiote rhizosphérique à biodégrader les polluants organiques. Cependant, l'efficacité de cette phytotechnologie est encore souvent limitée, en particulier lorsqu'il s'agit de composés chlorés, à cause de leur récalcitrance, de leur phytotoxicité et leur faible biodisponibilité dans le sol. Ainsi, l'objectif de ce travail de thèse a consisté à étudier les performances de la phytoremédition assistée, en particulier par les champignons mycorhiziens arbusculaires, d'un sol agricole historiquement pollué par les PCDD/F prélevé sur une parcelle expérimentale située à proximité d'un ancien incinérateur. L'ensemble des résultats obtenus mettent en évidence, en particulier, le potentiel de deux espèces végétales, la luzerne et la fétuque, dans la rhizodégradation des PCCDD/F. La végétalisation du sol permet de moduler les communautés microbiennes du sol (bactéries, Archées et champignons) et notamment celles qui semblent impliquées dans la dissipation des PCCDD/F. En revanche, bien que la mycorhization agisse sur les communautés microbiennes du sol, celle-ci n'a pas eu d'impact, dans nos conditions expérimentales, sur la dissipation des PCCDD/F quelles que soit l'origine de l'inoculum utilisé et les espèces mycorhiziennes qui le compose. La dégradation de ces composés organochlorés est plus marquée dans un sol préalablement stérilisé, puis recolonisé par certaines communautés microbiennes spécifiques, impliquées dans la dissipation des PCCDD/F. L'utilisation combinée d'un mélange de rhamnolipides avec l'introduction dans le sol d'une bactérie Sphingomonas wittichii RWI, décrite pour ses capacités de dégradation des PCCDD/F, permet d'accroitre l'efficience de la rhizodégradation des PCDD/F qui se traduit par une baisse significative de la cytotoxicité du sol après phytoremédiation.
Bashofu is a traditional Okinawan textile made from thin banana fibers. The raw materials derived from banana leaf sheaths are composed of plant fibers and unwanted constituents such as the plant cuticle layer. The unwanted constituents are hand-scraped by the traditional way that follows boiling the raw materials in a mild alkali solution. However, even after this mild degumming, the plant cuticle layer of current materials can still be too hard to be hand-scraped from the fibers. For smooth fiber separation, the unwanted constituents should be specifically degraded before hand-scraping. Fatty acid polyesters are the main components of plant cuticle layer and are not present in fibers. We attempted to specifically degrade the materials by Stenotrophomonas sp. with the ability to degrade Tween-20, as a result, the treated materials became softer and thinner with uniform thickness. Such changes in the morphology of the material allowed the plant cuticle layer to be easily separated from the banana fibers during hand-scraping, and the cross section of the extracted fibers was not affected by this bacterial treatment. This treatment would be used as a minimal improvement of the traditional Bashofu making in the future and would reduce the hard work for elderly artisans.
Polychlorierte Dibenzo‐p‐dioxine und Dibenzofurane, auch häufig unter dem Sammelbegriff Dioxine zusammengefasst, gehören zu den tricyclischen chlorierten aromatischen Ethern (PCDF, polychlorierte Dibenzofurane) bzw. Diethern (PCDD, polychlorierte Dibenzo‐p‐dioxine). Es existieren 75 PCDD sowie 135 PCDF, die fast immer in der Umwelt als Kongenerengemische mit unterschiedlicher Zusammensetzung vorkommen. Dioxine wurden nie großtechnisch produziert, sondern gelangen hauptsächlich durch Verbrennungsprozesse in die Umwelt. Auch wenn in der öffentlichen Sichtweise Dioxine als die giftigsten Stoffe gelten, ist ihr Gefahrenpotenzial in den im Boden vorkommenden Gehalten als eher gering einzustufen. Problematisch ist ihre lange Verweildauer im Boden.
