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Making Meaning in the Wake of Trauma
Abstract
The chapter introduces some of the central themes in the empirical and clinical literature on reconstructing meaning after trauma. A certain number of especially resilient people may adjust almost seamlessly to extremely negative events in their lives, whereas many others find that the presuppositions about self and world that sustained them in the past have now been undermined. Their efforts to make new meanings in the wake of trauma involve a wide range of interpretive and strategic operations, from trying to explain how and why the trauma occurred (sense making) to construing personal benefits from adversity. In the most successful outcomes, posttraumatic growth entails constructing a redemptive story around personal trauma and integrating that story within a broader, self-defining life narrative. Making meaning out of trauma through life narration is as much a social phenomenon as a personal one, and it is decisively shaped by culture.
... Calhoun, 2013c;Pak, 2019;Frounfelker et al., 2020). In such instances, there appears to be an irreconcilable rupture in one's conception of the world, and the failure to mend it may manifest in the intrusive thinking that produces the unexpected waves of grief mentioned prior (Calhoun, 2013b;Steger et al., 2015;McAdams and Jones, 2017;Pak, 2019;Milman et al., 2020). Second, to accommodate the meaning of suffering, individuals may shift their global meaning beliefs in a manner that makes negativity the predominant feature (Park et al., 2012;Gerrish et al., 2014;Gerrish and Bailey, 2020), as in the adoption of cynicism or existential nihilism. ...
... Second, the aforementioned threats to cognitive global meaning may also hamper one's eudaimonic motivations toward purpose (Park, 2008). Global meaning beliefs, in addition to providing coherent understandings of the world, also include prescriptive beliefs from which one may derive goal-oriented purpose in life (e.g., that one should help the sufferings of others) (Koltko- Rivera, 2004;Martela and Steger, 2016;McAdams and Jones, 2017;Park and Kennedy, 2017). To cast one's global meaning beliefs into doubt may therefore produce the aimlessness and avolition characteristic of "languishing" (Keyes, 2002). ...
... As an example, self-transcendent experiences from spending time in nature have been connected to a drive for prosocial behaviors due to feelings of greater connectedness with the world (Castelo et al., 2021). Likewise, the prescriptive values entailed in selftranscendent cognitive beliefs comprise the goals and purpose that compel self-transcendent motivations (Koltko- Rivera, 2004;McAdams and Jones, 2017). As an outcome of one's cognitive religious beliefs, as noted prior, one may have a strong motivation to serve others (e.g., Krause and Bastida, 2011). ...
Suffering is inevitable in human life. Our perspective paper theorizes on precise mechanisms for how self-transcendence—the state in which an individual looks beyond the self and adopts a larger perspective including concern for others and the world—may help people endure the experience of suffering. From an examination of empirical literature ranging from social psychology to clinical research, we propose that self-transcendence may aid the endurance of suffering along three psychological levels: (1) On the level of affect, the unique profundity and positivity of self-transcendent experiences (e.g., awe, flow, compassion) may supersede and reduce the salience of negative affect arising from suffering (e.g., fear, despair, depressive mood). (2) On the level of cognition, the larger frame of reference provided by self-transcendent thinking may contextualize one’s suffering as something comprehendible, thereby helping to resolve the challenges of making meaning from suffering (e.g., that one’s existing meaning systems are unable to explain the suffering event). (3) On the level of motivation, the drive to fulfill one’s need for self-transcendence may counterbalance the more hedonically-oriented motivations that can promote negative coping strategies in response to suffering (e.g., avoidance, substance abuse). All three mechanisms may also provoke downstream prosocial behaviors that help embed the individual into networks of social support. Altogether, by synthesizing specific mechanisms from affective, cognitive, and motivational self-transcendent processes, our paper establishes a theoretical framework for how self-transcendence may help people endure and transcend suffering, thereby elevating the conditions and experiences of our existence.
... successfully make meaning of violent loss through re-storying. Essentially, they formulate a redemptive narrative of loss and integrate that narrative into a changes sense of the world and self; the new narrative of loss becomes a defining aspect of the post-trauma self (McAdams & Jones, 2017). These postulations are consistent with Park's (2020) contention that M-M can involve a revisioning of the components of one's global meaning system, such as goals and sense of life purpose. ...
