Content uploaded by Vincent Nijman
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Vincent Nijman on Dec 07, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
368
Nijman & Lee: Trade in large marine molluscs in Bali
Trade in nautilus and other large marine molluscs as ornaments and
decorations in Bali, Indonesia
Vincent Nijman1 & Paige Biqi Lee2
Abstract. We surveyed jewellery, arts-and-crafts and tourist shops in eight towns in Bali, Indonesia, in July 2014,
to assess trade in four species of large marine mollusc shells (chambered nautilus Nautilus pompilius, Triton’s
trumpet Charonia tritonis, horned helmet Cassis cornuta, and false trumpet Syrinx aruanus). Nautilus, Triton’s
trumpet and horned helmet are protected species and cannot be collected or traded legally, whereas commercial
trade in false trumpet is subject to strict regulations. We found 465 large shells openly for sale in Kuta-Legian (4
shops), Denpasar (2 shops), Ubud (14 shops), Tampaksiring (5 shops), Nusa Dua (7 shops) and Sanur (9 shops).
Trade in nautilus (264 shells, 27 shops, 6 towns), horned helmet (70 shells, 13 shops, 5 towns) and Triton’s trumpet
(25 shells, 10 shops, 4 towns) was as open as that of false trumpet (106 shells, 9 shops, 3 towns). Shops displayed
protected species openly in shop windows and several large department stories carried them in substantial numbers.
In Bali large marine molluscs do not receive proper protection from exploitation, despite legislation being in place.
We conclude that this is largely due to a lack of enforcement and not because of the hidden nature of the trade.
Key words. CITES, Wildlife trade, Indonesia, Marine mollusc, Shell, Nautilus
RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 64: 368–373
Date of publication: 7 December 2016
http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:67AB57A9-4881-455C-8967-124BC4B8A23E
© National University of Singapore
ISSN 2345-7600 (electronic) | ISSN 0217-2445 (print)
1Oxford Wildlife Trade Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, OX0
1BP, UK
2Wildlife Reserves Singapore, 80 Mandai Lake Road, Singapore 729826
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world, gastropods, cephalopods and bivalve
shells are bought or collected as ‘portable memories’ when
people are vacationing (Gossling et al., 2004; Gibbons &
Remaneva, 2011), and marine mollusc shells continue to have
an economic value as ornaments or decorations (Claassen,
1998; Gossling et al., 2004). Tropical shells, with their
attractive colours and hues, and various morphologies with
intricate spikes and curves, are especially popular souvenirs.
The development of tourism in the tropics, both by visitors
from abroad as well as domestic tourists, over the last decade
has increased the market for souvenirs, with consequent
pressures on marine resources (Dias et al., 2011).
Indonesia, the world’s largest archipelago, is a popular
tourist destination and according to the country’s ofcial
statistical agency in 2013, some nine million international
tourists visited the country. One of the more popular islands
is Bali and indeed, approximately three million international
and six million domestic tourists visit the island per year
(Atmojo, 2012). In terms of wildlife trade Bali is known as
a transit hub for trade in marine sh and corals (Bentley,
1998; Lunn & Moreau, 2004), as a consumer of marine turtles
(Sudiana et al., 2009) and to a lesser extent, dugongs (Lee
& Nijman, 2015), and as a source area for certain songbirds
and civets (Jepson, 2010; Nijman et al., 2014). Hitherto
the role of Bali in the trade of marine mollusc shells has
received little attention.
Indonesia is rich in marine molluscs, and several species
have been, or still are, traded in large numbers (Whitten
et al., 1994; Butcher, 2004; Nijman et al., 2015). Based on
their slower life histories, the larger species in particular
are expected to be more negatively affected by this trade
(Gössling et al., 2004; Dias et al., 2011; Gibbons &
Remaneva, 2011). We here consider the trade in four large
species of marine mollusc, i.e. chambered nautilus Nautilus
pompilius, Triton’s trumpet Charonia tritonis, horned
helmet Cassis cornuta, and false trumpet Syrinx aruanus,
as these are amongst the largest marine molluscs of which
the shells are traded for decorative purposes in Indonesia
(Nijman et al., 2015). None of these species have yet been
assessed against the IUCN Red List criteria (IUCN, 2016),
for which data on characteristics including life histories and
population distributions in addition to threats is essential
but currently limited (Allcock, 2011; IUCN, 2014; Zhang
et al., 2013). Concerns about the status of several species
primarily due to over-exploitation have been expressed in
the past (CITES, 1994; Gössling et al., 2004; Dias et al.,
2011; Gibbons & Remaneva, 2011; DeAngelis, 2012).
