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The relationships between parental conditional regard and adolescents’ self-critical and narcissistic perfectionism
Abstract
Studies show that the development of perfectionism in adolescence is associated with psychologically controlling parenting. The current study extends research in this area by examining the relationship between a specific aspect of psychologically controlling parenting, parental conditional regard, and two dimensions of perfectionism, self-critical perfectionism and narcissistic perfectionism. Three hundred and sixteen adolescents (M age = 15.69 years, s = 1.23) completed a standardised questionnaire. Structural equation modelling revealed that both self-critical perfectionism and narcissistic perfectionism were positively predicted by parental conditional regard. Our findings are the first to suggest that parent socialization characterised by guilt inducement and love withdrawal may be common to the development of these two distinct dimensions of perfectionism.
... Felismerve azt, hogy már a serdülők körében igen nagy a perfekcionisták aránya, és a perfekcionizmus főként maladaptív formája számos területen és helyzetben (pl. tanulmányi teljesítmény, társas kapcsolatok, iskolai érvényesülés) nehezíti a serdülőkorúak életét, az elmúlt években jelentősen megnőtt azoknak a kutatásoknak a száma, amelyek a perfekcionizmus kialakulásának okait, formáit, életkori sajátosságait, valamint más jellemzőkkel való kapcsolatát vizsgálják (Curran et al., 2017). Az is jól látható, hogy -többnyire a kutatási adatokhoz kapcsoltan, azokra támaszkodva -egyre több programot (pl. ...
... A nemzetközi kutatások alapján a lányok körében magasabb a perfekcionisták aránya, illetve a magas tanulmányi eredményeket elváró iskolákban is több a perfekcionista diák, ami a perfekcionizmusra való hajlam mellett az iskola mint komplex környezeti tényező (pl. hagyományok, elvárások) erős befolyásoló szerepére hívja fel a figyelmet (Curran et al., 2017). ...
... A perfekcionisták harmadaugyancsak mind a két életkorbana maladaptív perfekcionizmus jellemzőivel bír. Ők irreálisan magas elvárásoknak akarnak megfelelni, gondolkodásuk feketefehér (valami vagy tökéletes, vagy teljesen rossz, legtöbbször nincs a kettő között átmenet), félnek a hibázástól, ami gyakran szorongással jár együtt, nehezítve társas kapcsolataik működését és a nehéz, problémás helyzetekkel való megküzdést (Curran et al., 2017). A különböző kognitív feladatok és társas helyzetek megoldásának helyességén való gyakori aggodalmaskodás, az önmagukban való kételkedés, a hibázástól való félelem együttesen hosszú távon az önbizalom csökkenéséhez vezet, aminek hatására egyre gyakrabban kerülik el, illetve halogatják azokat a helyzeteket, amelyekben felelősen dönteniük kellene (Park et al., 2010). ...
Felismerve azt, hogy már a serdülők körében igen nagy a perfekcionisták aránya, és a perfekcionizmus főként maladaptív formája számos területen és helyzetben (pl. tanulmányi teljesítmény, társas kapcsolatok, iskolai érvényesülés) nehezíti a serdülőkorúak életét, az elmúlt években jelentősen megnőtt azoknak a kutatásoknak a száma, amelyek a perfekcionizmus kialakulásának okait, formáit, életkori sajátosságait, valamint más jellemzőkkel való kapcsolatát vizsgálják (Curran et al., 2017). Az is jól látható, hogy – többnyire a kutatási adatokhoz kapcsoltan, azokra támaszkodva – egyre több programot (pl. Antony, 2015) dolgoznak ki a perfekcionizmusból fakadó hátráltató tényezők csökkentése, illetve az életvezetésre pozitív hatással bíró jellemzőinek megerősítése érdekében. A hazai és a nemzetközi kutatások alapján a perfekcionizmus és a szorongás közötti kapcsolat jól ismert (pl. Chang et al., 2004), ám a társas problémák megoldása és a perfekcionizmus egymáshoz való viszonyáról keveset tudunk, és hazai kutatást ezzel kapcsolatban még nem végeztek. Mindezekből fakadóan az ebben a tanulmányban ismertetett kutatás célja a perfekcionizmus és a szociálisprobléma-megoldás serdülőkori (11-12 évesekre és 16-17 évesekre jellemző) kapcsolatának elemzése volt, bevonva a szorongást is, mivel ennek szerepe a szociálisprobléma-megoldás egyes formáinak megjelenésében szintén jelentős mértékű (Chang et al., 2004; Kasik, 2015).
... On previous dimensions, Gaudreau and Thompson (2010) have created a 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Figure 1), where they have differentiated four categories: nonperfectionism (low personal standards, low evaluative concerns), maladaptive perfectionism (low personal standards, high evaluative concerns), adaptive perfectionism (high personal standards, low evaluative concerns) and mixed perfectionism (high personal standards, high evaluative concerns). In young people's sporting performance, perfectionism is seen as a predictor of adaptation and psychological well-being when figures in the sporting context (e.g., coaches or parents) and themselves focus their efforts on how to realistically achieve the proposed goals and provide appropriate support [13][14][15][16]. In contrast, perfectionism predicts psychosocial maladjustment when the environment is contradictory (e.g., different rules of behavior at home and in the sports context) or too much rumination or low emotional self-regulation are part of the beliefs of athletes [16,17]. ...
... In young people's sporting performance, perfectionism is seen as a predictor of adaptation and psychological well-being when figures in the sporting context (e.g., coaches or parents) and themselves focus their efforts on how to realistically achieve the proposed goals and provide appropriate support [13][14][15][16]. In contrast, perfectionism predicts psychosocial maladjustment when the environment is contradictory (e.g., different rules of behavior at home and in the sports context) or too much rumination or low emotional self-regulation are part of the beliefs of athletes [16,17]. Thus, when the approval and affection received by a competing athlete is conditioned by the attainment of unrealistic goals or performance standards, associations with emotional difficulties and self-esteem linked to dysfunctional thoughts have been found [2,17]. ...
... A minimum distance perceived between the "ideal self" and the "real self" results in healthy self-esteem. In this process of comparison, self-criticism manifests a radical importance, In young people's sporting performance, perfectionism is seen as a predictor of adaptation and psychological well-being when figures in the sporting context (e.g., coaches or parents) and themselves focus their efforts on how to realistically achieve the proposed goals and provide appropriate support [13][14][15][16]. In contrast, perfectionism predicts psychosocial maladjustment when the environment is contradictory (e.g., different rules of behavior at home and in the sports context) or too much rumination or low emotional self-regulation are part of the beliefs of athletes [16,17]. ...
Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality trait characterized by effort and rigidity in setting high personal standards, accompanied by an excessive tendency toward critical assessments, which plays an important role in cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functioning. During adolescence, personality is built on a fundamental pillar—self-esteem—which plays an important role in sports practice when it comes to achieving the best possible performance. Anger has an emotional component that, interpreted in an unadaptive way, interferes with sports performance. The aim of this study is to assess differences according to self-esteem and perfectionism indicators and anger expression and management in young athletes. The sample included 229 male athletes to the quarries of professional sports with ages between 13 and 17 years. They were administered the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory for Children and Adolescents, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, and a socio-demographic questionnaire. Predictive analysis showed that low personal standards and high levels of organization (indicators of adaptive perfectionism) acted as predictors of state anger, while those showing high personal standards predicted high anger management in athletes with high self-esteem. High personal standards predicted lower indicators of trait anger in athletes with low self-esteem. The results revealed the influence of high self-esteem as a protective factor in the predictive relationship among anger traits and personal standards. The study describes the relationship of these variables in the belongings of young male footballers (under high sport pressure), showing the need to take care of the athletes’ self-esteem in sport environments through prevention programs that include psychological and social resources training systems.
... Perfectionism has increased substantially in emerging adults over the past generation (Curran and Hill 2019). There is now ample evidence showing that the roots of perfectionism may be found in the family of origin via various parenting practices and family environment factors (Curran et al. 2017;Gong et al. 2016). ...
... Parental conditional regard may also promote rigid and stressful coping, and either feeling overwhelmed by, or suppressing, negative emotions in offspring (Assor and Tal 2012;Roth and Assor 2012). This is a maladaptive form of parental psychological control that also appears to be one of several pathways to perfectionism (Curran 2018;Curran et al. 2017). Flett et al. (2002) have termed this the social expectations pathway to perfectionism. ...
... In turn, anxious rearing and conditional regard are each predicted to be positively associated with perfectionism in emerging adults. Prior research (e.g., Appleton and Curran 2016;Curran et al. 2017) and theory (e.g., Flett et al. 2002) have identified both parenting practices as potential antecedents to perfectionism. The amalgamation of these two predictions leads to a hypothesized indirect effect of family cohesion on perfectionism in emerging adults though lower levels of parental anxious rearing and conditional regard. ...
Objectives
Perfectionism is a potentially maladaptive personality trait that is associated with dysfunctional family of origin parenting practices. In this research, a structural model was tested in which family cohesion was predicted to have indirect effects on perfectionism in emerging adults though anxious parenting and parental conditional regard.
Methods
The model was tested on a sample of 257 emerging adults attending universities in the U.S.A. Participants completed survey measures of perfectionism, their parents’ anxious parenting and conditional regard, and several indicators of family cohesion.
Results
The results supported the hypothesized indirect effects, consistent with the anxious rearing and social expectations theoretical pathways to perfectionism. Specifically, family cohesion was negatively associated with both anxious rearing and conditional regard, each of which were in turn positively associated with perfectionism.
Conclusions
The findings suggest that perfectionism in young adults is linked with low levels of family cohesion that coexist in a network of dysfunctional parenting practices.
... Extant evidence suggests narcissistic perfectionism is a psychometrically sound construct. Narcissistic perfectionisms' indicators (i.e., other-oriented perfectionism, grandiosity, entitlement, and high standards for others) reliably cluster across studies (Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017;Nealis, Sgerr, Lee-Baggley, Stewart, & Macneil, 2016) and over measures (e.g., Smith, Saklofske, Stoeber, & Sherry, 2016). Narcissistic perfectionism is also highly stable . ...
... In addition, the structure of narcissistic perfectionism replicates using both self-and informant reports (Nealis et al., 2016). Accordingly, research supports narcissistic perfectionism's factorial validity, temporal stability, and convergent validity (Curran et al., 2017;Nealis et al., 2015Nealis et al., , 2016Smith, Sakofske et al., 2016). Nealis et al. (2015) also demonstrated narcissistic perfectionism positively predicted daily derogation and daily conflict, even after controlling for perfectionistic concerns. ...
... Nonetheless, as an emerging construct, only one study has investigated narcissistic perfectionism' developmental antecedents. Curran et al. (2017) reported a positive association between parental conditional regard and narcissistic perfectionism in a large sample of adolescents. Yet, clearly parental conditional regard is only one of a myriad of factors involved in the development of narcissistic perfectionism and, as such, there remains much to learn. ...
Over 100 years of theory, research, and clinical observations suggest perfectionism is a defining feature of the way narcissists' think, feel, and behave. Our chapter first offers a comprehensive review of how trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation relate to the two core themes of narcissism: narcissistic grandiosity and narcissistic vulnerability. We conclude that narcissistic grandiosity has unique positive relationships with self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., demanding perfection from the self), other-oriented perfectionism (i.e., demanding perfection from other people), and perfectionistic self-promotion (i.e., promoting one's supposed perfection) and a unique negative relationship with non-display of imperfection (i.e., concern over behavioral displays of imperfection). Likewise, we conclude that narcissistic vulnerability has unique negative relationships with socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., perceiving others demand perfection), perfectionistic self-promotion, and non-display of imperfection. Next, we provide an overview of an emerging construct termed narcissistic perfectionism, using Armand Hammer's life as a case example. Overall, the literature reviewed suggests narcissistic perfectionism is a promising theory-driven and empirically supported construct. Additionally, our case history of Armand Hammer describes a man who believed he was perfect and justified in demanding and expecting perfection from his family, friends, and co-workers (i.e., a narcissistic perfectionist). Lastly, we highlight exciting and important areas for further inquiry on narcissistic perfectionism.
... This is plausible and congruent with the finding that parents with high CCSE are perceived to promote extrinsic goals in their children . Therefore, PACNR is widely understood as a parenting tactic to pursue socialization goals related to academic achievement (Assor et al., 2004;Assor et al., 2014;Assor et al., 2020;Curran et al., 2017). ...
... The literature mostly defines conditional regard as a socialization strategy, including the idea that parents (consciously or unconsciously) pursue a long-term socialization goal with their parenting (Assor et al., 2014;Assor et al., 2020;Curran et al., 2017). In terms of operant conditioning, parents may use conditional negative regard to punish low performance, for example, to enhance the child's school engagement. ...