... Reconstruction of self and identity change have also been identified as forms of M-M (Gillies & Neimeyer, 2006). McAdams & Jones (2017) stressed that some survivors lead to complicated grief through difficulty accepting the loss, finding meaning in the event, and remaining connected to one's higher power (Menzies et al., 2020;Captari et al., 2021). ...
... Like survivors in previous studies, many found meaning making to be insurmountable when focused on the pursuit of comprehensibility (Sales et al., 2013), but achievable through the pursuit of significance (Joseph & Linley, 2005). Participants sought significance through the re-storying of their narratives of loss (McAdams & Jones, 2017), as well as through identity change (Gillies & Neimeyer, 2006) and an exploration of the implications of the murder for the way one lives life (Joseph & Linley, 2005). Participants also characterized M-M after homicide as an action-based process focused on highly prioritized goals (Armour, 2003;Bailey et al., 2013;Menzies et al., 2020). ...
Homicide survivors struggle, often long-term, with a crisis of meaning that can complicate grief and undermine healing. This manuscript provides a magnification of Stage 3 of the Theory of Post-Homicide Spiritual Change (Theory of PHSC), a three-stage grounded theory of healing after homicide among 30 homicide survivors, developed by Johnson and Zitzmann (A grounded theory of the process of spiritual change among homicide survivors. OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 81(1), 37–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222818755285). Stage 1 of the Theory of PHSC occurs in the early aftermath of a murder and is characterized by a state of shock and disintegration of survivors’ belief systems. In Stage 2, survivors undergo an indefinite and stagnating process of grappling with a crisis of meaning. Some survivors eventually shift into the third stage of healing that is a focus of this manuscript. Abandoning their unanswered questions, they shift into a mode of making meaning focused on creating significance through intentional action. By providing a magnification of Stage 3 of the Theory of PHSC, this manuscript yield in-depth insights that can be used to help social work practitioners and other helping professionals harness the healing potential of meaning-making grounded in action and support survivors in regaining a sense of renewal and forward momentum in their lives.
... The Issue of "Natural" Recovery from Traumatic Experiences One basic ethical concern associated with medical interventions is the question of who should receive the treatment. As long as prognostic indicators of the development of psychological disorders such as PTSD in the immediate aftermath of trauma are not fully developed, MMTs that rely on intervention within the consolidation window take the risk that the patient will be deprived of the opportunity to attempt recovery from trauma on his or her own through an appeal to rational capacities, for example via the construction of a redemptive story to promote posttraumatic growth [95]. 11 On the other hand, as some MMTs (e.g., propranolol, optogenetics) have the potential to modify even well-consolidated memories, this opportunity may reduce the above ethical concern through the introduction of legal regulations mandating that only memories contributing to the development of a particular trauma are to be treated (see also [53]). ...
... The nature of the human mind is such that often the most plausible target of optogenetic erasure comprises traumatic yet self-defining memories, since traumas often play a critical role in forming personal identity [95,107]. Furthermore, traumatic memories may also play a role in shaping the personality; for instance, those who experienced childhood trauma were shown to exhibit greater empathy than those who did not [108]. ...
Optogenetics is an invasive neuromodulation technology involving the use of light to control the activity of individual neurons. Even though optogenetics is a relatively new neuromodulation tool whose various implications have not yet been scrutinized, it has already been approved for its first clinical trials in humans. As optogenetics is being intensively investigated in animal models with the aim of developing novel brain stimulation treatments for various neurological and psychiatric disorders, it appears crucial to consider both the opportunities and dangers such therapies may offer. In this review, we focus on the memory-modifying potential of optogenetics, investigating what it is capable of and how it differs from other memory modification technologies (MMTs). We then outline the safety challenges that need to be addressed before optogenetics can be used in humans. Finally, we reexamine crucial neuroethical concerns expressed in regard to other MMTs in the light of optogenetics and address those that appear to be unique to the memory-modifying potential of optogenetic technology.