Three of the four species we focus on are protected from
exploitation and for the fourth trade is heavily regulated; as
such exploitation of these four species of marine molluscs
should be less of a concern than in other parts of their range
where protection or regulation is lacking. In Indonesia,
chambered nautilus, Triton’s trumpet and horned helmet
have been legally protected since 1987 (SK MenHut No 12/
Short Communications
369
RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 2016
Kpts/II/1987, an annex on the establishment of additional
protected wild animal species in addition to the wild animals
species that already are protected) (Noerdjito & Maryanti,
2001). It is not allowed to collect protected species, to harvest
them, or to sell or buy them. Fines for trading in protected
species can total the equivalent of US$8,500 and / or ve
years imprisonment. False trumpet is not included in the
country’s protected species list, but its commercial trade is
subject to a quota system, similar to all other non-protected
species (Nijman et al., 2015). Quotas are set annually with
specic numbers allowed to be harvested from different
provinces; however, to the best of our knowledge, no such
quotas have ever been set for false trumpets, precluding the
species to be traded in shops and markets. At the time of
our survey in 2014 none of the four species we focus on
were included in one of the appendices of the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and
Flora (CITES), which would regulate international trade
(in 2016 all species of nautilus were included in Appendix
II, regulating international trade). Given that no harvest or
trade is permitted within Indonesia, legal exports should
be non-existent.
It is important to note that shells are often seen as portable
memories that are collected on the beach while vacationing,
but the trade in chambered nautilus, Triton’s trumpet,
horned helmet and false trumpet is distinctly different. It
is not economical for collectors or traders to patrol large
stretches of beach for washed up shells –the majority of
which would be damaged, bleached and of inferior quality,
thus lowering their economic value. Instead these shells
are actively harvested when still alive—chambered nautilus
by using baited catching crates and the other species are
collected by (semi-)professional divers (Dunstan et al., 2010;
Freitas et al., 2014; Nijman et al., 2015)—and subsequently
transported over large distances via a network of traders and
middlemen to reach consumer markets.
METHODS
We visited Bali from 24 to 30 July 2014 and the survey
period coincided with the Lebaran holiday (end of the
Ramadan period, with many Indonesian Muslims returning
to their home village). The majority of people living on
Bali are Hindu, and while Lebaran resulted in some of the
non-Balinese Muslim-owned shops being closed, this impact
was overall considered of little signicance for the aims of
the present study. We selected survey areas on the basis
of the following: 1. Known centres of wildlife trade (e.g.
Tampaksiring, Benoa, Denpasar) (e.g., Sudiana et al., 2009;
Nijman & Nekaris, 2014); 2. The presence of large numbers
of tourists and tourist-orientated shops (e.g., Kuta, Ngurah
Rai International Airport); 3. The presence of luxury hotels
with associated shops and shopping centres (e.g., Nusa Dua,
Sanur). Specically, we surveyed the following towns and
main roads (Jl = Jalan = Road or Street): Kuta-Legian on
24, 25 and 30 July (Jl Pantai, Jl Kartika Plaza, Jl Legian, Jl
Raya Kuta and Ngurah Rai International Airport); Denpasar
on 25 July (Satria bird market, Jl Hasanudin); Ubud on 26
and 27 July (Jl Wanara Wana, Jl Raya Ubud, Jl Hanuman);
Fig. 1. Towns and routes surveyed for the trade in marine shells in Bali, Indonesia, in July 2014.
370
Nijman & Lee: Trade in large marine molluscs in Bali
Fig. 2. Large marine mollusc shells for sale in Bali, July 2014: A (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv) chambered nautilus Nautilus pompilius; B. Triton’s
trumpet Charonia tritonis; C. false trumpet Syrinx aruanus; D. horned helmet Cassis cornuta.
