State of Water and Sanitation in South Africa

Abstract

It’s not all about flushing

"We must introduce new technologies that appreciate that water is a scarce resource and as such provide solutions to dispose of effluent via alternative methods. It's not all about flushing"…."We must begin by challenging the property development sector through regulation and licensing requirements to invest itself in developing properties less reliant on water for sanitation in order to ensure we introduce the alternative solutions to low, middle and high income areas"
The Minister of Water and Sanitation, Ms. Nomvula Mokonyane, National Sanitation Indaba (DWS, 2015).
Due to an alarming growth in population size and the prevalence of drought in South Africa, pressure is mounting on the demand of fresh water resources that are suitable for human consumption. This has in turn put pressure on wastewater treatment infrastructures and sanitation systems. Conventional systems were designed to cater for a given population size, however, the population is surpassing the maximum carrying capacity of the existing treatment plants. Though much has been done in terms of water and sanitation, with reference to post-apartheid regime, about 15 million people were without safe water supply and over 20 million without adequate sanitation services. Since then, the country has made satisfactory progress with regard to improving access to water supply and sanitation through the deployment of numerous programmes such as Reconstruction and Development Programmes (RDP) and Millenium Development Goals (MDG). Even though success has been yielded with ex-tools, the South African government is now leaning towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) so as to ensure that safe water supply and sanitation systems are adequately delivered to all South African.

Full text

STATE OF WATER AND
SANITATION IN SOUTH
AFRICA
BY
V Masindi and L.C Dunker
CSIR Built Environment
March 2016

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Table of Contents
1 Background information ....................................................................................... 1
2 Water governance and management in South Africa .......................................... 1
3 Institutional arrangements and partnerships ........................................................ 2
4 Sector Leadership and Regulation ....................................................................... 3
5 Legal framework governing water and sanitation................................................. 4
6 Governance of water and sanitation infrastructures by municipalities ................. 5
7 Key role players in water and sanitation management ........................................ 6
8 Water services delivery targets ............................................................................ 9
8.1 Basic Water and Sanitation Targets ................................................................. 9
8.2 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) ........................................................ 10
8.3 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) ....................................................... 10
9 State of water and sanitation infrastructure ....................................................... 13
9.1 State of water supply infrastructure ................................................................ 16
9.1.1 Sources of water ......................................................................................... 16
9.1.1.1 Dams and rivers ....................................................................................... 16
9.1.1.2 Boreholes ................................................................................................. 17
9.1.1.3 Springs ..................................................................................................... 19
9.1.1.4 Wells ........................................................................................................ 20
9.1.1.5 Rainwater ................................................................................................. 22
9.1.1.6 Fog harvesting ......................................................................................... 23
9.1.2 Water treatment plants ................................................................................ 23
9.1.2.1 Centralised purification systems .............................................................. 23
9.1.2.1 Point of Use treatment systems ............................................................... 24
9.1.2.1 Packaged plants treatment systems ........................................................ 25

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9.1.3 Water distribution networks ......................................................................... 25
9.2 State of Sanitation Infrastructure .................................................................... 27
9.2.1 Toilets ......................................................................................................... 27
9.2.2 Sewer systems ............................................................................................ 28
9.2.3 Wastewater treatment plant ........................................................................ 28
10 Factor the influence the provision of water services ....................................... 29
10.1 Non-revenue water ......................................................................................... 29
10.2 Maintenance of existing infrastructure ............................................................ 29
10.3 Possible reforms to South Africa’s water services sector ............................... 30
10.4 Impacts of climate change .............................................................................. 31
10.5 Acid mine drainage ......................................................................................... 31
10.6 Skills shortage ................................................................................................ 32
10.7 Water availability ............................................................................................ 32
10.8 Water quality .................................................................................................. 32
11 2010 SAICE report card ................................................................................. 33
12 Proposed SAICE Report Card for 2016 .......................................................... 35
13 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 37
References ............................................................................................................... 39

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1 Background information
It’s not all about flushing
"We must introduce new technologies that appreciate that water is a scarce resource and as such
provide solutions to dispose of effluent via alternative methods. It's not all about flushing"…."We must
begin by challenging the property development sector through regulation and licensing requirements
to invest itself in developing properties less reliant on water for sanitation in order to ensure we
introduce the alternative solutions to low, middle and high income areas"
The Minister of Water and Sanitation, Ms. Nomvula Mokonyane, National Sanitation Indaba (DWS,
2015).
Due to an alarming growth in population size and the prevalence of drought in South
Africa, pressure is mounting on the demand of fresh water resources that are
suitable for human consumption. This has in turn put pressure on wastewater
treatment infrastructures and sanitation systems. Conventional systems were
designed to cater for a given population size, however, the population is surpassing
the maximum carrying capacity of the existing treatment plants. Though much has
been done in terms of water and sanitation, with reference to post-apartheid regime,
about 15 million people were without safe water supply and over 20 million without
adequate sanitation services. Since then, the country has made satisfactory
progress with regard to improving access to water supply and sanitation through the
deployment of numerous programmes such as Reconstruction and Development
Programmes (RDP) and Millenium Development Goals (MDG). Even though
success has been yielded with ex-tools, the South African government is now
leaning towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) so as to ensure that safe
water supply and sanitation systems are adequately delivered to all South African.
2 Water governance and management in South Africa
The Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) leads and regulates the water
sector in South Africa, develops policy and strategy, and provides support to the
sector. DWS is governed by two Acts, the National Water Act (1998) which is part of
National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), 107 of 1998 and the Water
Services Act (1997), and together with national strategic objectives, governance and
regulatory frameworks, provides an enabling environment for effective water use and
management in the country.