Biotransformation of soil organochlorine pesticides (OCP) is often impeded by a lack of nutrients relevant for bacterial growth and/or co-metabolic OCP biotransformation. By providing space-filling mycelia, fungi promote contaminant biodegradation by facilitating bacterial dispersal and the mobilization and release of nutrients in the mycosphere. We here tested whether mycelial nutrient transfer from nutrient-rich to nutrient-deprived areas facilitates bacterial OCP degradation in a nutrient-deficient habitat. The legacy pesticide hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), a non-HCH-degrading fungus ( Fusarium equiseti K3) and a co-metabolically HCH-degrading bacterium ( Sphingomonas sp. S8) isolated from the same HCH-contaminated soil were used in spatially structured model ecosystems. Using ¹³ C-labelled fungal biomass and protein-based stable isotope probing (protein-SIP), we traced the incorporation of ¹³ C fungal metabolites into bacterial proteins while simultaneously determining the biotransformation of the HCH isomers. The relative isotope abundance (RIA, 7.1 – 14.2%), labeling ratio (LR, 0.13 – 0.35), and the shape of isotopic mass distribution profiles of bacterial peptides indicated the transfer of ¹³ C-labeled fungal metabolites into bacterial proteins. Distinct ¹³ C incorporation into the haloalkane dehalogenase (linB) and 2,5-dichloro-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-diol dehydrogenase (LinC), as key enzymes in metabolic HCH degradation, underpin the role of mycelial nutrient transport and fungal-bacterial interactions for co-metabolic bacterial HCH degradation in heterogeneous habitats. Nutrient uptake from mycelia increased HCH removal by twofold as compared to bacterial monocultures. Fungal-bacterial interactions hence may play an important role in the co-metabolic biotransformation of OCP or recalcitrant micropollutants (MPs).
At the present time the environmental problems have been increased, in agreement with the demand of the population, for this reason is responsibility of the general society and the industry to try to solve or to decrease these problems. This article is dedicated to discussing the advances in the phytoremediation area. The use of plants to solve these problems represent a first passage towards that aim. The plants could remedy some zones that has been affected by contaminating substances, this is what is known as phytoremediation. In this context the general principles of phytoremediation and their benefits are applied on the ecosystems. This analysis includes different species of plants and polluting substances. Also, the investigations that have been made in this field are mentioned with their main results. Many years ago, plants like rice, maize, and Arabidiopsis sp. have been used as models, nevertheless also some investigations had been taken with other types of plants, to be able to determine if these plants influence the polluting agents and if their genes are induced or suppressed. The main objective of phytoremediation is to decrease the contamination present in an specific place. Some species of plants have a higher capacity to accumulate polluting agents than others, some of them serve as environmental indicators when they show the effects that modify their development and produce physiologycal and morphologycal changes.
At the present time the environmental problems have been increased, in agreement with the demand of the population, for this reason is responsibility of the general society and the industry to try to solve or to decrease these problems. This article is dedicated to discussing the advances in the phytoremediation area. The use of plants to solve these problems represent a first passage towards that aim. The plants could remedy some zones that has been affected by contaminating substances, this is what is known as phytoremediation. In this context the general principles of phytoremediation and their benefits are applied on the ecosystems. This analysis includes different species of plants and polluting substances. Also, the investigations that have been made in this field are mentioned with their main results. Many years ago, plants like rice, maize, and Arabidiopsis sp. have been used as models, nevertheless also some investigations had been taken with other types of plants, to be able to determine if these plants influence the polluting agents and if their genes are induced or suppressed. The main objective of phytoremediation is to decrease the contamination present in an specific place. Some species of plants have a higher capacity to accumulate polluting agents than others, some of them serve as environmental indicators when they show the effects that modify their development and produce physiologycal and morphologycal changes.
Antibiotic effluents from farming and medical applications into waterways pose serious risks for antibiotic drug resistance, promoting a need for effective strategies of removal from the environment. This experiment uses a novel mycoremediation approach to remove antibiotic contamination in synthetic wastewater. A white rot fungus, Ganoderma lucidum, was grown on biomass formed by agricultural waste from California (almond shells, fava bean stalks). Water containing or lacking Ganoderma lucidum was inoculated with twenty antibiotics from six different classes. The extent of antibiotic removal was measured at baseline and after 3 days with ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass-spectrometry. In water containing Ganoderma lucidum mycelial biomass, we found a significant reduction compared to the baseline of the concentration in six (three quinolones and three sulfonamides) out of twenty tested antibiotics by Day 3, with normalized changes ranging from -24.4% to -82.4%. The mycelial biomass was particularly effective in reducing the presence of three quinolone antibiotics, a class of highly used antibiotics recalcitrant to processes in wastewater treatment plants. Our findings provide a novel approach to degrade certain antibiotics from water. This strategy could become a key component of removing antibiotic pollution using agricultural waste as part of the solution.