371
RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 2016
Table 1. Large marine mollusc shells observed for sale in Bali, July 2014.
Towns Date Wildlife
Shops Visited
Shops with
Shells
Chambered
Nautilus
Horned
Helmet
Triton’s
Trumpet
False
Trumpet
Kuta-Legian 24, 25, 30 4 4 6 1 0 0
Denpasar 25 36 1 1 2 0 0
Sukawati 26 2 0 0 0 0 0
Ubud 26, 27 39 14 116 15 9 67
Tampaksiring 27 15 8 24 9 13 17
Tanjung Benoa 28 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nusa Dua 28 16 6 80 25 1 22
Sanur 29, 30 20 8 17 18 2 0
Benoa Harbour 30 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 132 41 264 70 25 106
Sukawati on 26 July (Pasar Seni); Tampaksiring on 27 July;
Tanjung Benoa and Benoa harbour on 28 and 30 July;
Nusa Dua on 28 July (Nusa Dua Galleria shopping centre
and the grounds of luxury hotels); and Sanur on 29 and 30
July (Jl Danau Tambelingan) (Fig. 1). We visited all shops
potentially selling ornamental shells, including jewellery
stores, department stores, arts and crafts shops, tourist shops,
and wildlife shops, and counted the number of shells for
each. Different from other parts of Indonesia where we have
conducted wildlife trade surveys, especially in the shops in
luxury hotels and shopping centres, shells had price tags or
price stickers attached to them, either in Indonesian Rupiah
or US dollar. These were duly recorded. Alternatively,
prices were requested (in Indonesian Rupiah as we expect
US dollar prices to be inherently inated) from vendors.
For analysis all prices were converted to US dollars using
a July 2014 exchange rate of 11,500 Rupiah to the dollar.
All surveys were conducted by us, a male Caucasian and a
female of Chinese descent: while we may have stood out
as ‘different’ in many parts of Indonesia, in Bali we tted
in with the general tourist population. Conversations with
vendors were normally conducted in Bahasa Indonesia, or
alternatively, when initiated by the vendor, in English or
Chinese. No wildlife was purchased.
RESULTS
We did not nd any large marine mollusc shells for sale in
Sukawati, Tanjung Benoa or Benoa harbour, but they were
for sale everywhere else (Fig. 2). In total we found 465 large
shells for sale, in 41 shops (Table 1). About a third of the
shells were worked into vessels with silver casings, carved,
and, to a lesser extent, painted or modelled into craftwork.
The others were sold unworked. They were all displayed in
the open (including in shop windows); none were hidden
from view, and without exception vendors and dealers were
open in providing information or showing their wares. Trade
in the three protected species did not differ qualitatively
from that in the non-protected false trumpet.
The most common species on offer was the chambered
nautilus with 264 shells in 27 shops in six towns. Next came
the false trumpet, with 106 shells in nine shops in three
towns, followed by the horned helmet (70 shells, 14 shops,
six towns) and Triton’s trumpet (25 shells, 10 shops, four
towns). The total number of shells of protected species on
offer was 359 in 31 shops in six towns.
The largest number of shells offered for sale was in Ubud,
where 14 shops displayed 116 nautilus shells, mostly in the
form of vessels with silver casings, 15 horned helmets (eight
with silver casings), nine Triton’s trumpets and 67 false
trumpets. Most shops offered small numbers of shells, but
one silver shop specialising in offering large shells worked
into silver vessels displayed 83 nautilus shells, eight Triton’s
trumpets, ve horned helmets and ve false trumpets, and
another shop offered 62 false trumpets. Tampaksiring was
distinct in the wide variety it offered; the ve shops there
displayed 24 nautilus, nine horned helmets, 13 Triton’s
trumpets and 17 false trumpets. The eight shops in Sanur
selling marine mollusc shells had a total of 17 nautilus,
18 horned helmets and two Triton’s trumpet on display.