Parents whose self-esteem is contingent on their children’s achievements tend to exert more control over their children by displaying decreased affection and regard after failure in school (parental academic conditional negative regard). The current study examined parental anger and dysregulated anger expression as possible mechanisms in the respective association. In total, 221 mothers reported their child-invested contingent self-esteem, habitual dysregulated anger expression, anticipated anger after child failure, and their explicit use of conditional negative regard; their 12- to 14-year-old adolescent children reported perceived conditional negative regard. The moderated mediation analysis revealed that anger after child failure partially mediated the effect of child-invested contingent self-esteem on maternal explicit use of conditional negative regard, which, in turn, predicted adolescents’ perception of conditional negative regard. The effect of anger was moderated by dysregulated anger expression, and anger was only positively related to conditional negative regard when expressed as medium- to highly-dysregulated. The results support our hypotheses and provide an explanation for parental application of conditional negative regard apart from socialization goals or a lack of knowledge about its suboptimal nature. Furthermore, our results underscore the importance of parents’ self-esteem concerns and strategies for anger regulation. We discuss the practical implications of an anger-driven, reactive type of conditional regard.
... Accordingly, children learn to set themselves excessive standards and become preoccupied with the avoidance of mistakes because doing so helps evade feelings of guilt and shame (Hamachek, 1978). In support of this theorizing, research reports large relationships between perceived controlling parent socialization, including conditional regard, and dimensions of perfectionism (e.g., Curran, 2018Curran, , 2017Soenens et al., 2008). ...
... In this analysis, the two exogenous variables (parent reported self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism), the mediator variable (child reported parent conditional regard), and the two endogenous variables (child reported self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism) were modelled using manifest variables derived from their estimated unstandardized latent factor scores. To control for potential gender differences in the provision of conditional regard (e.g., Curran et al., 2017), we included parent gender as an exogenous variable in the model. Path modeling was considered the most suitable analytic approach because of the relatively small sample size permitted by the nature of our data collection (i.e., parent-child dyads), and the necessity of a minimum case to parameter ratio for coefficient stability (5:1; Kline, 2015). ...
Theory and research indicate that perfectionism can be intergenerationally transmitted by, among other things, social learning (e.g., parental imitation) and controlling forms of parental socialization. The current study extends this literature by combining and testing these ideas in a mediation model whereby child reported self-oriented and socially prescribed is the result of both parent reported self-oriented and socially prescribed per-fectionism and child perceptions of parental conditional regard. One hundred and fifteen parent-child dyads (parent Mage = 46.93 years, SD = 5.41; child Mage = 14.11 years, SD = 1.87) completed a standardised questionnaire. Path analysis revealed that child self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism were positively predicted by parent self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and that these relationships were accounted for, in part, by child perceptions of parental conditional regard. Our findings indicate that combining social learning and parent socialization perspectives provide a fuller understanding of the intergenerational transmission of perfectionism.
... Specifically, parental conditional regard has been linked to adolescents' introjected regulation which-much like conditions of worth-is a rigid and compulsive form of non-self-determined motivation to act a certain way in order to avoid feelings of shame (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Introjected regulation derived from parental conditional regard has, in turn, been found to predict short-lived satisfaction and grandiosity following success, shame and devaluation following failure, reward-contingent motivation, a-motivation or avoidance of challenges, dysfunctional emotion regulation, and fluctuations in self-esteem (e.g., Assor & Tal, 2012;Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017;Roth et al., 2009). Related to sport, Curran et al. (2017) found that perceived parental conditional regard correlated with female adolescents' self-critical and narcissistic perfectionism in their sport. ...
... Introjected regulation derived from parental conditional regard has, in turn, been found to predict short-lived satisfaction and grandiosity following success, shame and devaluation following failure, reward-contingent motivation, a-motivation or avoidance of challenges, dysfunctional emotion regulation, and fluctuations in self-esteem (e.g., Assor & Tal, 2012;Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017;Roth et al., 2009). Related to sport, Curran et al. (2017) found that perceived parental conditional regard correlated with female adolescents' self-critical and narcissistic perfectionism in their sport. ...
Within Rogers’ (1959) person-centered theory, unconditional positive regard (UPR) is considered a key construct for cultivating optimal development and psychological functioning, while its opposite constructs—conditional regard, unconditional negative regard, and unconditional positive disregard—are suggested to undermine these processes. Through a basic interpretive qualitative study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015), we aimed to explore retired elite figure skaters’ perceptions of and experiences with UPR and its opposites in their relationships with former coaches. In this article, we address participants’ experiences of the opposites of UPR (conditional regard, unconditional negative regard, and unconditional positive disregard) from their former coaches. Qualitative content analysis procedures (Schreier, 2012) resulted in five dimensions relative to these constructs: (1) Conditional Regard, (2) Unconditional Negative Regard, (3) Unconditional Positive Disregard, (4) Perceived Influence of the Opposites of UPR, and (5) Power and Coach Regard. Results point to participant reports of learning to regard themselves in the same way their coaches regarded them—positively, negatively, or not at all, with or without conditions. Experiences of the opposites of UPR in coach-athlete relationships were, in turn, reported to undermine participants’ trust in their coaches, detrimentally impact their motivation and performance in figure skating, and influence their development of conditional self-regard, negative self-regard or self-disregard.
Lay Summary: In this article, we discuss retired elite figure skaters’ experiences with the opposites of UPR—conditional regard, unconditional negative regard, and unconditional positive disregard—in their relationships with former coaches. Participants’ reported that these experiences had detrimental effects on trust for their coaches, motivation, performance, and self-regard.
... To sum up, all revised DEQs have shortened the items list and used a unit-weighted scoring method. While the DEQ-A was specifically revised for adolescents, other short versions have also been widely employed for this age group (e.g., Curran et al., 2017;Kopala-Sibley et al., 2017). However, research on the psychometric properties of the short DEQs in adolescents has been notably lacking. ...
Background: Adolescence involves a period of swift change, including the development of personality vulnerabilities (i.e., dependency and self-criticism) that act as transdiagnostic factors to psychopathology. Over the past several decades, numerous short revisions have condensed the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) into more efficient measures of personality vulnerability. Prior research has investigated the psychometric properties of the short DEQs in adult and clinical samples. However, there has been insufficient exploration within adolescents, who are in addition marked by fluctuating personality vulnerabilities.
Method: A representative large sample of adolescents and emerging adults in China aged 10 to 25 (N = 23953) was administered five short DEQs, including the Revised DEQ (RevDEQ), Reconstructed DEQ (RecDEQ), Theoretical DEQ-21/12 (TDEQ- 21/12) and adolescent DEQ (DEQ-A). The data was evaluated for internal consistency and criterion-related validity, while factor structure and measurement invariances across gender and age groups were analyzed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). A subset of the original sample (N = 2874) was retested after six months and analyzed for test-retest reliability and cross-time invariance.
Result: CFA of the TDEQ-21/12 and RecDEQ supported the intended two-factor model. Good criterion-related validity, internal consistency and test-retest reliability for these three versions were found. Satisfying measurement invariances across gender, time, and age groups were established.
Limitation: The study’s scope was confined to non-clinical adolescent populations within China, highlighting a gap in cross-cultural and clinical applicability. Conclusion: The present study supports the use of the TDEQ-21/12 and RecDEQ as valid and concise instruments for measuring Chinese adolescent personality vulnerability.
... Parental expectations are thus transformed into compelling self-evaluation standards: children judge that their personal value is equal to their ability to meet these standards (Assor et al., 2004Harter, 2012). In this way, conditional regard would conduct to the development of self-esteem that is contingent on meeting the standards set by others (Assor et al., 2004;Kollat, 2007;Curran et al., 2017;Øverup et al., 2017;Curran, 2018;Otterpohl et al., 2021) which is, according to various authors, weak and unstable (Leary and Baumeister, 2000;Crocker and Wolfe, 2001). Finally, because children may interpret parents' pressure to behave in a specific way as their lack of confidence in their child' ability to behave correctly on their own, this can arouse negative emotions toward the parents. ...
To feel unconditional love and acceptance from parents is a need which fundamental character is widely recognized. This article presents the results of a longitudinal study which first objective is to identify trajectories of change in perceived parental support conditional on academic success over a 5-year period. The second objective examines whether students’ gender, mental ability, and parental education predict membership in the trajectories and the third examines whether students’ academic functioning differs according to their membership to different trajectories 1 year later, when they were in Secondary 5. A sample of 776 students (371 males) reported their perception of conditional parental support yearly from grade 6 to Secondary 4. In Secondary 5, they answered a questionnaire on their academic motivation, self-regulation, test anxiety and intention to drop out. Teachers also reported their perceptions of the participating students’ academic motivation and self-regulation and rated their academic performance. Results of latent class growth analysis (LCGA) shows that the most optimal model identified three patterns of change in students’ perceptions of their parents’ conditional support. Students’ gender, mental ability, and parental education do not predict membership in trajectories. Results of the BCH procedure indicate that whether self-reported or teacher-reported, the academic functioning of students in the low perceived conditional support trajectory was superior to that in the other two trajectories. These results add evidence that parents can have a long-term impact on children’s academic functioning and underscore the need to educate parents about the importance of avoiding associating their support and regard with their child’s academic performance.
... Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct related to setting exceedingly high standards of performance, accompanied by stressful and rigid engagement (Curran, 2017). Children of conditionally regarding parents may push themselves to meet very high standards and feel a sense of failure when not fully meeting these standards because they may have a fantasy that they will be fully and unconditionally accepted if they meet such standards. ...
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a broad theory of psychological growth and wellness that has revolutionized how we think about human motivation and the driving forces behind personality development. SDT focuses on people’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness and how social environments that support these needs foster more volition, vitality, and full functioning. SDT has supplied the basis for new and more effective practices in parenting, education, business, sport, healthcare, and other areas of life, fostering higher-quality motivation, engagement, and satisfaction. Drawing on over four decades of evidence-based research and application, The Oxford Handbook of Self-Determination Theory delivers a truly integrative volume by the top researchers and experts within the field of SDT. Edited by SDT co-founder Richard M. Ryan, this Handbook not only provides the theory’s historical and scientific underpinnings but also draws together the latest research and insights, covering topics from the social and biological underpinnings of motivation and wellness to practical applications in all aspects of life. This volume will be an invaluable resource for both researchers and practitioners, as well as any student of human nature, with practical research and guidance.
... Parents' report of using conditional support related to the child's poorer motivation and academic functioning (Côté et al., 2014;Gonida et al., 2009;Roth et al., 2009;Soenens et al., 2010) while youths' perception of conditional parental support related to negative self-evaluation bias of one's competence (Côté & Bouffard, 2011). Other studies related perception of conditional support to focus on outcomes rather than learning, test anxiety, a rigid and stressful mode of coping (Assor & Tal, 2012;Otterpohl et al., 2019;Roth et al., 2009), negative perfectionism (Curran & Hill, 2022;Curran et al., 2017Curran et al., , 2020Mendi & Eldeleklioglu, 2016), higher risk for lower persistence on challenging tasks, disengagement from school, and positive attitudes towards dropping out (Itzhaki-Braun et al., 2018;Roth et al., 2009;Smiley et al., 2020). ...
The entry of students into middle school constitutes a life transition that involves adaptive challenges at the psychological, academic and social levels. The provision of autonomy support and avoidance of controlling tactics by parents can be effective resources to help the students through this transition. The purpose of the present study was twofold: (1) to identify distinct profiles of parenting support of autonomy and of control, and (2) to examine whether membership to these profiles relates to students’ school adjustment once in middle school. Latent profile analysis served to analyze data collected from a sample of 672 students in the spring of their sixth grade and one year later at middle school. Results revealed a three-class model of parenting: Autonomy Centered group (67%), Control Centered group (8.0%), Autonomy/Control Balanced group (25%). School adjustment was poorest for students whose parents belong to the Control Centered group and generally the highest for those whose parents belong to the Autonomy Centered group.
... The findings indicated that there was also a significant positive relationship between grandiose narcissism and maladaptive perfectionism. This finding is supported by recent studies, which were carried out on adolescents (Curran et al., 2017;Farrell and Vaillancourt, 2019). The finding would have been explained by the nature of the adolescence period. ...