... характеристику адаптації, тобто аспект особистості, який контекстуалізується в межах конкретної ситуації (McAdams [12]); процес, за допомогою якого люди використовують здатність справлятися з викликами та новими обставинами ( Murthy, [14]); як вольовий психічний стан, що забезпечує зв'язаність ресурсів у складних ситуаціях життя і сприяє формуванню відповідної особистісної риси, яка сприяє ефективній адаптації і особистісному росту у подальшому житті (Односталко, [2]); ...
... Rolą pamięci autobiograficznej jest tworzenie unikalnych historii danej jednostki, które nadają poczucie własnej wartości i tożsamości [94]. Tworzenie adaptacyjnych narracji życiowych może z kolei wspierać proces zdrowienia po traumatycznym doznaniu [95]. Z zagadnieniem pamięci autobiograficznej wiąże się również konstrukt bilansu życiowego, który może zwiększać prawdopodobieństwo pojawienia się pozytywnych zmian po traumie [96]. ...
The aim of the research review was to attempt to link reports on post-traumatic growth with the assumptions
of V.E. Frankl’s existential analysis and logotherapy. An attempt was made to establish theoretical coherence
between the findings of research on post-traumatic growth and on the basic constructs of logotheory – sense
of meaning, spirituality, making meaning.
The concepts of stress and trauma were clarified, indicating diagnostic criteria for the main post-traumatic
disorders. Models of post-traumatic growth were distinguished, with particular emphasis on elements that
emphasise the importance of the noetic (spiritual) sphere. Key issues related to vicarious posttraumatic
growth are identified. The main assumptions of existential analysis and logotherapy are discussed. Research
on noetic constructs in the context of post-traumatic growth is reviewed. Theories that use logotheoretical
terms in trauma research were highlighted. The importance of further research on post-traumatic growth was
highlighted, taking into account the need to improve research tools. The need to avoid a reductionist attitude
in psychotherapeutic practice and to take into account the noetic sphere of human functioning was pointed out.
Keywords: post-traumatic growth, logotherapy, noetic sphere
... Thus, her traumatic experiences constitute her self-defining memories. It is not unique since traumas are often critical in forming one's identity 12 [83,84]. It should be noted that the crucial role of trauma in the process of identity formation is of great importance in the context of the ethics of therapeutic use of MMT, because in the most likely situations in which such interventions would take place, i.e. in the case of traumas, identityrelated memories are the target of modification. ...
For nearly two decades, ethicists have expressed concerns that the further development and use of memory modification technologies (MMTs)—techniques allowing to intentionally and selectively alter memories—may threaten the very foundations of who we are, our personal identity, and thus pose a threat to our well being, or even undermine our “humaneness.” This paper examines the potential ramifications of memory-modifying interventions such as changing the valence of targeted memories and selective deactivation of a particular memory as these interventions appear to be at the same time potentially both most promising clinically as well as menacing to identity. However, unlike previous works discussing the potential consequences of MMTs, this article analyzes them in the context of the narrative relational approach to personal identity and potential issues related to autonomy. I argue that such a perspective brings to light the ethical aspects and moral issues arising from the use of MMTs that have been hidden from previously adopted approaches. In particular, this perspective demonstrates how important the social context in which an individual lives is for the ethical evaluation of a given memory-modifyingintervention. I conclude by suggesting that undertaking memory modifications without taking into account the social dimension of a person’s life creates the risk that she will not be able to meet one of the basic human needs—the autonomous construction and maintenance of personal identity. Based on this conclusion, I offer some reflections on the permissibility and advisability of MMTs and what these considerations suggest for the future.
... Some of the most affecting stories of redemption come from the worlds of medicine and psychotherapy (Adler, Skalina, & McAdams, 2008;McAdams & Jones, 2017). In these narratives of recovery, protagonists overcome physical or mental illness, addiction, abuse, or other disruptions in health, often against fearsome odds. ...