Relatively small numbers were on offer in the very touristy
Kuta–Legian area (a mere four shops, offering six nautilus
shells and one horned helmet shell), but the equally busy
Nusa Dua Galleria shopping centre stood out with two
department stores carrying 19 nautilus, ve horned helmet
and two false trumpet shells, and 41 nautilus and one
Triton’s trumpet shell, respectively. Another shop in Nusa
Dua displayed 20 shells each of nautilus, horned helmet and
false trumpet in its window.
Prices varied extensively, even for similar items, and depended
very much on the type of retailer offering it. Unworked shells
typically were offered for Rp 250,000–300,000 / US$22–26
(horned helmet), Rp 350,000–500,000 / US$30–43 (nautilus,
Triton’s trumpet) and Rp 500,000–1,000,000 / US$43–89
(false trumpet); the price of worked shells depended largely
on the amount and quality of the silverwork. Especially in the
high-end shops, but also in two department stores in Nusa
Dua, shells had price stickers, mostly in Indonesian Rupiah
but sometimes in US dollars. Elsewhere prices had to be
requested from the traders or shop assistants. In some of the
more specialised shops, in for instance Ubud, the traders had
372
Nijman & Lee: Trade in large marine molluscs in Bali
extensive knowledge about their shells and its trade, but in
many more general shops, including those on the grounds
of luxury hotels and in shopping centres, the sales persons
had limited information on any aspect of the trade. In the
former shops we feel deals could be made when purchasing
shells, especially when larger numbers were involved, but
in the latter prices were xed. We were not in a position to
bargain as that would imply an intention to buy, and may
have stimulated trade. As such prices between shops are
not comparable.
DISCUSSION
We observed close to 400 shells of legally protected species
displayed openly for sale in Bali’s busiest tourist areas. In
almost every town we surveyed there were shops offering
these species, and especially in Ubud and Nusa Dua several
shops offered large quantities or specialised in selling marine
mollusc shells. Nusa Dua, and to a lesser extent Ubud, cater
for the high-end tourism market, with Ubud presenting
itself as a cultural and artistic centre and Nusa Dua being a
purpose-built and gated tourist enclave (known as a Kawasan
Pariwisata, lit. tourism district or region) with primarily
luxurious 5-star resorts. It was somewhat surprising to see
such large quantities of protected wildlife for sale at these
sites and we suspect that many of the potential customers here
are unaware of the legal status of the shells on offer. Ubud
and Tampaksiring geographically stand out from the other
towns are they were located more inland. We suspect that
it is the crafts and carving centre of Tampaksiring where a
large proportion of the carving and etching of shells is done;
the same may be true for the town of Sukawati, despite us
not nding shells on display during our survey.
The trade is nothing but open and targets, apart from
domestic visitors, international tourists presumably unaware
of Indonesia’s domestic protected species legislation. In
2013 TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network,
commissioned an investigation into the trade of the nautilus,
with market surveys conducted in East Asia and Southeast
Asia, including in Indonesia. No other protected marine
mollusc shells were investigated during this survey. Of
the 226 shops that were surveyed in Bali, 24 sold whole
chambered nautilus shells (worked and unworked): in
Nusa Dua, Kuta, Sanur, Tampaksiring, Ubud, Gianyar and
Denpasar (Freitas et al., 2014). We are not aware of any
other similar surveys that have been conducted on Bali, but
our results are comparable to those presented by Nijman et
al. (2015) who surveyed the beach resorts of Pasir Putih and
Pangandaran on Java, where all four species were openly
offered for sale. Combined the data from these three studies
show that the trade in these protected marine mollusc shells is
similar in the different parts of western Indonesia, with larger
numbers being traded openly despite their legal protection.
It is unclear where the marine molluscs offered for sale in
Bali originate from, and hence what the effect of collection
has on local marine ecosystems, but it seems that at least
some of them are collected offshore in Bali whereas others
are collected elsewhere in Indonesian waters. Some species
occur mostly on sandy bottoms, in intertidal and sublittoral
zones, to a depth of about 30 m (false trumpet), while others
occur further away from the coast and down to at least 300
m (chambered nautilus), and yet others are found on coral
reefs (Triton’s trumpet) (CITES, 1994; Carpenter & Niem,
1998; Freitas et al., 2014). While chambered nautilus, Triton’s
trumpet and horned helmet occur in both to the east and
west of Bali, as well as in the seas surrounding Bali, false
trumpet must have been collected in and transported from
eastern Indonesia (distribution maps in Carpenter & Niem
(1998) show the species to be conned to the seas north of
Australia and eastern Indonesia). Freitas et al. (2014) showed
that most, if not all, chambered nautilus in trade in Bali
originate from eastern Indonesia, and Nijman et al. (2015)
showed that many of the horned helmets in trade in Java and
Bali originate from Sulawesi, an island to the north of Bali.