It seems quite interesting that during adolescence anxiety levels can spiral out of control. This is due to several factors; one of the possible determinants is personality traits such as narcissism. Contrary to high selfesteem being a predictive factor of mental health, narcissism needs selfesteem in order to be beneficial for a person. Therefore, as two factors of personality traits, self-esteem and narcissism need to be distinguished from each other. Narcissistic individuals try to meet their affirmation needs by setting perfectionistic goals and significant relationships between perfectionism dimensions and anxiety has been revealed in the related literature. Using a structural equation modeling, this study investigated the mediation role of perfectionism dimensions in the relationships between grandiose narcissistic personality trait and trait anxiety when self-esteem was controlled. A sample of 338 adolescents (192 females, 146 males, mean age = 15.84 years, SD = 1.01) from five high schools participated in the study. The participants completed the instruments including the Demographic Information Form aimed to gather personal information, the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale, the trait anxiety dimension of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Child and Adolescents Perfectionism Scale, and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory. Findings revealed that adaptive perfectionism mediated the relationship between grandiose narcissism and trait anxiety when self-esteem was controlled. This study indicates that practitioners working with adolescents should focus on interventions, which aimed to decrease perfectionistic tendencies of adolescents.
... Unlike children with high selfesteem levels, children with high narcissism levels assume that others value them only when they live up to others' expectations of them (Tracy et al., 2009). Children with high narcissism levels tend to believe that others value them conditionally (Assor & Tal, 2012;Curran et al., 2017), and they tend to be insecurely attached (Menon et al., 2018). Unsurprisingly, these children often employ strategies to elicit positive social evaluations (Grapsas et al., 2020;Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). ...
A common belief is that narcissism is a manifestation of high self-esteem. Here, we argue that self-esteem and narcissism are fundamentally distinct and have unique early physiological indicators. We hypothesized that children predisposed to narcissism would show elevated, whereas children predisposed to high self-esteem would show lowered, physiological arousal in social-evaluative contexts. We tested this in a prospective study including 113 children, who were first assessed at age 4.5, a critical age when children begin evaluating themselves through others' eyes. At age 4.5, children sang a song in front of an audience while being videotaped. Children's physiological arousal (skin conductance, heart rate, and heart rate variability) was assessed while children anticipated, performed, and recovered from the singing task. At age 7.5, children's narcissism and self-esteem levels were assessed. Consistent with our predictions, children predisposed to higher narcissism levels showed elevated skin conductance levels during anticipation. Their skin conductance levels further rose during performance (but less so than for other children) and failed to return to baseline during recovery. By contrast, children predisposed to higher self-esteem levels showed lowered skin conductance levels throughout the procedure. The effects emerged for skin conductance but not heart rate or heart rate variability, suggesting that arousal was sympathetically driven. Effects were larger and more robust for self-esteem than for narcissism. Together, these findings uncover distinct physiological indicators of narcissism and self-esteem: Narcissism is predicted by indicators reflecting early social-evaluative concerns, whereas self-esteem is predicted by indicators reflecting an early sense of comfort in social-evaluative contexts.
... Moreover, narcissism also positively directly predicted antisocial behaviors for both teammates and opponents (Jones et al., 2017). The interaction between narcissism, moral disengagement, and antisocial behavior suggests there is merit in examining perfectionism, moral disengagement, antisocial behaviors, and perfectionism as elements of narcissism in it (Curran et al., 2017). Finally, we should acknowledge that our assessment of altruism is the only nonsport-specific construct in our model. ...
Two forms of perfectionism were examined in the present study to see whether they predicted prosocial and antisocial behaviors in sport through moral disengagement and altruism in a sample of 327 wheelchair basketball and rugby athletes ( M = 33.57 years, SD = 10.51; 83% male). Using structural equation modeling, the following significant direct and indirect effects were found. First, perfectionistic strivings positively predicted perceived prosocial behaviors and altruism. Second, perfectionistic concerns negatively predicted altruism and prosocial behaviors and positively predicted moral disengagement. Third, antisocial behaviors were positively predicted by moral disengagement and altruism. Furthermore, perfectionistic concerns indirectly predicted antisocial behaviors positively through moral disengagement and negatively through altruism. Finally, perfectionistic strivings positively predicted antisocial behaviors through altruism. Results provided partial support for the role of perfectionism in predicting prosocial and antisocial behaviors through moral disengagement among athletes with a disability.
... Participants responded on a 5-point scale from 1 'strongly disagree' 8 PERFECTIONISM AND SOCIAL COMPARISON to 5 'strongly agree'. The BTPS has good psychometric support, including in research 1 with adolescents (e.g., Curran et al., 2017). 2 ...
This study tests whether perfectionism is a vulnerability factor for distress among female adolescents in the context of appearance-focused social comparison and use of social media. We hypothesized that perfectionism predicts greater depressive symptoms and lower body appreciation following appearance-focused upward social comparisons. One-hundred and thirty-five female adolescents (Mage = 14.70 years, SD = 0.46) completed measures of rigid and self-critical perfectionism once, and depressive symptoms, body appreciation, and appearance-focused upward social comparison once a week for four weeks. Self-critical perfectionism positively predicted depressive symptoms and negatively predicted body appreciation. Self-critical perfectionism also interacted with appearance-focused upward social comparisons to predict greater depressive symptoms and lower body appreciation. No effects emerged for rigid perfectionism. Findings suggest self-critical perfectionism may be an important vulnerability factor for female adolescents following appearance-focused social comparison when using social media.
... Previous studies have highlighted how PCR has a wide range of detrimental effects on child and adolescent development. Both forms of PCR can cause introjected internalization of parents' expectations, increase the child's internal stress, diminish well-being (for an overview, see Assor et al., 2014), and increase the risk of self-regulation failures (e.g., Curran et al., 2017) and the development of internalizing and externalizing problems such as aggressive behaviors, negative emotions, anxiety, and depression (e.g., Otterpohl et al., 2019). ...
The important role of parenting is widely acknowledged, but as most studies have understood and examined it as a stable attribute (e.g., parenting style), the stability of and changes in parenting are less well understood. Using longitudinal person-oriented approaches (i.e., latent profile analyses and latent transition analyses), this study aimed to examine the stability of and changes in autonomy-related parenting profiles and their effects on adolescents’ academic and psychological development. Four autonomy-related dimensions (i.e., autonomy support, warmth, psychological control, conditional regard) were chosen to identify parenting profiles on the basis of Self-Determination Theory. Using five-year longitudinal data from 789 German secondary school students (50.06% female, Mage at T1 = 10.82 years, age span = 10–17), four autonomy-related parenting profiles were found: Supportive (~ 17%), Controlling (~ 31%), Unsupportive-Uncontrolling (~ 17%), and Limited Supportive (~ 35%). The results suggest that the Supportive profile contributes to adolescents’ positive academic and psychological development, whereas the Controlling
profile, which thwarts autonomy development, exacerbates the development of psychopathology, and impairs academic achievement. More importantly, the Limited Supportive profile is as maladaptive as the Unsupportive-Uncontrolling profile. Regarding parenting profiles’ stability and changes, the results showed that about half of each profile stayed in the same group. Overall, it could be observed that parents became more supportive and less controlling over time. However, the findings also indicate that parenting profiles are less stable than expected and can still change during early-to-mid adolescence.
... First, conditional material rewards or material punishments may convey that the parents' concern for the children is conditional because only when they perform well will they receive material rewards; otherwise, they will be punished accordingly. Research has found that conditional concern can positively predict adolescents' narcissistic perfectionism (Curran et al., 2017). One explanation could be that children pursue perfection in order to be accepted by their parents, and they even worry that "I will not be loved unless I am perfect and omnipotent", which may develop defensive arrogance and form a narcissistic personality (Kernberg, 1975). ...
Although material parenting is a very common parenting style in China, it has received little attention from researchers, and thus far, only one study has demonstrated that early material parenting fosters materialism in adulthood. However, whether early material parenting promotes materialism in adolescents remains unknown. Therefore, this research aimed to examine the relationship between material parenting and materialism and the underlying mechanisms among Chinese adolescents by conducting two retrospective surveys. A pilot study was first designed to test the recall bias and parent-child rating agreement on a small sample of child-parent dyads (N = 222) using a pairing questionnaire. The results showed that there was no significant systematic error that may affect the relationship between the variables and revealed a high rating agreement between children and parents on material parenting. Then, a formal study investigated the relationship between material parenting and materialism among a larger sample of adolescents (N = 1173) and examined the mediating role of overt narcissism. We found that both conditional material rewards and unconditional material rewards positively predicted materialism, and overt narcissism played a mediating role in the relationship. Our findings indicate that early material parenting may lead to children’s overt narcissism and subsequently foster their materialistic values in adolescence.
... Increasingly, the study of personality in sport is occupying relevant importance in the quality of scientific explanations, contemplated within a multifactorial and complex context. Both for leisure, health, and performance-oriented, the mediating force of personality emerges in studies connecting cognitive and emotional skills with addictive behaviors in sport (e.g., perception of external criticism has been found to be an important predictor for identifying negative processing, as current studies have shown) (Curran et al., 2017;Manley et al., 2018). ...
The present work tries to describe the relationships among perfectionism, dark traits of personality, and exercise addiction and according to highly intense sports. Following research on perfectionism in sport, its dysfunctional facet is based on a continuous and negative cognitive-evaluative judgement about the difficulties to achieve the accomplishment of tasks or behaviors that improve their sport performance, describing how athletes configure altered thoughts or cognitive resources in their sport experiences. The Spanish versions of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Short Dark Triad Scale, and the Exercise Addiction Inventory were applied in a sample of 462 Spanish amateur athletes (39.6% women and 60.4% men). The findings show that a more maladaptive perfectionist pattern (concern over mistakes and external criticism) is related to higher levels of dark personality traits and a greater risk of exercise addiction. However, there are no differences between runners and CrossFit users on the subject of perfectionism, dark traits, and exercise addiction scores.
... Studies concerned with the development of perfectionism in athletes revealed the role of parents through different pathways instill perfectionism in their children (Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017). ...
We are all going through a difficult period, called into question by so
many questions: the COVID 19 pandemic. Without a doubt, this pandemic has had
and still has many implications both in the personal life of each of us and in our
professional life. In addition to the fact that this virus affects our health,
professional life has also been put to the test. The education system was not
bypassed by challenges, therefore this period proved to be extremely demanding,
with many implications on the instructive-educational activity. Preschool
education has not been exempted from the impact of the changes that have
occurred as a result of the outbreak of the pandemic. Teachers in the preschool
education system have faced many difficulties in terms of teaching in the group.
The instructive-educational process suffered in the context of the pandemic, being
many variables to consider: the age peculiarities of preschoolers, the ways in
which the teaching activities can be carried out through the platforms, the quality
of the educational act through them, the lack of training of the teachers in this
respect, the availability of parents to be able to supervise the preschooler during
the synchronous online activities, etc. The present study presents the results of
the application of a questionnaire addressed to teachers in preschool education,
on the territory of Romania, which highlights the implications of the pandemic on
the instructive-educational process in kindergarten.
... Studies concerned with the development of perfectionism in athletes revealed the role of parents through different pathways instill perfectionism in their children (Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017). ...
Literature indicates a strong relationship between narcissism and
perfectionism, however, there is little information about this relationship in
sports, and even less regarding the way gender affects this relationship. Our
paper aims to answer the following questions, in a sample of 202 Hungarian
physical education students: (i) are there gender differences in narcissism and
perfectionism and how large are these differences?, (ii) how strong is the
relationship between narcissism and perfectionism?, (iii) does this relationship
vary as a function of perfectionism's components?, and (iv) are there any
gender differences in the relationship between narcissism and perfectionism?
Our results indicate that the male participants attained significantly
higher levels of narcissism than the female participants. Furthermore, we
found no significant gender differences in any of the three components of
perfectionism a low to moderate association between narcissism and Self-oriented
perfectionism and Other-oriented perfectionism, while on the entire sample,
narcissism did not correlate with Socially-prescribed perfectionism. Analyzing
this relationship separately in the two genders, our investigation indicates a
moderate association between narcissism and all the three components of
perfectionism only in the case of male participants, these relationships being
non-significant for the female participants. These findings indicate that
narcissism, in this specific population, is just one of the predictors of perfectionism
(and maybe not even the most relevant one). We propose that future studies
should focus on exploring other predictive factors of perfectionisms.
... Their hope in doing so is to help them to become more serious and dedicated students. However, to the extent that the child perceives these interventions as a form of pressure, an attempt at controlling them, or even as a form of conditional support, the actual effect is the opposite: these factors have been repeatedly associated with lowered motivation and well-being (Côté et al., 2014;Curran, Hill & Williams, 2017;Gittins & Hunt, 2019;Otterpohl et al., 2019;Roth et al., 2009). Showing interest in the children academic success and letting them know that we believe they are capable of achieving high grades is not detrimental in itself. ...