Prior research has shown that midlife adults who construct highly redemptive life narratives tend to exhibit high levels of generativity and psychological well-being. What researchers today describe as the redemptive self, therefore, serves as a strong model for living a good life among many midlife American adults. In late life, however, and in certain other contexts, narratives that showcase the power of acceptance, rather than redemption, may prove more suitable as good life stories. In narratives of acceptance, the protagonist aims to come to terms with life and the inevitability of loss and suffering, to reconcile conflict, manage (rather than overcome) adversity, and sustain interpersonal bonds of intimacy and warmth. Narratives of acceptance may nourish valued human characteristics like grace, humility, and wisdom. Converging ideas regarding narratives of acceptance may be found in the literatures of narrative gerontology and disability studies, and from writings on the salutary effects of internalizing tragic narratives in psychotherapy and promoting social interventions designed to alleviate pain and promote well-being under conditions of significant constraint.
... The latter can play a central role in the self-narrative and drastically shape the trajectory of one's life. Moreover, acknowledging, understanding, and finding meaning in sufferings can be crucial to cope with them and to develop a self-narrative that helps to navigate the world [93,94]. However, actions can be selfdefining on a further level compared to passive experiences. ...
The potential of memory modification
techniques (MMTs) has raised concerns and sparked
a debate in neuroethics, particularly in the context
of identity and authenticity. This paper addresses the
question whether and how MMTs influence authenticity.
I proceed by drawing two distinctions within the
received views on authenticity. From this, I conclude
that an analysis of MMTs based on a dual-basis, process
view of authenticity is warranted, which implies
that the influence of MMTs on authenticity crucially
depends on the specifics of how memory modification
would eventually work. Therefore, I continue
with a systematic analysis of possible properties of
MMTs in which I distinguish between the dimensions
of memories and the kinds of experiences that can
be modified as well as the properties of the process
of memory modification. The impact of MMTs on
authenticity is analyzed regarding the possible properties
of MMTs and based on a narrative approach to
authenticity which fulfills the requirements of a dualbasis,
process view of authenticity. Lastly, I explore
the potential of MMTs to shift the balance between
self-discovery and self-creation within authenticity
and thereby alter the concept itself as well as the
value of authenticity.
... Some scholars viewed meaning-making as integral to the recovery process and, thus, related to resilience and growth (Altmaier, 2017;Herman, 2015;McAdams & Jones, 2017;Park, 2010). McAdams and Jones (2017) wrote, "As natural-born storytellers, human beings cannot help but make meaning out of their personal experiences. ...
Many researchers have focused on documenting the consequences of campus sexual assault (CSA), but there is a dearth of research on students' post-assault lived experiences. Specifically, there is a lack of scholarship exploring how student victim-survivors of CSA may view, understand, resist, or experience resilience as they navigate their post-assault life on campus. The purpose of this conceptual paper is to explore the question, "How is resilience described and defined in the literature of CSA?" To respond to this question, I explore other related but distinct concepts that appear in the literature around resilience, including posttraumatic growth, meaning-making, and recovery. Although the focus is on CSA literature, I also include scholarship broadly related to trauma, as well as related populations and topics, given the limited research specific to resilience and CSA. Finally, I briefly introduce two theoretical perspective that have informed and guided the conceptualization of this paper, including socio-ecological and intersectional feminist theoretical perspectives. This conceptual paper and discussion of resilience was a result of preparation for my doctoral dissertation study in social work that aimed to explore the phenomenon of resilience among undergraduate students who had experienced CSA, through a qualitative inquiry that used post-intentional phenomenological methods.
... She even established and worked at a full-time job at an anti-bullying organization. Therefore, Elizabeth's memories of being victimized can be very plausibly categorized as her self-defining memories (see section Psychology of memory)-which seems to be even more probable given that traumatic experiences can play a critical role in forming identity (Kolk, 2014;McAdams & Jones, 2017;Wilson, 2006). According to Pugh, Maslen and Savulescu's model, (i) a person is authentic as far as intervention-induced elements of the self-and most importantly, values-can be grounded by coherence with other long-standing, cohering and rationally intelligible elements of her character (personality) system. ...
There has been a growing interest in research concerning memory modification technologies (MMTs) in recent years. Neuroscientists and psychologists are beginning to explore the prospect of controllable and intentional modification of human memory. One of the technologies with the greatest potential to this end is optogenetics-an invasive neuromodula-tion technique involving the use of light to control the activity of individual brain cells. It has recently shown the potential to modify specific long-term memories in animal models in ways not yet possible with other MMTs. As the therapeutic potential of optogenetics has already prompted approval of the first human trials, it is especially important and timely to consider the opportunities and dangers this technology may entail. In this article, we focus on possible consequences of optogenetics as an MMT by analyzing fundamental threats potentially associated with memory modifications: the potential disruption of personality and authenticity.