Air pollution is a major cause of concern globally. The origin of airborne pollutants is attributed to the industrial revolution and large‐scale use of fossil fuels. There are numerous evidences from epidemiologic research on the adverse effects of air pollutants on human health, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, lung cancer, premature mortality. Current mitigation strategies focus mostly on specific technical measures and are not sufficient to meet the challenges posed by the deteriorating environment. Despite several measures undertaken cities like Delhi are severely polluted throughout the year. Ambient air pollution is composed of a high variety of pollutants, mainly including particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) like benzene, formaldehyde, and inorganic pollutants (NO x , SO 2 , O 3 ). Many of these outdoor air pollutants are also found indoor, in concentrations that often can be higher than the outdoors. Phytoremediation is an effective plant‐based, environmentally friendly biotechnology to remediate indoor and outdoor air pollutants. Plants are known to scavenge significant amounts of air pollutants via processes like phytostabilisation, phytoaccumulation, phytodegradation phytovolatilisation, and rhizodegradation. Several plant enzymes such as nitroreductase, dehalogenase, laccase, and peroxidase aid these processes. Plants are known to be associated with symbiotic microbes such as fungi and bacteria that alleviate abiotic and biotic stresses in them and enhance their growth. Plant–microbe mutualism also plays an important role during phytoremediation by degrading, detoxifying, or sequestrating the pollutants. Plants and associated microorganisms maintain biodiversity and ecological sustainability of urban green infrastructures, and studies on this symbiosis are imperative for human health and environmental sustainability. The incorporation of green areas comprising plants remediating air pollution among concrete jungles would have a substantial positive influence on the health of urban dwellers. In cities, the uses of plants improve the microclimate and alleviate side effects of climate change, for example, by blocking excessive sun radiation during summer. In addition, plants can also be exploited to intensively reduce carbon footprint by absorbing CO 2 and provide long‐term carbon sequestration. Phytoremediation of air pollutants is still an emerging concept and the potential and suitability of individual species for specific pollutants require basic as well as applied research. The selection of the plant–soil–microbe system would vary depending on the abiotic factors of the region. Phytoremediation is a slow removal process, hence attempts should be made to combine it with other remediation strategies to achieve enhanced rates of decontamination. Policies must be executed to incorporate urban forestry with city planning, particularly for the rapidly urbanising cities of the developing world.
The draft genome sequences of two Sphingobium strains that are hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) degraders are presented. The strains were isolated from HCH-contaminated soil in Kitengela, Kenya. Both genomes possess the lin genes responsible for HCH degradation and gene clusters for degradation of other xenobiotic compounds.
We present the draft genome sequence of Fusarium equiseti strain K3, a fungus isolated from a hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH)-contaminated soil (Kitengela, Kenya). The 37.88-Mb draft genome sequence consists of 206 contigs, 12,311 predicted protein-coding sequences, and 261 tRNA sequences.
Exponential upsurge in the global population growth rate claims sustainable means to fulfill their food requirements. Therefore, the collaboration of beneficial microorganisms with their host plants have been of interest for years as these associations can be helpful in the development of sustainable agriculture. However, the endophytic microorganisms develop a strong and persistent interaction with the host plants compared to epiphytic microbes. The origin of plant-associated endophytes was supposed to be from seeds as the endophytic microbes were found inside seeds of several plant species although, endophytes do not necessarily come from seeds only but can also enter the roots or other parts during plant growth. In any case, the richness of seed with the microbes and their dynamics can edify innovative research potentials in the field of plant-microbe associations. Yet, the seed microbiome is often underrepresented in plant microbial studies and is least studied up till now compared to phyllospheric or rhizospheric microbial population. The revival of exploring the seed micro-biome is stimulating new insights related to the dynamics and diversity of seed microbiome along with their interconnectedness with the soil and plant microbial community as well as the microbes associated with polli-nators and dispersers. This review is an effort to acknowledge the research on seed associated microbial community including bacteria and fungi. It focuses on ecology of seed microbiome from sources to diversity, their association with the host plant, and their life cycle including mode of colonization, localization, and transmission. Both the horizontal and vertical means of transmission have been discussed in this paper whereas the significance of vertical transmission for rapid infection of beneficial microbial community to next generations of plants through seeds is emphasized. Moreover, the applications of seed endophytes for growth promotion of plants, as biocontrol agents and in phytoremediation are discussed. Finally, the association of seed endophytes with seed quality is linked.