The nature of the links between students’ motivation and their perception of parental concern about school performance is still controversial, and whether these links affect long-term self-directed learning behaviors and academic performance remains unclear. We tested the reciprocal associations between parental concern about performance and students’ school motivation over a 3-year period and examined whether these associations predict later self-directed learning behaviors and academic performance. From grade 6 to secondary 2, 744 students (52.2 % girls) completed an annual survey measuring their perception of parental concern about performance and their school motivation. In secondary 3 they reported their academic performance, while teachers rated their self-directed learning behaviors. Results show reciprocal associations of parental concern about performance and school motivation over the 3-year period, and this transactional model predicts students’ self-directed learning behaviors and performance 1 year later. The discussion highlights the important role of parents in promoting the motivation needed for students to become self-directed learners.
... In contrast to PCPR, positive feedback is not experienced as implying a general dependence between the offspring's value and the attainment of certain outcomes. While positive feedback is linked to adaptive outcomes (e.g., Hagger, Koch, & Chatzisarantis, 2015;Mouratidis, Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Sideridis, 2008) and thus should be recommended as a parenting technique, PCPR is likely to evoke maladaptive functioning in children, such as lowered intrinsic motivation, dysfunctional self-regulation, enhanced contingency of self-esteem, or high-school dropout in risk groups (Assor et al. 2004;Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017;Itzhaki-Braun, Itzhaky, & Yablon, 2020;Perrone, Borelli, Smiley, Rasmussen, & Hilt, 2016;Roth, Assor, Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci, 2009). Similarly, PCNR is distinguished from psychological control, which is defined as a manipulative parenting strategy that includes intrusion into the psychological and emotional development of the child in order to get the child to engage in desired behaviors (Barber, 1996). ...
Introduction:
Relations between Parental Conditional Regard (PCR) and children's motivational and emotional functioning have been demonstrated by past research. However, most available studies relied on cross-sectional correlational data, leaving open the causal direction of these relations. In the present article, we sought to contribute to this topic and examined the longitudinal connection between PCR and adolescents' contingent self-esteem (CSE) over time.
Method:
Hypotheses were tested in two longitudinal studies with differently gifted samples of German high school students (N = 188 and N = 202 students, respectively). Data were gathered at three time points in Study 1 and at two time points in Study 2. In both studies, adolescents answered questionnaires regarding positive and negative PCR in the academic domain as well as general CSE (and additionally academic CSE in Study 2).
Results:
Cross-lagged analyses revealed several significant paths from CSE to PCR, and some paths from PCR to CSE, indicating the presumed reciprocal relationship between these constructs.
Conclusion:
Our findings suggest that children high in CSE may lead their parents to engage in PCR and that these effects may be more pronounced than vice versa. Possible reasons for these findings and their implications are discussed.
... First, all negative parenting practices were significantly related to maladaptive perfectionism, which in turn was significantly related to NSSI. These results are similar to those of previous research (Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017;Hibbard & Walton, 2014;Reilly, Stey, & Lapsley, 2016) and in line with Nock's (2010) integrated developmental model. As distal risk factors, negative parenting practices increase the likelihood of engagement in NSSI through maladaptive perfectionism as a proximal risk factor. ...
Background
Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a highly prevalent and serious public health concern among adolescents worldwide, and family experiences are influential in its development. However, the potential mediating mechanisms underlying the relations between childhood experience of negative parenting practices and NSSI are not fully understood. This study tested a mediating model to examine the roles of maladaptive perfectionism and rumination in these relations.
Methods
A total of 5,619 Chinese adolescents (54.7 % males; mean age = 15.92 years, SD = 0.73) participated in this study and completed self-report measures of negative parenting practices, maladaptive perfectionism, rumination, and NSSI.
Results
There were significant positive correlations among negative parenting practices, maladaptive perfectionism, rumination, and NSSI. In the mediation analyses, all negative parenting practices were indirectly related to NSSI via maladaptive perfectionism, while rumination only mediated the relation of maternal overprotection to NSSI. In addition, among all negative parenting practices, maternal rejection was the most closely associated with maladaptive perfectionism.
Conclusion
The findings of the study expand our understanding of the influences of negative parenting practices on NSSI. Clinicians may pay special attention to maternal rejection and focus on adolescents’ maladaptive perfectionism and rumination when interacting with individuals with NSSI.
... Parental responsiveness, particularly the socialization of emotions, is crucial to children's development of emotion regulation, identity and personality (e.g., Curran et al., 2017;Eisenberg et al., 1998). The socialization of cognitions and emotions is considered invalidation when "communication of private experiences [is] met by erratic, inappropriate, and extreme responses… the expression of private experiences is not validated; instead, it is often punished and/or trivialized" (Linehan, 1993, p. 49). ...
Narcissism is a complex personality construct associated with childhood invalidation and self and relational difficulties in adulthood. Research has examined the association between pathological narcissism and childhood invalidation, but not between invalidation and other aspects of the narcissistic spectrum. This study examines how remembered invalidation, aspects of narcissism, and self and relational functioning are associated, and how they relate to overall wellbeing. Australian community participants (N = 291) completed measures of childhood invalidation, narcissism, personality functioning and measures of self-esteem, distress and quality of life. Serial mediation and regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between variables. Results indicated that invalidation and pathological aspects of narcissism were associated with impairment in self and relational functioning, whereas grandiosity predicted higher self-functioning. Impairment in personality functioning was associated with lower quality of life, lower self-esteem, and higher distress. Narcissism was a significant predictor of distress while controlling for personality functioning. The study highlights the impact of remembered invalidation on functioning and the complex relationship between narcissism, functioning and wellbeing.
... Mindez hosszú távon olyan szomatikus panaszokhoz vezethet körükben, mint a fejfájás, feszültség vagy álmatlanság (Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003). A folyamatos nyomás testi és lelki kimerüléshez vezet, a krónikus stressz pedig számos egészségügyi problémát okozhat a későbbiekben (Molnar, Sirois, Flett, & Sadava, 2019), így számos kutatás összefüggésbe hozta már a perfekcionizmust a kiégéssel és a depresszióval (Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017;Kljajic et al., 2017). ...
... One maternal attribute that is associated with poor and/or stressful coping of youth with achievement challenges is parents' use of conditional regard (CR) to promote children's motivation to work hard and achieve (Assor et al., 2004;Assor & Tal, 2012;Curran et al., 2017;Roth et al., 2009;Wouters et al., 2018). The practice of CR involves the provision of more affection and esteem when the child complies with parental expectations, and less affection and esteem when the child does not comply. ...
Based on Self-Determination theory, we examined three hypotheses: (1) mothers’ achievement-oriented controlling behaviour towards their toddlers predicts children’s helpless coping with failure three years later, (2) mothers’ prenatal orientation to use conditional regard (CR) to promote children’s achievements predicts postnatal controlling behaviour, and (3) the effects of mothers’ prenatal CR-orientation and postnatal controlling behaviour emerge also after controlling for the effects of infants’ temperament disposition towards frustration-reactivity. A four-wave study assessed expectant mothers’ CR-orientation (n = 290), their 8-month-old infants’ frustration-reactivity (n = 184), mothers’ controlling behaviour with their 18-month olds (n = 201), and children’s helpless coping with unsolvable puzzles at 54–60 months (n = 200). No systematic attrition effects were detected. Results supported the hypotheses, and, in addition, suggested that prenatal CR-orientation has an indirect effect on preschoolers’ helplessness, via mothers’ postnatal controlling behaviour. The findings suggest that mothers’ achievement-oriented prenatal CR-orientation and postnatal controlling behaviour may be risk factors that can be addressed in early prevention programs.
... So in that regard, [coach] helped me not be scared to be proud." A growing body of literature supports the notion that parental regard is critical for children's development of self-regard (e.g., Curran et al., 2017;Roth et al., 2016). Thus, is not surprising that participants in the current study spoke about the influence of their parents. ...
Rogers’ (1959a) person-centered theory indicates that genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard (UPR) are critical for nurturing psychological development, well-being, and full functioning (i.e., thriving). While genuineness and empathy have been addressed in sport psychology literature as important for optimal coaching, only the opposites of UPR (i.e., conditional regard, unconditional negative regard, and disregard) have been empirically studied in coach-athlete relationships. Thus, we used a basic qualitative research design to explore eight retired elite figure skaters’ experiences and perceptions of UPR in their relationships with former coaches. Data analysis procedures resulted in the construction of three dimensions: Experiences and perceptions of UPR, perceived outcomes of UPR, and UPR as a buffer for conditions from other sources. Results indicate that UPR was perceived by participants through coaches’ unconditional acceptance, respect, engagement, belief in, and challenge of them in times of both failure and success. Participants reported that perceived UPR from their coach meaningfully contributed to their development of positive self-regard, trust in their coach, motivation, and confidence which positively impacted sport performance. Further, participants shared that perceived UPR from coaches buffered their internalization of conditions of worth from parents or cultural norms within figure skating.
Lay Summary: We discuss retired elite figure skaters’ perceptions and experiences of unconditional acceptance, respect, engagement, belief, and challenge in their relationships with former coaches. Participants’ reported that these experiences meaningfully contributed to their development of positive self-regard, trust in their coach, sport motivation, confidence, and performance, and buffered their internalization of conditions of worth from parents or the sport culture at large.
... Likewise, Sapieja, Dunn, and Holt (2011) showed that perceptions of an authoritative/demanding parental style predicted athlete perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. More recently, studies have also shown that athlete perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns are positively correlated with both parental conditional regard (Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017) and perceived parental pressure to be perfect (Madigan, Stoeber, & Passfield, 2015). Mirroring research outside of sport, the social expectations pathway has therefore garnered support in sport. ...
Initial research suggests that parental perfectionism is central to the development of athlete perfectionism. However, it is unclear whether perceived or actual parental perfectionism is most important. The present study aimed to address this issue in two ways. First, we reexamined the predictive ability of actual versus perceived parental perfectionism on athlete perfectionism. Second, for the first time, we tested whether perceived parental perfectionism mediated the relationship between actual parental perfectionism and athlete perfectionism. A sample of 150 junior athletes and their parents completed measures of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns). Junior athletes completed two measures, one of their own perfectionism and one of perceptions of their parents' perfectionism. Parents completed one measure of their own perfectionism. Regression analyses showed that perceived parental perfectionism predicted athlete perfectionism over and above actual parental perfectionism. Mediation analyses provided support for our proposed model. Overall, the findings suggest that both actual and perceived parental perfectionism are important in the development of perfectionism in junior athletes.
... Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017). Unlike external controlling strategies, however, conditional 144 regard is a predominantly internally controlling expression of control. ...
Perfectionism has historically been conceptualised as a personality characteristic – a personal quality of the individual. In this paper, we propose a new conceptualization of perfectionism that focuses on aspects of the social environment that are perfectionistic. Based upon motivational theory, we consider perfectionistic climate to be informational cues and goal structures aligned with the view that performances must be perfect and less than perfect performances are unacceptable. Perfectionistic climate has five components of expectation, criticism, control, conditional regard, and anxiousness. We define and describe each of these components and highlight the similarities and differences between these and existing concepts. We also draw on research that has examined similar concepts to inform our speculation on the possible consequences of perfectionistic climates for the development of perfectionism and its role in intervention work. We believe that the study of perfectionistic climate has the potential to extend perfectionism research considerably and highlights how people can still suffer the consequences of perfectionism through the environment without ever fully internalizing the personal quality themselves.
Key words: perfectionism, personality, social
... Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017). Unlike external controlling strategies, however, conditional 144 regard is a predominantly internally controlling expression of control. ...
Perfectionism has historically been conceptualised as a personality characteristic – a personal quality of the individual. In this paper, we propose a new conceptualization of perfectionism that focuses on aspects of the social environment that are perfectionistic. Based upon motivational theory, we consider perfectionistic climate to be informational cues and goal structures aligned with the view that performances must be perfect and less than perfect performances are unacceptable. Perfectionistic climate has five components of expectation, criticism, control, conditional regard, and anxiousness. We define and describe each of these components and highlight the similarities and differences between these and existing concepts. We also draw on research that has examined similar concepts to inform our speculation on the possible consequences of perfectionistic climates for the development of perfectionism and its role in intervention work. We believe that the study of perfectionistic climate has the potential to extend perfectionism research considerably and highlights how people can still suffer the consequences of perfectionism through the environment without ever fully internalizing the personal quality themselves.
... Evidence suggests narcissistic perfectionism is a psychometrically sound construct. For instance, narcissistic perfectionism's indicators reliably cluster across studies (Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017;Nealis, Sherry, Lee-Baggley, Stewart, & Macneil, 2016;Nealis et al., 2015). Furthermore, the structure of narcissistic perfectionism replicates using both self-and informant reports (Nealis et al., 2016). ...
The Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS; Smith, Saklofske, Stoeber, & Sherry, 2016) is a 45-item self-report measure of perfectionism with three overarching factors: rigid, self-critical, and narcissistic perfectionism. Our objective was to create a brief version of the BTPS, the Big Three Perfectionism Scale-Short Form (i.e., BTPS-SF). Sixteen items were selected and confirmatory factor analysis using a large sample of Canadian university students (N = 607) revealed the BTPS-SF had acceptable model fit. Moreover, the BTPS-SF displayed strong test-retest reliability. The relationships of the BTPS-SF factors with depression, anxiety, stress, emotional intelligence, personality, resiliency, and elements of subjective well-being also suggested adequate criterion validity. Overall, results suggest the BTPS-SF represents an efficient, easily administered, and novel means of assessing multidimensional perfectionism.
... In addition, two studies (McArdle & Duda, 2004;Sapieja, Dunn, & Holt, 2011) found that high parental expectations positively correlated with perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns in adolescent athletes. Similarly, Curran and colleagues (Curran, 2018;Curran, Hill, & Williams, 2017) reported that parental conditional regard positively predicted both perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns in junior athletes. Collectively, these studies provide support for the theoretical propositions of the social expectations pathway as it pertains specifically to the influence of parents. ...
Perfectionism predicts cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in sport. Nonetheless, our understanding of the factors that influence its development is limited. We sought to address this issue by examining the role of coach and parental pressure in the development of perfectionism in sport. Using three samples of junior athletes (16-19 years; cross-sectional: N = 212; 3-month longitudinal: N = 101; 6-month longitudinal: N = 110), we examined relations between coach pressure to be perfect, parental pressure to be perfect, perfectionistic strivings, and perfectionistic concerns. Mini meta-analysis of the combined cross-sectional data (N = 423) showed that both coach pressure and parental pressure were positively correlated with perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. In contrast, longitudinal analyses showed that only coach pressure predicted increased perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns over time. Overall, our findings provide preliminary evidence that coaches may play a more important role in the development of junior athletes' perfectionism than parents.
... Likewise, several studies on perfectionism development in sports are equally suggestive. Curran, Hill, and Williams (2017) recently found that perceptions of parental conditional regard positively predicted adolescent athletes' self-critical perfectionism (viz., perfectionistic concerns). In similar samples, Sapieja, Dunn, and Holt (2011) found that high (but not excessive) parental performance standards were positively correlated with perfectionistic strivings, and Appleton, Hall, and showed that parent socialization characterized by worry was positively associated with perfectionistic cognitions (automatic thoughts involving a desire to be perfect). ...
Despite evidence highlighting the debilitating nature of perfectionism in sport, few studies have examined how it develops. In explaining the development of perfectionism, theorists emphasize controlling parental practices in family contexts replete with conditional regard. This study, then, tested the role of parental conditional regard in the development of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns among adolescent athletes. It also tested the mediating role of competence contingent self-worth in these associations. One hundred and forty-eight (Mage = 15.12 years, SD = 1.64) adolescent athletes competing at the regional level or above in their primary sport completed measures of multidimensional perfectionism, competence contingent self-worth, and parental conditional regard. In line with hypotheses, structural equation modeling showed that perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns were positively predicted by parental conditional regard. As expected, competence contingent self-worth mediated both relationships. The findings are the first to suggest that conditional regard from parents is important in the development of perfectionism among adolescent athletes because these behaviors contribute to contingencies of self-worth that are based on competence.
Bu çalışmada ilköğretim öğrencilerinin problem çözme becerileri ile mükemmeliyetçilikleri arasındaki ilişki araştırılmıştır. Ayrıca bu ilişkinin otoriter çocuk yetiştirme tutumuna bağlı olup olmadığını açıklayabilmek için düzenleyici etkisini ele alan bir araştırma modeli kurulmuştur. Bu araştırmanın bağımlı değişkeni yetişkinlerin problem çözme becerileri (Y) düzenleyici değişkeni ana baba tutumları (W) ve bağımsız değişkeni yetişkinlerin mükemmeliyetçiliktir (X). Araştırma evreni 2022-2023 eğitim öğretim yılında 4, 5, 6, 7 ve 8. Sınıfta öğrenim gören Konya ili Meram ve Selçuklu ilçesinde kaydı bulunan 51 öğrenci ve bu öğrencilerin 102 ebeveynlerinden oluşmaktadır. Araştırmada amaçlı örnekleme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma düzenleyici etkinin anlamlılığını test etmek için bootstrapping yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Katılımcıların problem çözme becerilerini belirlemek amacıyla “İlköğretim Düzeyindeki Çocuklar İçin Problem Çözme Envanteri” mükemmeliyetçilik düzeylerini belirlemek amacıyla “Çok Boyutlu Mükemmeliyetçilik Ölçeği” ana baba tutumunu belirlemek amacıyla “Ebeveyn Tutum Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulgularına göre otoriter ebeveyn tutumunun düşük olduğu durumlarda, orta derecede olduğu durumlarda ve yüksek olduğu durumlarda mükemmeliyetçiliğin problem çözme becerisi üzerindeki etkisi artmaktadır. Bu, düzenleyici değişkenin, her bir durumunda (düşük, orta, yüksek) mükemmeliyetçiliğin problem çözme becerisine olan olumsuz etkisini daha da güçlendirdiğini göstermektedir. Otoriter ebeveyn tutumu arttıkça, bu etkinin daha da güçlenmesi gözlemlenmiştir.
Háttér és célkitűzések
A maladaptív perfekcionizmussal jellemzett serdülők szociálisprobléma-megoldásának egyik igen fontos jellemzője a problémához való negatív viszonyulás, illetve a problémahelyzetből való minél gyorsabb kilépés, ha úgy érzékelik, megoldásuk nem felel meg maximálisan az általuk vagy a környezetük által megfogalmazott elvárásoknak. A kétéves (2021–2022) követéses vizsgálat első mérési pontján 11–12 éves és 16–17 éves diákok (N 2021 = 305, N 2022 = 290) körében vizsgáltuk, milyen arányban fordul elő körükben adaptív és maladaptív perfekcionista, milyen különbség azonosítható kortársakkal kapcsolatos problémáik megoldásában, bevonva az elemzésbe a szorongást is, mivel ennek szerepe az elkerülő viselkedésben és főként a maladaptív perfekcionizmusban jelentős.
Módszer
A szociálisprobléma-megoldás jellemzőit a Social Problem-Solving Inventory–Revised (D’Zurilla és mtsai, 2002), az állapot- és a vonásszorongást a State–Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (Sipos és mtsai, 1978) kérdőívvel vizsgáltuk. A perfekcionizmust az Almost Perfect Scale Revised (Slaney és mtsai, 2001) és az Frost Multidimensiol Perfectionism Scale (Frost és mtsai, 1990) eszközzel tártuk fel, melyekkel együttesen a személyes, a környezettől származó és külön a szülői elvárások, a kételkedés, a hibázástól való félelem, a megfelelés hiányának érzése és a rendezettség, rendszeretet jellemzői azonosíthatók.
Eredmények
Mindkét évben közel hasonló a nem perfekcionisták, az adaptív és a maladaptív perfekcionisták aránya, mely arányok egy év elteltével nem változtak, és mindkét életkorban a perfekcionisták harmada a maladaptív perfekcionizmus jeleit mutatja. A maladaptív perfekcionistákra jellemző legnagyobb mértékben a negatív problémaorientáció és az elkerülő viselkedés, utóbbi – főként az idősebbeknél – a vonás- és állapotszorongással és a szülői kritikával együtt markáns hatással bír a maladaptív perfekcionista diákok személyes elvárásaira és a megfelelés hiányának érzésére.
Következtetések
Ezek az eredmények többnyire alátámasztják a külföldi kutatási adatokat, és arra hívják fel a figyelmet, hogy az iskolai nevelés során mindenképpen szükséges a jelenleginél mélyrehatóbban foglalkozni a perfekcionizmus serdülőkori megjelenésével, felismerésével, okaival, alakulásával és következményeivel, megfelelő pedagógiai eszközökkel segíteni az adaptivitás erősödését, illetve kezelése során figyelembe kell venni más területekkel való kapcsolatát. E longitudinális felmérésből is úgy látszik, a maladaptív perfekcionizmusnak a társas problémák nem hatékony megoldásával és a szorongással is egyre szorosabb a kapcsolata serdülőkorban, mely kapcsolatrendszer kevésbé hatékony életvezetést eredményezhet mind társas, mind teljesítményhelyzetekben.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of emotional harassment and emotion regulation and emotion memory simultaneously on the anxiety attachment variable, as well as to mediate emotion regulation and emotion memory in the relationship between emotional harassment and anxiety attachment. The research method was correlation of structural equations. The statistical population of the study included all students studying in the second semester of Bu Ali Sina University in 1399, which was selected as a cluster using the Cochran's formula of 350 people. Data collection tools were Gross and John Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (2004), Collins and Reed Adult Attachment Style Questionnaire, Rachman Event Processing Questionnaire (2000) and Yar Mohammadi Emotional Harassment Questionnaire (2010) and were distributed through virtual networks. Data analysis method was used using statistical tests of correlation coefficient and regression and to check the fit of the data with the conceptual model, the statistical method of structural equations SEM was used and for data analysis from SPSS24 software, 24AMOS was used. Findings showed that the proposed Sakhnari model has a good fit that all three variables can simultaneously affect anxiety attachment. According to the results obtained from the structural equation model of the research, this model can be used to prevent anxiety attachment due to the simultaneous effectiveness of three variables and also by strengthening emotion regulation strategies and emotional memory to reduce the effects of anxiety attachment.
Under what life conditions do individuals turn to perfectionistic striving and ideals as a solution? The present paper examines how people with perfectionism narrate their relationship to our shared existential vulnerability; that we are vulnerable as human beings, and that the ways we relate to this vulnerability have consequences for psychological health. In the present qualitative study, we explored the life narratives told by nine students with perfectionism, drawing on semi-structured life-story interviews. We conducted an explorative-reflexive thematic analysis and identified five themes: 1) Outside—Feeling Alienated, 2) Relating to Chaos, 3) Trying to Control the Painful and Uncontrollable, 4) Islands of Just Being and Positive Contact, and 5) Heading Toward a Balance Between Doing and Being. Their perfectionism can be seen as a way of handling existential vulnerability at a point in their lives where relational resources needed to stay firm in a vulnerable state are lacking. Perfectionistic themes influence their personal identity in the domain of narrative constructions, values, belongingness, and embodiment. Accomplishments were dominant themes in the plots of their narrative self-constructions and values. They felt their “self-made” identities kept others at a distance. However, we also found strivings for a more fulfilling life with broader self-definitions.
Introduction
Parental conditional regard involves parents giving or withdrawing affection and approval, depending on children's and adolescents' compliance with parental expectations, to shape behaviors and traits. Research grounded in self‐determination theory suggests parental conditional regard harms psychological development. Using self‐determination theory as a theoretical foundation for investigating outcomes associated with parental conditional regard, the present study consolidated meta‐analytic associations between parental conditional regard and four theoretically important individual difference correlates: introjected self‐regulation, contingent self‐esteem, depressive symptoms, and relatedness.
Methods
Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic literature search was conducted using the PsycINFO, ProQuest, and EBSCO databases for English‐language, peer‐reviewed published studies and unpublished studies. Eligible studies reported an association between parental conditional regard and the four theoretically derived correlates or another correlate of interest in pre‐adolescent children, adolescents, or young adults. The results were based on a random‐effects model for meta‐analyses and the Q statistic for moderator analyses.
Results
Across 31 samples in total, greater parental conditional regard was significantly associated with more introjected regulation (r = .33), contingent self‐esteem (r = .29), and level of depressive symptoms (r = .22); and less relatedness (r = −.24). Moderator results for parental conditional regard type found parental conditional regard's association with introjected regulation was significantly stronger for studies measuring giving regard (parental conditional positive regard) than withdrawing regard (parental conditional negative regard). The association of parental conditional regard with depressive symptoms was significantly stronger for studies measuring parental conditional negative regard than parental conditional positive regard.
Conclusions
The meta‐analytic results provide theoretical and empirical support for the connections between self‐determination and the impact of parental conditional regard.
the study aimed at identifying the relationship between happiness and
Perfectionism as a Comparative study between. distinguished and ordinary students.