... Research in modern developmental psychology reveals that people commonly seek to derive lessons from their negative experiences in order to make sense of those experiences and to spur personal growth after trauma (McAdams, 2013). Such stories show post-traumatic growth and have been repeated throughout human history and culture; redemptive narratives are traceable, for example, back to elements in Judeo-Christian traditions, Buddhist beliefs, and ancient Greek mythology (McAdams & Jones, 2017). ...
A new online program, The Student Resilience Project (https://strong.fsu.edu), explores how institutions can effectively communicate health and resilience information to students. We investigated one key element of a pilot version of this program, specifically its use of video-based “restorative narratives,” which depict college students overcoming adversity using institutional resources. We proposed a theoretical model, which is supported by data from a survey completed by undergraduate students (n = 229) who viewed the videos. Results suggest that perceptions of restorative narratives can directly predict students’ behavioral intentions, including their intention to seek resources and to share content with other students. Perceptions of restorative narratives also influenced behavioral intentions indirectly via their influence on meaningful affect and outcome expectations, including the belief that advice and resources would help them and others. Based on the model, we offer evidence-based suggestions for web-based prevention programs.
Narrative processing of difficult life experiences Constructive narrative processing of negative personal events is an important condition for coping with the event and achieving an optimal psychological state. The aim of this study is to provide an overview of research on narrative processing of difficult life events, both from the perspective of the partial processes involved and from the perspective of integration into the context of the overall life story and autobiographical reasoning. Some of the most common constructs that are examined in relation to adaptive narrative processing include exploratory narration, positive resolution (including redemptive sequences), agency, communion and coherence. An equally fruitful perspective on narrative processing offer qualitative studies of narrative construction. „Dobrý“ životní příběh nevyhnutelně obsahuje i negativní nebo těžké životní zkušenosti. Typické ve vyprávění o těchto zážitcích jsou silné negativní emoce jako zklamání, bezmoc, zoufalství, ztrácí se „předvídatelný a bezpečný svět“ a často přichází dramatická změna nebo bod obratu v životě. Příběhy o těžkých událostech mají také větší pravděpodobnost, že budou vyprávěny. Cílem této studie je podat přehled výzkumů narativního zpracování negativních životních událostí, a to jak z hlediska dílčích procesů, které se na tomto zpracování podílejí, tak i z pohledu začlenění události do kontextu celkového životního příběhu a procesu autobiografického zdůvodňování. Konstruktivní narativní zpracování negativních osobních událostí je důležitou podmínkou pro zvládnutí události a dosažení optimálního psychického stavu. Strukturování negativních událostí do narativní formy, a to jak vyprávěním, tak také psaním, umožňuje kromě jiného integraci a lepší regulaci emocí, konsolidaci stop autobiografické paměti, lepší porozumění proběhlé situaci a otevírá také možnost přehodnocení, změny perspektivy, popřípadě také posttraumatického růstu.Mezi nejčastější konstrukty, které jsou zkoumány v souvislosti s narativním zpracováním, patří tzv. explorativní vyprávění, konstrukce pozitivního řešení, aktérství a koherence. Neméně plodný pohled na narativní zpracování nabízejíkvalitativní studie narativní konstrukce.
How do residents of small towns that depend on oil and gas extraction or processing industries withstand economic boom and bust cycles? To answer this question, this article reports on a narrative analysis of residents’ life stories gathered from 37 adults of a small town on the Canadian prairies dependent on the oil and gas industry, employing the theories of narra- tive inquiry and narrative identity. Participants aged 30 to 76 were interviewed and their experiences of living in an unstable economy that is dependent mostly on a single resource extraction industry were explored. Specifically, we asked participants about the effect of economic change on factors related to resilience like family interactions, work choices, educational path- ways, and the quality of their social lives. Our analysis of adult narratives looked for patterns in the relationship between risk exposure, promotive and protective factors at multiple systemic levels (individual, relational, cultural), and functional outcomes such as individual coping, community cohesion, and social and economic sustainability. Results show that a strong identity, in particular expressions of personal agency, communion, and engagement in meaning making are contributing factors to adult resilience in a context of economic change. Our results also highlight how positive attitudes towards a better future may inadvertently undermine the need for residents of oil and gas-dependent towns to commit to economic diversi- fication and other potential resilience-promoting strategies.