Nijman et al. (2015) gave an overview of 20 seizures made
of protected marine mollusc shells in western Indonesia, ve
of which referred to Bali. Interestingly, the Bali Natural
Resource Management Agency, responsible for enforcing
protected species legislation, has in the past made several
seizures, but these are few and far between, and we were not
able to nd any reported seizures after September 2009 (Table
Table 2. Seizures of protected marine molluscs in Bali in the period 2005–2015 as reported by Indonesian media and responsible
government agencies.
Town Date Chambered Nautilus Horned Helmet Triton’s Trumpet Reference
Tanah Lot 29 August 2005 1 9 45 CITES, 2005
Denpasar 2 December 2005 10 8 5 CITES, 2005
Denpasar 14 February 2006 75 CITES, 2005
Kuta 17 February 2006 22 14 11 CITES, 2005
Legian 7 May 2008 20 Istanto, 2009
Denpasar 10 July 2008 1 1 Istanto, 2009
Kuta 27 August 2008 5 8 5 Istanto, 2009
Badung 2 September 2008 5Istanto, 2009
Ngurah Rai Airport 23 September 2008 213 16 Wisnu, 2009
Tanjung Benoa 15 May 2009 15 Istanto, 2010
Ngurah Rai Airport 25 September 2009 200 Anonymous, 2009
373
RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 2016
1). Most seizures concern small to intermediate numbers
and are from towns included in our survey. The largest
seizures refer to two attempts to export protected marine
mollusc shells via the Ngurah Rai International Airport.
The results of our and TRAFFIC’s surveys made it clear
that these seizures have not worked as a deterrent for the
continued trade in these protected species. The open, illegal
sale and consistent presence of protected species in Bali’s
major tourism areas points at a clear neglect of duties of the
Indonesian wildlife conservation authorities and suggest a
lack of pressure on the authorities to treat these illegal sales
as a priority issue. Shop owners selling protected marine
molluscs must be held accountable for their actions. Given
the widespread availability and the large number of shops
and traders involved it would be prudent if the Balinese
Natural Resource Management Agency, perhaps aided by
other government and non-governmental agencies, embark on
a focussed awareness campaign informing traders about the
protected status of selected marine species and illegality of
their actions, followed by targeted seizures and prosecutions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Made Kesuma and Ida Bagus for logistics, Kanitha
Krishnasamy for information on nautilus trade surveys,
TRAFFIC and Wildlife Reserves Singapore for funding,
and two reviewers for helpful comments and suggestions.
LITERATURE CITED
Allcock L (2011) Red List of Globally Threatened Species:
Cephalopods. Marine species news: A news-bulletin for marine
members of SSC, n° 3 – April 2011. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/
downloads/mcsc_newsletter_april_2011_1.pdf
Anonymous (2009) POLHUT Bandara Ngurah Rai Denpasar
Gagalkan Penyelundupan Biota Laut Dilindungi. BKSDA,
Denpasar.
Atmojo W (2013) Domestic tourists ood Bali on vacation. Jakarta
Post, 25 June 2013.
Bentley N (1998) An overview of the exploitation, trade and
management of corals in Indonesia. TRAFFIC Bulletin, 17:
67–78.
Butcher JG (2004) The Closing of the Frontier: A History of the
Marine Fisheries of Southeast Asia, c. 1850-2000. Seng Lee
Publishers, Singapore, 442 pp.
Carpenter KE & Niem VH (1998) FAO species identication
guide for shery purposes. The living marine resources of the
Western Central Pacic. Volume 1. Seaweeds, corals, bivalves
and gastropods. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome, 686 pp.