The sample of the study consisted of (400) students from the high primary school in
Irbid, who were selected by the available students, distributed to (200) students from
the government schools in the first Educational Directorate of Irbid, 2017-2018, and
200 students from the King Abdullah II School of Excellence. To achieve the goal
of the study, the researcher used the Oxford Scale for Happiness, prepared b (Hills
& Argyles, 2002). And prepared for the Jordanian environment and translated by
(Abu Deib,2010). The multi-dimensional perfectionism scale, which was prepared
by et al., 2001 Slaney) And prepared for the Jordanian environment and translated
by (Al-Zughail 2008).The results showed that the level of happiness among ordinary
students was high ,but it was in the meddle level for distinguished students. It also
showed a high level of perfectionism among distinguished students compared to the
meddle level of ordinary students. The results indicated that there is no statistically
significant correlation between students' estimates of happiness and perfection in
ordinary students The results showed statistically significant differences in the
strength of the correlation between the students' estimations on the two measures
due to the distinguished or ordinary student status in favor of distinguished students.
The results also showed statistically significant differences in the students' ratings on
the happiness scale due to the effect of the student's condition, the interaction
between his condition and his sex, as well as the interaction between his class and
the three variables combined. However, there were statistically significant
differences in the effect of the student's sex on the happiness scale ,and Differences
came in favor of males . The results showed that there were no differences in the
students 'estimations on the scale of perfectionism due to the effect of the student's
sex, the description or the binary interaction between the student's state, his gender,
his condition, or the triple interaction between the three variables combined. The
differences were statistically significant in the students' These differences came in
favor of distinguished students.
Research on adults indicates other-oriented perfectionism (requiring perfection from others) is associated with various consequential outcomes independent of self-oriented perfectionism (requiring perfection of the self) and socially prescribed perfectionism (believing others require perfection of the self). However, historically, the most widely used and researched measure of trait perfectionism in children, the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (CAPS), has omitted other-oriented perfectionism. In the present study, we address this by reporting on the multisource development and validation of the first self-report measure of other-oriented perfectionism specifically intended for youths: the Other-Oriented Perfectionism Subscale-Junior Form (OOPjr). Children (N = 107; Mage = 11.5, SD = 1.7) completed the OOPjr, CAPS, and measures of perfectionistic self-presentation, narcissism, social disconnection, depressive symptoms, and parental psychological control. Parents provided ratings of children’s self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism. Psychometric analyses indicated the OOPjr is a homogenous and internally reliable scale that, when factor analyzed alongside the CAPS, displays measurement invariance across gender and replicates the three-factor solution found in adults. Furthermore, parent ratings of other-oriented perfectionism showed unique positive relationships with OOPjr scores, but not CAPS scores. Likewise, other-oriented perfectionism had independent positive relationships with narcissistic superiority and achievement-oriented parental psychological control, after controlling for self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. Overall, our findings provide preliminary support for the use of the OOPjr as a measure of other-oriented perfectionism in youths.
The transdiagnostic cognitive behavioral model of eating disorders defines clinical perfectionism as unidimensional, despite a large body of literature demonstrating that perfectionism is multidimensional. Studies examining the associations between perfectionism dimensions and eating disorders have been mixed. The present study examined self-critical perfectionism (SCP) and personal standards perfectionism (PSP) in relation to two facets of restrictive eating to help clarify these relationships. Participants were 207 female undergraduates (Mage = 19.15, SD = 1.27). SCP and PSP were assessed as latent variables. The Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory was used to assess cognitive restraint (attempts to restrict eating) and behavioral restriction (act of restrictive eating). Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the two-factor structure of SCP and PSP. Based on a structural model, SCP, the more maladaptive dimension of perfectionism, was uniquely related to behavioral restriction. In contrast, PSP, the less maladaptive dimension of perfectionism, was uniquely related to cognitive restraint. Based on these findings, there are differential associations between perfectionism dimensions and facets of restrictive eating. Researchers are encouraged to examine perfectionism as multidimensional to best understand these complex relationships.
Self-critical perfectionism (SCP) is a common personality trait among young adults that is associated with high levels of depression and low emotional disclosure. We tested (1) whether negative beliefs about emotions (NBE) mediated the relationship between SCP and emotional disclosure and (2) whether NBE and emotional disclosure sequentially mediated the relationship between SCP and depression in a young adult sample (N = 322). Structural equation modelling results indicated that NBE mediated the relationship between SCP and emotional disclosure, but NBE and emotional disclosure did not sequentially mediate the relationship between SCP and depression; NBE partially mediated the relationship between SCP and depression. NBE may warrant further investigation in the context of SCP and depression among young adults.
Since a number of years, popular and scientific interest in resilience is rapidly increasing. More recently, also neuroscientific research in resilience and the associated neurobiological findings is gaining more attention. Some of these neuroscientific findings might open up new measures to foster personal resilience, ranging from magnetic stimulation to pharmaceutical interventions and awareness-based techniques. Therefore, bioethics should also take a closer look at resilience and resilience research, which are today philosophically under-theorized. In this paper we analyze different conceptualizations of resilience and argue that especially one-sided understandings of resilience, which dismiss social and cultural contexts of personal resilience do pose social and ethical problems. On a social level such unbalanced views on resilience could hide and thereby stabilize structural social injustices, and on an individual level it might even lead to an aggravation of stress-related mental health problems by overexerting the individual. Furthermore, some forms of fostering resilience could be a latent form of human enhancement and trigger similar criticisms.
The goal of my dissertation was to understand Sport Commitment Model and their relationships with psychological behavior and other motivational theories. The Sport Commitment Model distinguishes two types (Enthusiastic and Constrained Commitment) and seven possible source of commitment. Two data collection was conducted and a total of 860 adolescent athletes participated in the studies. During my research three scales were adapted (sport commitment questionnaire-2, sport enjoyment scale, athletic identity scale).
I can conclude from my results that if the athletes are committed to a sport enthusiastically, they will participate because they enjoy it and they find opportunities in it, which encourage them to put more energy and effort into their sport and they also find their goals in the activity. From my sample, it turned out that, the enthusiastically committed athlete trains more, competes higher level and most of them are representative of a team sport. On the other hand, Constrained Commitment has a positive effect on sport participation, but also has negative effect on adolescent motivational attitude since alternatives play a big role in their commitment and it seems they are staying in sport for acknowledgment from others and they do not want to lose the effort and energy what they already put into their sport activity. The adolescent who feels obligation in their commitment does not train much and does not compete at a high level. My results also showed that higher sport commitment not only increased sport participation, but also it could affect the individual’s health psychology, hence their life goals and well-being. For example, my studies showed that subjective well-being, future orientation, perfectionism, aspirations, not only could be increased by regular physical activity, but also it seems that level of commitment is affecting psychological behavior as well.
I believe my findings may help psychologists and coaches to facilitate adolescents engagement in sports activities since the beginning of their sports, as per the fact that it can have many beneficial effects on their health behavior.
Study of perfectionism is particularly important in sport psychology since it often affects achievement. In the literature we draw a distinction between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns which may have different effects. However we lack data which may highlight the relationships between perfectionism and sport commitment. In this study of adolescent athletes (N = 346; 38.9% males; mean age = 16.6 years) we have focused on mapping these associations. In our research we investigated sport commitment with the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 and perfectionism with the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale. Using cluster analysis, three clusters were justified: negative and positive perfectionists and non-perfectionists. Among the boys, more of them were negative perfectionists. As the level of competition was increasing, the rates of not only negative but also positive perfectionists were rising. While positive perfectionists were characterized mostly by enthusiastic commitment, sport enjoyment, social support-emotional and desire to excel, negative perfectionists were characterized by constrained commitment, other priorities, social constrain, and personal investment (loss). Those who reported sport injury most of them belonged to negative perfectionists. In the case of negative or mixed personality traits strengthening positive traits can help prevent deterioration of achievement, sport injuries and drop-out.
This study of university students (64 men and 99 women) examined both dispositional and situational influences of self-critical (SC) perfectionism on stress and coping, which explain its association with high negative affect and low positive affect. Participants completed questionnaires at the end of the day for 7 consecutive days. Structural equation modeling indicated that the relation between SC perfectionism and daily affect could be explained by several maladaptive tendencies associated with SC perfectionism (e.g., hassles, avoidant coping, low perceived social support). Multilevel modeling indicated that SC perfectionists were emotionally reactive to stressors that imply possible failure, loss of control, and criticism from others. As well, certain coping strategies (e.g., problem-focused coping) were ineffective for high-SC perfectionists relative to low-SC perfectionists.
Theorists have long speculated about narcissistic perfectionism—an outwardly directed need for perfection marked by grandiosity, entitlement, and lofty expectations for others. This study provides evidence of reliability and predictive validity for an emerging model of narcissistic perfectionism using two waves of measurement and multiple data sources (self-report and informant-report) in a sample of 155 undergraduate students. As hypothesized, confirmatory factor analysis showed manifest indicators of narcissistic perfectionism cohered together as a constellation of traits while showing reliability and factorial validity across time and source. Hierarchical multiple regression indicated narcissistic perfectionism uniquely and incrementally predicted anger beyond competing measures of other-oriented perfectionism and narcissism. Informant-reports of narcissistic perfectionism uniquely predicted anger beyond self-reports. These results offer promising empirical support for the often discussed, but seldom tested, concept of narcissistic perfectionism.
Extensive evidence suggests neuroticism is a higher-order personality trait that overlaps substantially with perfectionism dimensions and depressive symptoms. Such evidence raises an important question: Which perfectionism dimensions are vulnerability factors for depressive symptoms after controlling for neuroticism? To address this, a meta-analysis of research testing whether socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, personal standards, perfectionistic attitudes, self-criticism, and self-oriented perfectionism predict change in depressive symptoms, after controlling for baseline depression and neuroticism, was conducted. A literature search yielded 10 relevant studies (N = 1,758). Meta-analysis using random-effects models revealed that all seven perfectionism dimensions had small positive relationships with follow-up depressive symptoms beyond baseline depression and neuroticism. Perfectionism dimensions appear neither redundant with nor captured by neuroticism. Results lend credence and coherence to theoretical accounts and empirical studies suggesting perfectionism dimensions are part of the premorbid personality of people vulnerable to depressive symptoms.
Goodness-of-fit (GOF) indexes provide "rules of thumb"—recommended cutoff values for assessing fit in structural equation modeling. Hu and Bentler (1999) proposed a more rigorous approach to evaluating decision rules based on GOF indexes and, on this basis, proposed new and more stringent cutoff values for many indexes. This article discusses potential problems underlying the hypothesis-testing rationale of their research, which is more appropriate to testing statistical significance than evaluating GOF. Many of their misspecified models resulted in a fit that should have been deemed acceptable according to even their new, more demanding criteria. Hence, rejection of these acceptable-misspecified models should have constituted a Type 1 error (incorrect rejection of an "acceptable" model), leading to the seemingly paradoxical results whereby the probability of correctly rejecting misspecified models decreased substantially with increasing N. In contrast to the application of cutoff values to evaluate each solution in isolation, all the GOF indexes were more effective at identifying differences in misspecification based on nested models. Whereas Hu and Bentler (1999) offered cautions about the use of GOF indexes, current practice seems to have incorporated their new guidelines without sufficient attention to the limitations noted by Hu and Bentler (1999).
A meta-analysis of research examining the relationships between multidimensional perfectionism and burnout is provided. In doing so, relationships before and after controlling for the relationship between dimensions of perfectionism were examined along with whether relationships were moderated by domain (work, sport, or education). A literature search yielded 43 studies (N = 9,838) and 663 effect sizes. Meta-analysis using random-effects models revealed that perfectionistic strivings had small negative or non-significant relationships with overall burnout and symptoms of burnout. By contrast, perfectionistic concerns displayed medium-to-large and medium positive relationships with overall burnout and symptoms of burnout. After controlling for the relationship between dimensions of perfectionism, "pure" perfectionistic strivings displayed notably larger negative relationships. In terms of moderation, in some cases, perfectionistic strivings were less adaptive and perfectionistic concerns more maladaptive in the work domain. Future research should examine explanatory mechanisms, adopt longitudinal designs, and develop interventions to reduce perfectionistic concerns fueled burnout.
© 2015 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.