One of the influential environmental quandaries facing the world today is the pollution of soil due to industrialization and extensive utilization of pesticides in agriculture. With the ascending population of the world and daily life demands supplied through industries and modern industrialized agricultural systems, the desideratum for the preservation of soil is frequently reported. A congruous, cost-efficacious, and ecologically responsible method of clean up of the contaminated soil is “myco-remediation,” which appropriates fungi to degrade toxic pollutants in an efficient practical approach. Although, bioremediation by bacteria has received the attention of researchers, the role of mushroom has been less studied. The faculty of fungi to transform the polluted soil by hazardous chemicals has aroused the interest of researchers to utilize them for bioremediation. Mushrooms are among nature’s most puissant decomposers, secreting vigorous extracellular enzymes, such as manganese peroxidase (MnP), laccase, and lignin peroxidases (LiP). Sawdust, straw, corn cob, etc., are sources of carbon to enhance degradation by living organisms at contaminated sites. White rot fungi have the efficacy in the transformation of pesticides, degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons, and wastes containing lignocellulose in the pulp and paper industry. The mushrooms, including Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, P. tuberregium, P. ostreatus, P. pulmonarius Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor, etc., have been used in bioremediation of polluted soils. Industrial effluent containing cumbersomely hefty metals are the main source of contamination in the environment. Several physicochemical techniques are acclimated to detoxify metal-polluted sites, but biosorption is a cost-efficacious method for the abstraction of toxic metals from the environment. The utilization of fungal biomass as biosorbent for toxic metal remediation has gained much consequentiality and interest as having rapid biosorption as well as desorption efficiency and cost competitiveness. One of the most economical and stable approaches to cope with this vital task is the utilization of the techniques developed through progress in interdisciplinary science, bioremediation. The spent mushroom compost (SMC) is a sustainable, inexpensive, and abundant by-product of the mushroom industry, for analyzing its faculty to fortify the remediation of contaminated soil by a diesel fuel spill. This chapter highlights the studies on the utilization of mushrooms for soil bioremediation.
Abstract
Basidiomycetes are considered to be a remarkable group of fungi as they have exceptional adjustment abilities to live in a wide range of environments including adverse conditions. Basidiomycetes produce several enzymes that are involved in degradation, decomposition, and transformation of wide varieties of both organic and inorganic materials. The plant biomass is composed of cellulose, lignocellulose, and lignin. Their recycling is indispensable for the carbon cycle. Basidiomycetes can exist on various types of plant material in diverse environments, from living and dead trees and forest litter to crops and grasses. They play the key role to decompose plant materials in soils. The basidiomycetes have extremely diverse plant-polysaccharide-degrading capabilities. These enzymes play significant roles in the new bio-economy. For instance, in diverse industries including the biotechnological industry, the demand for ligninolytic enzymes of Basidiomycetes especially from white-rot fungi is growing daily due to their numerous applications. These enzymes have potential applications in a large number of areas, including the agricultural, food, paper, textile, chemical, fuel, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic industrial sectors and more. This ligninolytic system is also crucial in the degradation of numerous xenobiotic compounds which makes them a useful tool for bioremediation purposes. Research on fungal degradation capacities has focused on isolating enzymes for existing and imminent applications, such as for the production of fuels, for the manufacturing of foods, as well as for the environmental management and waste treatment. Moreover, recent genomic studies of Basidiomycete fungi have provided an intense assessment of the degrading potential of wood-degrading, litter-decomposing, plant-pathogenic, xenobiotic compounds degraders, and waste bio-controller basidiomycetes. The review focuses on the wide range of degradation abilities of different Basidiomycetes along with their role in degradation of wood components, toxic and recalcitrant compounds; organic pollutants, various dyes, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals products, and pesticides.