CITES (1994) Inclusion of giant triton Charonia tritonis on
Appendix II. www.cites.org/eng/cop/09/e9-comi.pdf
CITES (2005) Notication 2005/035. http://www.cites.org/common/
resources/reports/pab/05-06Indonesia.pdf
Claassen C (1998) Shells. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
284 pp.
DeAngelis P (2012) Assessing the impact of international trade on
chambered nautilus. Geobios, 45: 5–11.
Dias TL, Neto NAL & Alves RR (2011) Molluscs in the marine
curio and souvenir trade in NE Brazil: species composition
and implications for their conservation and management.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 20: 2393–2405.
Dunstan A, Alanis O & Marshall J (2010) Nautilus pompilius
shing and population decline in the Philippines: A comparison
with an unexploited Australian Nautilus population. Fisheries
Research, 106: 239–247.
Dunstan A, Bradshaw CJ & Marshall J (2011) Nautilus at
risk–estimating population size and demography of Nautilus
pompilius. PloS One, 6(2), e16716.
Freitas B, Krishnasamy K, Crook V, Mosig P & Wu J (2014)
An investigation into the trade of nautilus. TRAFFIC, World
Wildlife Fund, Washington DC.
Gibbons E & Remaneva L (2011) Curio trade: Southwest
Madagascar. Reef Doctor, London, 41 pp.
Gössling S, Kunkel T, Schumacher K & Zilger M (2004) Use of
molluscs, sh, and other marine taxa by tourism in Zanzibar,
Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation, 13: 2623–2639.
Istanto (2009) Statistik Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam Bali.
BKSDA, Denpasar.
Istanto (2010) Statistik Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam Bali.
BKSDA, Denpasar.
IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee (2014) Guidelines for
Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 11.
Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Subcommittee. http://
www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf
IUCN (2016) The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version
2015-4. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Retrieved on 13 April 2016.
Jepson P (2010) Towards an Indonesian bird conservation ethos:
reections from a study of bird-keeping in the cities of Java
and Bali. In: Tideman S & Gosler AG (eds.) Ethno-ornithology:
Birds, indigenous peoples, culture and society. London:
Earthscan, pp. 313–330.
Lee PB & Nijman V (2015) Trade in dugongs in southern Bali.
Journal of the Marine Association of the Great Britain, 95:
1717–1721.
Lunn KE & Moreau MA (2004) Unmonitored trade in marine
ornamental shes: the case of Indonesia’s Banggai cardinalsh
(Pterapogon kauderni). Coral Reefs, 23: 344–351.
Nijman V & Nekaris KAI (2014). Trade in wildlife for medicinal
and decorative purposes in Bali, Indonesia. TRAFFIC Bulletin
14: 31–36.
Nijman V, Spaan D, Rode-Margonon EJ, Roberts P, Wirdateti &
Nekaris KAI (2014) Trade in common palm civet Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus in Javan and Balinese markets, Indonesia.
Small Carnivore Conservation, 51: 11–17.
Nijman V, Spaan D & Nekaris KAI (2015) Large-scale trade in
legally protected marine mollusc shells from Java and Bali,
Indonesia. PLoS One, 10(12): e0140593.
Noerdjito M & Maryanti I (2001) Jenis-jenis hayati yang dilindungi
perundang-undang Indonesia. Puslitbang Biologi-LIPI,
Cibinong, 208 pp.
Sudiana I, Ardika IW, Parimartha I & Titib I (2009) Exploitation
and protection of turtles at Serangan and Tanjung Benoa villages,
south Bali in the perspective of cultural studies. E-Journal of
Cultural Studies, 3(2): 1–9.
Wisnu A (2009) Police, BKSDA foil endangered shell smuggling
attempt. Jakarta Post, 25 September 2008.
Whitten T, Soeriaatmadja RE & Aff SA (1994) The ecology of
Java and Bali. Singapore: Periplus Editions, Singapore, 969 pp.
Zhang LP, Xia JJ, Peng PF, Li HP, Luo P & Hu CQ (2013)
Characterization of embryogenesis and early larval development
in the Pacific triton, Charonia tritonis (Gastropoda:
Caenogastropoda). Invertebrate Reproduction & Development,
53(3): 237–246.