This study of 150 community adults examined heightened emotional reactivity to daily stress as a mediator in the relationships between self-critical (SC) perfectionism and depressive and anxious symptoms over a period of 4 years. Participants completed questionnaires assessing: perfectionism dimensions, general depressive symptoms (i.e., shared with anxiety), specific depressive symptoms (i.e., anhedonia), general anxious symptoms (i.e., shared with depression), and specific anxious symptoms (i.e., somatic anxious arousal) at Time 1; daily stress and affect (e.g., sadness, negative affect) for 14 consecutive days at Month 6 and Year 3; and depressive and anxious symptoms at Year 4. Path analyses indicated that SC perfectionism predicted daily stress-sadness reactivity (i.e., greater increases in sadness in response to increases in stress) across Month 6 and Year 3, which in turn explained why individuals with higher SC perfectionism had more general depressive symptoms, anhedonic depressive symptoms, and general anxious symptoms, respectively, 4 years later. In contrast, daily reactivity to stress with negative affect did not mediate the prospective relation between SC perfectionism and anhedonic depressive symptoms. Findings also demonstrated that higher mean levels of daily stress did not mediate the relationship between SC perfectionism and depressive and anxious symptoms 4 years later. These findings highlight the importance of targeting enduring heightened stress reactivity in order to reduce SC perfectionists' vulnerability to depressive and anxious symptoms over the long term. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
Despite the widely held belief that men are more narcissistic than women, there has been no systematic review to establish the magnitude, variability across measures and settings, and stability over time of this gender difference. Drawing on the biosocial approach to social role theory, a meta-analysis performed for Study 1 found that men tended to be more narcissistic than women (d = .26; k = 355 studies; N = 470,846). This gender difference remained stable in U.S. college student cohorts over time (from 1990 to 2013) and across different age groups. Study 1 also investigated gender differences in three facets of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) to reveal that the narcissism gender difference is driven by the Exploitative/Entitlement facet (d = .29; k = 44 studies; N = 44,108) and Leadership/Authority facet (d = .20; k = 40 studies; N = 44,739); whereas the gender difference in Grandiose/Exhibitionism (d = .04; k = 39 studies; N = 42,460) was much smaller. We further investigated a less-studied form of narcissism called vulnerable narcissism-which is marked by low self-esteem, neuroticism, and introversion-to find that (in contrast to the more commonly studied form of narcissism found in the DSM and the NPI) men and women did not differ on vulnerable narcissism (d = -.04; k = 42 studies; N = 46,735). Study 2 used item response theory to rule out the possibility that measurement bias accounts for observed gender differences in the three facets of the NPI (N = 19,001). Results revealed that observed gender differences were not explained by measurement bias and thus can be interpreted as true sex differences. Discussion focuses on the implications for the biosocial construction model of gender differences, for the etiology of narcissism, for clinical applications, and for the role of narcissism in helping to explain gender differences in leadership and aggressive behavior. Readers are warned against overapplying small effect sizes to perpetuate gender stereotypes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Many researchers jump straight from data collection to data analysis without realizing how analyses and hypothesis tests can go profoundly wrong without clean data. This book provides a clear, step-by-step process to examining and cleaning data in order to decrease error rates and increase both the power and replicability of results. Jason W. Osborne, author of Best Practices in Quantitative Methods (SAGE, 2008) provides easily-implemented suggestions that are research-based and will motivate change in practice by empirically demonstrating for each topic the benefits of following best practices and the potential consequences of not following these guidelines. If your goal is to do the best research you can do, draw conclusions that are most likely to be accurate representations of the population(s) you wish to speak about, and report results that are most likely to be replicated by other researchers, then this basic guidebook is indispensible.
This paper reviews theory and research on the developmental origins of several widely studied personality vulnerabilities to psychopathology that represent the self-definitional (self-criticism, autonomy, and perfectionism) or relatedness (dependency and sociotropy) domains identified in Blatt's (2008), Blatt and Shichman's (1983), and Beck's (Beck et al., 1983) 2-polarities models of personality. We examine the evidence for the effects of both parenting and peer relationships. We conclude that there is a robust relationship between negative parenting behaviors and the 5 personality vulnerabilities reviewed here which pertain to both self-definition and relatedness, with recent evidence suggesting a possible effect of peer relationships over and above parents. The available evidence suggests that all of the negative developmental experiences studied to date contribute to the development of all the personality vulnerabilities reviewed here. In light of this, we suggest possible mechanisms through which adverse developmental experiences may affect personality factors pertaining to self-definition and relatedness. We also suggest that there may be commonalities across the developmental experiences, such that they result in similar developmental consequences. Although there is now much research on the development of these personality factors, there is still relatively little research examining the roles of factors other than parents and peers, including siblings, romantic partners, environmental changes, and genetics, and we conclude by proposing a revised model of the development of self-definition and relatedness in order to outline future directions for this research field.
Over the past 20 years we have gained a comprehensive understanding of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, but our understanding of other-oriented perfectionism (OOP)—and how it differs from the other two forms of perfectionism—is still underdeveloped. Two studies with university students are presented examining OOP’s relationships with social goals, the dark triad, the HEXACO personality dimensions, and altruism. OOP showed unique positive relationships with narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy and unique negative relationships with nurturance, intimacy, and social development goals. Furthermore it showed unique relationships with social dominance goals (positive) and emotionality, agreeableness, and altruism (negative) dependent on the OOP measure used. The findings suggest that OOP is a “dark” form of perfectionism associated with antisocial and narcissistic personality characteristics.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
Describes the cognitive style of perfectionists and the emotional and behavioral outcome of their irrational thinking patterns. Perfectionism in narcissism is viewed as an attempt to avoid shame and humiliation for not living up to an archaic grandiose view of the self. In contrast, neurotic perfectionism is an attempt to avoid guilt for not living up to the demands of a harsh, internalized, and differentiated superego. The case history of a 16-yr-old male illustrates the rupture of an incipient therapeutic alliance because of a failure to distinguish between the 2 forms of perfectionism. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study of college students (
N = 464) examined the association between adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism and 2 mental health outcomes (self-esteem and depression). Confirmatory factor analysis was used to develop and assess the measurement model used in this study. Structural equations modeling was used to test a mediational model derived from prior theory and research. Analyses supported the existence of 2 perfectionism factors. Path models revealed that adaptive perfectionism was not directly or indirectly (through self-esteem) associated with depression. Maladaptive perfectionism was negatively associated with self-esteem and positively associated with depression. Self-esteem also buffered the effects of maladaptive perfectionism on depression. Distinguishing adaptive from maladaptive perfectionism is discussed in the context of recommendations for practice and future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Perfectionists have been described as people who want to be perfect in all domains of their lives. Few studies to date, however, have investigated what domains people are perfectionistic in. Using two samples (109 university students, 289 Internet users), the present study investigated how being perfectionistic in 22 domains of life was related to perfectionism, age, gender, and satisfaction with life. Across samples, work and studies were the domains that most participants reported being perfectionistic in, followed by bodily hygiene, spelling, and presentation of documents. Whereas age, gender, and satisfaction with life showed significant relationships with selected domains of life, perfectionism showed significant positive correlations with the overall score (number of domains affected by perfectionism) and with being perfectionistic in individual domains. Further analyses showed that self-oriented perfectionism, rather than socially prescribed perfectionism, was responsible for these correlations. The findings indicate that, in most domains, being perfectionistic is internally motivated and not externally motivated. Moreover, they show that, while some perfectionists may be perfectionistic across domains, most perfectionists are perfectionistic only in selected domains.
This study examined the role of maladaptive perfectionism in the relation between perceived parental psychological control and both self-esteem and depression. In line with our hypotheses, evidence was found for the mediating role of maladaptive perfectionism. In addition, we examined the unique contribution of psychological control in predicting severity of depression, self-esteem and maladaptive perfectionism in comparison to other parenting style dimensions and parents’ own maladaptive perfectionism. Although results showed significant convergence between mothers’ and daughters’ maladaptive perfectionism, psychological control was found to predict daughters’ perfectionism in addition to their mothers’ perfectionism. Finally, psychological control predicted severity of depression, self-esteem and maladaptive perfectionism in addition to other parenting dimensions (i.e., responsiveness and behavioral control). These findings suggest that the hypothesized pathway of parental representations over maladaptive perfectionistic self-representations to adjustment may apply specifically to the influence of psychological control.
There has been an exponential increase of interest in the dark side of human nature during the last decade. To better understand this dark side, the authors developed and validated a concise, 12-item measure of the Dark Triad: narcissism, psychopathy, Machiavellianism. In 4 studies involving 1,085 participants, they examined its structural reliability, convergent and discriminant validity (Studies 1, 2, and 4), and test-retest reliability (Study 3). Their measure retained the flexibility needed to measure these 3 independent-yet-related constructs while improving its efficiency by reducing its item count by 87% (from 91 to 12 items). The measure retained its core of disagreeableness, short-term mating, and aggressiveness. They call this measure the Dirty Dozen, but it cleanly measures the Dark Triad.
Theory and research suggest that psychologically controlling parenting can be driven by parental concerns in two different domains, that is, interpersonal closeness and achievement. Three studies addressing this hypothesis are presented. Study 1 provides evidence for the validity of the Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS), a new measure assessing psychological control in these two domains. Study 2 showed that dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented psychological control were related in expected ways to parental separation anxiety and perfectionism in a sample of mothers and fathers. Finally, Study 3 showed that dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented psychological control were differentially related to middle adolescent dependency and self-criticism and that these personality features act as specific intervening variables between the domain-specific expressions of psychological control and depressive symptoms. It is argued that the distinction between two domain-specific expressions of psychological control may allow for a more intricate analysis of the processes involved in intrusive parenting.
The present study extended previous findings demonstrating self-criticism, assessed by the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS) (Weissman AN, Beck AT. Development and validation of the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale: a preliminary investigation. Paper presented at the 86th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1978), as a potentially important prospective predictor of depressive symptoms and psychosocial functional impairment over time. Using data from a prospective, 4-year study of a clinical sample, DAS self-criticism and neuroticism were associated with self-report depressive symptoms, interviewer-rated major depression, and global domains of psychosocial functional impairment 4 years later. Hierarchical multiple regression results indicated that self-criticism uniquely predicted depressive symptoms, major depression, and global psychosocial impairment 4 years later over and above the Time 1 assessments of these outcomes and neuroticism. In contrast, neuroticism was a unique predictor of self-report depressive symptoms only 4 years later. Path analyses were used to test a preliminary 3-wave mediational model and demonstrated that negative perceptions of social support at 3 years mediated the relation between self-criticism and depression/global psychosocial impairment for 4 years.
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
We used a prospective longitudinal design to examine the relation between parenting experiences at age 5 and level of self-criticism at age 12 and the stability of self-criticism from age 12 to age 31 in 156 subjects. The results showed that mothers' reports of parenting behaviors that reflect restrictiveness and rejection were related to the development of self-criticism, particularly when received from the same-sex parent. Partial correlational analyses revealed that the parenting-self-criticism relations remained significant when the mother's report of the child's early temperament was statistically controlled. The results also showed that for women, self-criticism was very stable from early adolescence to young adulthood. By contrast, there was no relation between self-criticism at ages 12 and 31 for men; however, there was a strong relation for men between age 12 self-criticism and inhibited aggressive impulses at age 31.
We examined the internal and external validity of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI). Study 1 explored the internal structure of the NPI responses of 1,018 subjects. Using principal-components analysis, we analyzed the tetrachoric correlations among the NPI item responses and found evidence for a general construct of narcissism as well as seven first-order components, identified as Authority, Exhibitionism, Superiority, Vanity, Exploitativeness, Entitlement, and Self-Sufficiency. Study 2 explored the NPI's construct validity with respect to a variety of indexes derived from observational and self-report data in a sample of 57 subjects. Study 3 investigated the NPI's construct validity with respect to 128 subject's self and ideal self-descriptions, and their congruency, on the Leary Interpersonal Check List. The results from Studies 2 and 3 tend to support the construct validity of the full-scale NPI and its component scales.
The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) was constructed to assess two distinct characterological configurations associated with depression--the anaclitic (dependent) and introjective (self-critical). Although the DEQ is widely used as a measure of these two personality constructs, its validity in actually measuring them is questionable. In this study we subjected a correlation matrix comprised of DEQ responses from a large sample of normal adults (N = 404) to confirmatory factor analysis to assess formally whether the DEQ is congruent with the theoretical parameters outlined by the model. Results indicated that neither the two-factor (Dependency, Self-Criticism) nor the three-factor (Dependency, Self-Criticism, Efficacy) models represented good approximations of the data. Using a series of exploratory factor analyses, we identified 19 items (9 dependency, 10 self-critical) from the original DEQ that were an excellent fit to the data for the two-factor model from "normal" adult, depressed outpatient, and student samples. Parameter estimates of the relationship between the two factors indicated only a modest association. Test-retest reliabilities for both the Dependency and Self-Criticism scales indicated excellent temporal stability. There were diagnostically meaningful variations in the mean scores between the "normal" sample and patient sample.
Shafran et al. (2002) provided a cognitive-behavioural analysis of perfectionism that focused primarily on self-oriented perfectionism. They argued against studying perfectionism from a multidimensional perspective that they regard as inconsistent with prior work on perfectionism as a self-oriented phenomenon. We respond to Shafran et al. (2002) by offering historical, empirical, and theoretical support for the usefulness and the importance of a multidimensional model of perfectionism involving both intrapersonal processes and interpersonal dynamics. It is concluded that a multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is still warranted.