The fungi-based technology, wild-Serbian Ganoderma lucidum (WSGL) as myco-alternative to existing conventional microbial-based wastewater treatment is introduced in this study as a potential alternative treatment. The mycoremediation is highly persistent for its capability to oxidatively breakdown pollutant substrates and widely researched for its medicinal properties. Utilizing the non-hazardous properties and high degradation performance of WSGL, this research aims to find optimum conditions and model the mycoremediation treatment design for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Ammonia Nitrogen (AN) removal in domestic wastewater via response surface methodology (RSM). Combined process variables were temperature (⁰C) (Model 1) and the volume of mycelial pellets (%) (Model 2) against treatment time (hour). Response variables for these two sets of central composite design (CCD) were the removal efficiencies of COD (%) and AN (%). The regression line fitted well with the data with R2 values of 0.9840 (Model 1-COD), 0.9477 (Model 1-AN), 0.9988 (Model 2-COD) and 0.9990 (Model 2-AN). The lack of fit test gives the highest value of Sum of Squares equal to 9494.91 (Model 1- COD), 9701.68 (Model 1-AN), 23786.55 (Model 2-COD) and 13357.02 (Model 2-AN), with probability F values less than 0.05 showing significant models. The optimum conditions were established corresponding to the percentage of COD and AN removal obtained were 95.1% and 96.3%, accordingly at the optimum temperature 25°C at the treatment time of 24 h, meanwhile 0.25% of mycelial pellet with 76.0% and 78.4% COD and AN removal, respectively. The high performance achieved demonstrates that the mycoremediation of G. lucidum is highly potential as part of the wastewater treatment system in treating domestic wastewater of high organic loadings.
Synthetic dyes are a complex of aromatic molecules that possess coloration and are employed in many industries such as textile, leather, paper and pulp, plastics, food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, etc. Based on the structural variation, different types of dyes such as azo, anthraquinone, reactive, triphenylmethane, acidic, basic, neutral, disperse, direct dyes, etc., are available and used in various industries. These dyes are released into the environment as effluents without proper treatment. These dyes are toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic, which affects life. They are resistant to conventional wastewater methods such as precipitation, filtration, and absorption. In the current scenario, enzymatic treatment is a most favorable approach to process these dyes because of its low energy cost and more ecofriendly nature. Peroxidases (EC1.11.1.x) are the heme-containing oxidoreductase enzymes that catalyze the H2O2-dependent oxidation of a variety of substrates such as dyes, small organic compounds, inorganic compounds, etc. Heme-containing peroxidases were initially classified into plant peroxidases and animal peroxidases. Subsequently, they were classified into various superfamilies on the basis of phylogenetic analysis: peroxidase-catalase, peroxidase-chlorite dismutase, peroxidase cyclooxygenase, di-heme peroxidase, and haloperoxidase. A new category of peroxidase was recently proposed, known as the family of dye-decolorizing (DyP-type) peroxidase. DyPs are the novel heme proteins that are structurally unrelated to other classical peroxidases. According to the PeroxiBase database, DyPs are categorized into four classes: A, B, C, and D. DyPs are receiving significant attention due to their stability in acidic conditions. Biochemical and mutational studies of DyPs have contributed to understanding the catalytic mechanism and role of amino acids in the enzyme catalysis. Furthermore, the structural and biophysical characterization of DyPs and comparative studies unveiled the substrate-binding sites, including the δ-site, the γ-site, and the surface-exposed redox-active residues; these sites are reported in other heme peroxidases also. DyPs have shown potential applications for the degradation of a wide range of dyes as well as lignin and β-carotene degradation. Therefore, DyPs are being used as a biocatalyst in industrial biotechnology. Further, protein engineering studies can be applied to increase the substrate-binding site and to enhance the degradation potential toward different substrates.
Previous studies have shown that a lignin-degrading system appears in cultures of the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium in response to nitrogen starvation, apparently as part of secondary metabolism. We examined the influence of limiting carbohydrate, sulfur, or phosphorus and the effect of varying the concentrations of four trace metals, Ca, and Mg. Limitation of carbohydrate or sulfur but not limitation of phosphorus triggered ligninolytic activity. When only carbohydrate was limiting, supplementary carbohydrate caused a transient repression of activity. In carbohydrate-limited cultures, ligninolytic activity appeared when the supplied carbohydrate was depleted, and this activity was associated with a decrease in mycelial dry weight. The amount of lignin degraded depended on the amount of carbohydrate provided, which determined the amount of mycelium produced during primary growth. Carbohydrate-limited cultures synthesized only small amounts of the secondary metabolite veratryl alcohol compared with nitrogen-limited cultures. l-Glutamate sharply repressed ligninolytic activity in carbohydrate-starved cultures, but NH(4) did not. Ligninolytic activity was also triggered in cultures supplied with 37 muM sulfur as the only limiting nutrient. The balance of trace metals, Mg, and Ca was important for lignin degradation.