Narrative identity is a person's internalized and evolving life story, integrating the reconstructed past and imagined future to provide life with some degree of unity and purpose. In recent studies on narrative identity, researchers have paid a great deal of attention to (a) psychological adaptation and (b) development. Research into the relation between life stories and adaptation shows that narrators who find redemptive meanings in suffering and adversity, and who construct life stories that feature themes of personal agency and exploration, tend to enjoy higher levels of mental health, well-being, and maturity. Researchers have tracked the development of narrative identity from its origins in conversations between parents and their young children to the articulation of sophisticated meaning-making strategies in the personal stories told in adolescence and the emerging adulthood years. Future researchers need to (a) disentangle causal relations between features of life stories and positive psychological adaptation and (b) explore further the role of broad cultural contexts in the development of narrative identity.
Generativity is an adult's concern for and commitment to promoting the well-being of future generations. Analyzing lengthy life-narrative interviews of late-midlife adults, we examined the extent to which a particular kind of life story is empirically linked to self-report measures of generativity and other indices of psychosocial adaptation in midlife. The results showed that highly generative adults are significantly more likely than their less-generative counterparts to construe their lives as variations on a prototypical redemption narrative, wherein the story's protagonist (a) enjoys an early advantage in life, (b) exhibits sensitivity to the suffering of other people, (c) develops a clear moral framework, (d) repeatedly transforms negative scenes into positive outcomes, and (e) pursues prosocial goals for the future. The psychological and cultural features of redemptive life stories are considered, as are the problems and potentialities of life-narrative research in psychological science.
© The Author(s) 2015.
A critical feature of many undesirable life events is that they often shatter the victim's perception of living in an orderly, meaningful world. Many authors have suggested that following such outcomes, the search for meaning is a common and adaptive process. This paper explores the validity of that claim by considering data from a recent study of 77 adult women who were victimized as children: survivors of father-daughter incest. In the process, several central questions regarding the search for meaning are addressed. How important is such a search years after a crisis? Over time, are people able to make sense of their aversive life experiences? What are the mechanisms by which individuals find meaning in their negative outcomes? Does finding meaning in one's victimization facilitate long term adjustment to the event? Finally, what are the implications of an inability to find meaning in life's misfortunes?
Making meaning out of negative experiences is one of the primary psychological challenges in the wake of adversity. Much of the empirical attention that psychologists have paid to meaning making has focused on personal hardships, but national tragedies similarly pose a challenge to meaning making. In the present study, which is grounded in the theoretical tradition of the narrative study of lives, a nationally representative sample of 395 adults wrote accounts about the 9/11 terrorist attacks approximately 2 months after 9/11. Accounts were coded for 3 narrative themes: closure, redemption, and contamination. Psychological well-being was significantly related to accounts that were high in closure and national redemption and, among those more directly exposed to the attacks, accounts high in redemptive imagery. Psychological distress was significantly related to accounts that were low in closure and high in themes of personal contamination. Understanding the narrative styles that characterize personal accounts of political events has important ramifications for the study of the socially embedded individual.
The discovery of benefits from living with adversity has been implicated in psychological well-being in numerous investigations, is pivotal to several prominent theories of cognitive adaptation to threat, and can be predicted by personality differences. This article summarizes the prevalence and adaptive significance of finding benefits from major medical problems, locates the place of benefit-finding in stress and coping theories, and examines how it may be shaped by specific psychological dispositions such as optimism and hope and by broader personality traits such as Extraversion and Openness to Experience. The distinction between beliefs about benefits from adversity (benefit-finding) and the use of such knowledge as a deliberate strategy of coping with the problem (benefit-reminding) is underscored and illustrated by daily process research on coping with chronic pain.