The UN Sustainable Development Goals provide a historic opportunity to implement interventions, at scale, to promote early childhood development. Although the evidence base for the importance of early childhood development has grown, the research is distributed across sectors, populations, and settings, with diversity noted in both scope and focus. We provide a comprehensive updated analysis of early childhood development interventions across the five sectors of health, nutrition, education, child protection, and social protection. Our review concludes that to make interventions successful, smart, and sustainable, they need to be implemented as multi-sectoral intervention packages anchored in nurturing care. The recommendations emphasise that intervention packages should be applied at developmentally appropriate times during the life course, target multiple risks, and build on existing delivery platforms for feasibility of scale-up. While interventions will continue to improve with the growth of developmental science, the evidence now strongly suggests that parents, caregivers, and families need to be supported in providing nurturing care and protection in order for young children to achieve their developmental potential.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
Narcissistic perfectionism is frequently described in theory, but there are no empirically tested models of this construct. Our study tested a model of narcissistic perfectionism, and differentiated this construct from self-critical perfectionism. Data from two samples of undergraduates, including a 28-day daily diary study, were used to test the factorial validity of narcissistic perfectionism and its unique indirect pathways to aversive social behavior. Results supported the factorial validity of narcissistic perfectionism as distinct from self-critical perfectionism, and each perfectionism construct predicted negative social behaviors through overlapping but distinct forms of perfectionistic discrepancies. Our study suggests narcissistic perfectionism is a distinct personality construct that predicts aversive social behavior, thereby supporting theoretical descriptions of this oft-discussed, but rarely studied, personality construct.
Discusses the characteristics, antecedents, and behavioral symptoms of normal and neurotic perfectionism. Normal perfectionists set realistic standards for themselves, derive pleasure from their painstaking labors, and are capable of choosing to be less precise in certain situations. Neurotic perfectionists, on the other hand, demand of themselves a usually unattainable level of performance, experience their efforts as unsatisfactory, and are unable to relax their standards. The development of neurotic perfectionism tends to occur in 1 of 2 kinds of emotive environments: (a) nonapproval or inconsistent approval in which parents fail to establish explicit performance standards for the child, or (b) parental expressions of conditional positive approval far exceed those of unconditional positive approval. Normal perfectionism tends to develop through either positive modeling (the close identification of the child with an emotionally important person) or negative modeling (the child rejects the behavior of an emotionally important person). Some symptoms describe both normal and neurotic perfectionists, but neurotic perfectionists experience them with greater intensity and for a longer duration. Four specific goals are stated which have proven useful in helping clients to change their neurotic perfectionism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Readers who want a less mathematical alternative to the EQS manual will find exactly what they're looking for in this practical text. Written specifically for those with little to no knowledge of structural equation modeling (SEM) or EQS, the author's goal is to provide a non-mathematical introduction to the basic concepts of SEM by applying these principles to EQS, Version 6.1. The book clearly demonstrates a wide variety of SEM/EQS applications that include confirmatory factor analytic and full latent variable models.
Previous research has revealed some puzzling inconsistencies in the relationship of Personal Standards (PS) to measures of psychopathology. This study was designed to explore the hypothesis that setting high Personal Standards will relate to psychopathology only when meeting these standards is a necessary condition for a sense of self-worth. We generated items that reflected a sense of conditional self-worth based on the meeting of Personal Standards and named this measure the Contingent Self-Worth Scale (CSWS). Factor analysis of the CSWS and the PS subscale of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale yielded three types of Personal Standards: Pure Personal Standards," Success-Based Self-Worth," and Activity-Based Self-Worth." Two of the original PS items did not load on the Pure Personal Standards scale. Correlational analyses revealed that Pure Personal Standards was related to measures of adaptive outcome whereas both measures of Contingent Self-Worth were related to more maladaptive functioning, although with some small differences. We call for further research to explore the relationship of PS to the construct of perfectionism.
Perfectionism is a major diagnostic criterion for one DSM-III diagnosis, and it has been hypothesized to play a major role in a wide variety of psychopathologies. Yet there is no precise definition of, and there is a paucity of research on, this construct. Based on what has been theorized about perfectionism, a multidimensional measure was developed and several hypotheses regarding the nature of perfectionism were tested in four separate studies. The major dimension of this measure was excessive concern over making mistakes. Five other dimensions were identified, including high personal standards, the perception of high parental expectations, the perception of high parental criticism, the doubting of the quality of one's actions, and a preference for order and organization. Perfectionism and certain of its subscales were correlated with a wide variety of psychopathological symptoms. There was also an association between perfectionism and procrastination. Several subscales of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), personal standards and organization, were associated with positive achievement striving and work habits. The MPS was highly correlated with one of the existing measures of perfectionism. Two other existing measures were only moderately correlated with the MPS and with each other. Future studies of perfectionism should take into account the multidimensional nature of the construct.
The current article provides an overview of the papers included in this special issue and includes a discussion of key issues
pertaining to psychological treatments for perfectionism. We describe and review two new treatment intervention studies in
this special issue that focus on perfectionism in university students as well as other contemporary research on the use of
cognitive-behavioral therapy to treat perfectionists. While the significant reductions in levels of perfectionism as a result
of treatment are noteworthy, we caution that perfectionism is a relatively enduring trait; thus, some perfectionists will
remain treatment resistant and overall levels of perfectionism may remain relatively high even when significant improvements
are realized. Moreover, we discuss the established tendency for perfectionism to be associated with residual symptoms of distress
following treatment. As part of our discussion of the other articles in this special issue, we highlight cognitive factors
of likely significance in the treatment of perfectionism, including the ruminative response style, the tendency to experience
perfectionistic automatic thoughts, and the role of core irrational beliefs in the development of perfectionism. These articles
underscore the need to consider key cognitive factors that are central to dysfunctional forms of perfectionism.
This study compares two recently developed measures of perfectionism. College students completed the Frost, Marten, Lahart and Rosenblate (1990; Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449–468) Multidimensional Perfectionsim Scale and the Hewitt and Flett (1991; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–470) scale of the same name. Their relationship to each other, as well as to measures of affect, were examined. There was considerable overlap in the two measures of perfectionism. Frost et al.'s Total Perfectionism score appears to reflect a global dimension of perfectionism which is correlated with Hewitt and Flett's Self-Oriented and Socially-Prescribed scales, and less closely related to the Other-Oriented scale. Frost et al.'s Personal Standards scale was most closely associated with Hewitt and Flett's Self-Oriented Perfectionism scale. Frost et al.'s Concern over Mistakes, Parental Expectations and Parental Criticism scales were independently correlated with Hewitt and Flett's Socially-Prescribed Perfectionism scale. The subscales from each measure showed differential relationships with measures of positive and negative affect. Those dimensions which have been found to be related to symptoms of psychopathology were most closely related to negative affect (e.g. Concern over Mistakes, Socially- Prescribed Perfectionism), while those which have been found to be related to more “healthy” characteristics were associated with positive affect (e.g. Personal Standards, Other-Oriented Perfectionism). A factor analysis using the 9 subscales resulted in a conceptually clean two-factor solution. The first of these reflected maladaptive evaluation concerns, and the second reflected positive achievement strivings. The implications of these findings for the understanding of the construct of perfectionism are discussed.
This study investigated the relationship between child anxiety, parental anxiety, and perceived current parental rearing practices, using a multiple informants approach, that is, by aggregating the perception of the child, parent and partner on parental rearing behaviors. Unselected children aged 9–12 (n=75) and both their biological parents filled in the SCARED-C to measure child anxiety, and parents completed the SCARED-A to measure parental anxiety. In addition, child report, parental self-report, and partner report of the rearing dimensions “autonomy-encouragement versus overprotection”, “acceptance versus rejection”, and “psychological control” of both parents was assessed. Results showed that the homogeneity of some rearing dimensions using a single informant was insufficient, but sufficient when using multiple informants. Inter-informant agreement was low (M=0.29). Three-informants' aggregates yielded good generalizability (M=0.54), and the generalizability of six-informants' aggregates (combining both parents) was impressive (M=0.76). Using multiple informants, parental autonomy granting versus overprotection was substantially related to child anxiety (r=−0.41, p<0.001), as well as to parental anxiety (r=−0.45, p<0.001). More precisely, paternal autonomy–overprotection was predominantly related to child anxiety, whereas maternal autonomy–overprotection was predominantly related to maternal anxiety. Acceptance versus rejection and psychological control were only modestly related to child and parental anxiety.
Clinical experience suggests that perfectionism can impede the successful treatment of psychological disorders. This review examines the concept of perfectionism, critically evaluates its assessment, reviews the association between existing measures of perfectionism and psychopathology, and considers the impact of perfectionism on treatment. It is concluded that existing measures do not reflect the original construct of perfectionism and that, consequently, new measures are needed. The evidence reviewed indicates that high personal standards are specifically elevated in patients with eating disorders and beliefs about others' high standards for the self are associated with a broad range of psychopathology. The importance of examining mean scores across studies (as well as associations between variables within studies) is emphasized. There has been no systematic evaluation of the treatment of perfectionism despite existing cognitive-behavioral treatment protocols.
Research suggests that while socially prescribed perfectionism has a robust association with psychological difficulties, self-oriented perfectionism may be best considered a vulnerability factor ( and ). One explanation for their divergent consequences is that these dimensions of perfectionism are underpinned by different contingencies of self-worth. The purpose of the current study was to examine this possibility. Two-hundred and thirty-eight undergraduate students (age M = 18.94, SD = 1.33, range 18–25). completed measures of perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed) and contingencies of self-worth (based on outperforming others, approval of others, and personal competence). Consistent with the hypotheses, regression analyses revealed that socially prescribed perfectionism was predicted by contingencies of self-worth based on outperforming others and the approval of others, whereas self-oriented perfectionism was predicted by contingencies of self-worth based on outperforming others and personal competence. The results suggest that the nature of the contingencies of self-worth associated with these dimensions of perfectionism may be important when considering their relationship with psychological maladjustment.
We examined the idea that adolescents' perceptions of their mothers as using parental conditional positive regard (PCPR) to promote academic achievement are associated with maladaptive self feelings and coping. A study of 153 adolescents supported the hypothesis that PCPR predicts self-aggrandizement following success and self devaluation and shame following failure, which then predict compulsive over-investment. PCPR functioned as a unique predictor of maladaptive self feelings and coping also when the effects of perceived parental conditional negative regard or psychological control were controlled for. The findings suggest that the experience of one's mother as using conditional positive regard to promote achievement leads to a non-optimal self-esteem dynamics, in which people vacillate between feelings of grandiosity following success and self-derogation and shame following failure, which in turn promote a rigid and stressful mode of coping. Thus, the practice of PCPR, although seemingly benign, appears to carry significant emotional and coping costs for adolescents.
In his foundational work The Restoration of the Self, noted psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut boldly challenges what he called âthe limits of classical analytic theoryâ and the Freudian orthodoxy. Here Kohut proposes a âpsychology of the selfâ as a theory in its own rightâone that can stand beside the teachings of Freud and Jung. Using clinical data, Kohut explores issues such as the role of narcissism in personality, when a patient can be considered cured, and the oversimplifications and social biases that unduly influenced Freudian thought. This volume puts forth some of Kohutâs most influential ideas on achieving emotional health through a balanced, creative, and joyful sense of self. "Kohut speaks clearly from his identity as a psychoanalyst-healer, showing that he is more of a psychoanalyst than most, and yet calling for major theoretical revisions including a redefinition of the essence of psychoanalysis.ââAmerican Journal of Psychotherapy
In this paper the theory of narcissism has been explored from an object-relations perspective, with the premise that secondary narcissistic investment in the self-representation is motivated by the feelings of separation anxiety implicit in the perception of a separate sense of self. The influence of the quality of mothering on the resulting narcissistic investments has been examined. A relationship between these investments and the ego's capacity for sublimation has been explored. Finally, possible vicissitudes of postindividuated narcissistic investments have been delineated.
This article argues for the value in socialization research of focusing explicitly on the construct of parental psychological control of children--control that constrains, invalidates, and manipulates children's psychological and emotional experience and expression. The article traces the history of the construct and distinguishes psychological control theoretically and empirically from more behaviorally oriented control. 2 new measures of psychological control are developed. Data from 3 separate studies are presented which indicate that psychological control can be adequately measured across demographically varied samples and mode of measurement. In both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, psychological control, particularly as perceived by preadolescents and adolescents, is consistently predictive of youth internalized problems (depression) and, in some cases, externalized problems (delinquency). In contrast, behavioral control is related primarily to externalized problems.