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Management of South Africa’s water resources involves catchment management
functions, river systems management, water storage, water abstraction and return-
flow management. Water resources must therefore be managed in an integrated way
to ensure that water is protected and used to its full potential. As water is a scarce
resource, it is critical for water resource management to balance the growing social
and economic needs with the sustainability of the resource and environmental health
considerations.Water is a national asset and the Minister of Water Affairs is the
custodian and national manager of water resources.
The Department of Water and Sanitation is directly responsible for most of the large
water resource infrastructure and undertakes the planning and implementation of
large water resource development projects, such as the construction of dams and
inter-basin transfer schemes. In South Africa, the management of water resources
has been decentralised. To facilitate this, the country has been divided into 19 water
management areas (WMAs). It is envisaged that each of the 19 WMAs will have a
catchment management agency (CMA) established in terms of chapter 7 of the
National Water Act (1998) and are classified as schedule 3A public entities in terms
of the Public Finance Management Act (1999).
The main responsibility of a CMA is to manage water resources at the catchment
level. Each CMA must develop a catchment management strategy and advise on the
protection, development, use and conservation of water in each catchment. CMAs
need to work in collaboration with local stakeholders, including the water user
associations and local communities. This is to ensure that decisions made with
regard to water use balance meeting basic human needs, promote equitable access
to water and facilitate social and economic development.
3 Institutional arrangements and partnerships
DWS operates at national, provincial and local levels across all spheres of the water
management cycle (i.e. from water resource management, water abstraction, water
processing and distribution of potable water, wastewater collection, to treatment and
discharge). DWA does not execute all of these functions; some are either
constitutionally assigned to appropriate sector partners. DWS owns most of the large

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dams and related water resource infrastructure and undertakes the necessary
planning and implementation of future water resource development projects.
On the other hand regional bulk water distribution is managed by Water Boards,
municipalities and DWA. Waterboards and some of the larger metropolitan
municipalities (Metros), also purify water to potable standards. Provisioning of Water
Services (water supply and sanitation) is the constitutional responsibility of local
government (Metro, Local or District Municipalities) who act as the Water Services
Authorities (WSAs) and often also Water Service Providers (WSPs) for all
communities in their areas of jurisdiction. Some WSAs, where wastewater
management is a regional challenge, have contracted out this function to bulk water
services providers, however, the responsibility still rests with them to ensure an
effective service.
A wide range of water resources management functions within a catchment area
may be delegated to Catchment Management Agencies (CMA), which are in the
process of being established, while Irrigation Boards that are in the process of being
transformed into Water User Associations, operate at a local level, managing water-
related activities. River health and related catchment management functions are
shared between the DWA and the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). The
Water Research Commission (WRC) undertakes water related research activities for
DWA and other government agencies. DWS maintains close partnerships with the
South African Local Government Association (SALGA), the Development Bank of
Southern Africa (DBSA), Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs), Water Use
Authorities (WUAs), and the Trans Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA), the Water
Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), research councils such as CSIR (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), universities and technikons.
4 Sector Leadership and Regulation
DWS oversees and regulates the water business through appropriate policies and
regulations which are implemented through its 9 provincial offices and 4 water
management clusters. DWS also monitors the performance of the sector and
regulates the drinking water quality and effluent quality against industry standards

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and recommends changes to the business environment within which the various role
players have to perform.
5 Legal framework governing water and sanitation
The Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) is the national custodian that is
primarily responsible for the formulation and implementation of policies and
legislation governing the water sector. These policies and legislation include,
amongst others, the following:
 National Water Act (36) of 1998 ensures that water resources are protected,
used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled in a sustainable, efficient
and equitable manner by establishing suitable institutions (DWA, 2015).
 Water Services Act 108 of 1997 provide for the right of access to basic water
supply and the right to basic sanitation necessary to secure sufficient water and
an environment not harmful to human health and well-being; the setting of
national standards and norms; the preparation and adoption of water services
development plans by WSAs; and the promotion of effective water resource
management and conservation (DWA, 2015).
 National Water Policy Review (2013) aims and focuses on overcoming the
water challenges of faced by the DWS and the whole of South Africa in order to
improve access to water, efficiency, equity and sustainability (DWA, 2015)
 National Sanitation Policy Draft (2016) emphasises on how the government
should take measures in meeting every citizen’s right to access to basic
sanitation and that basic sanitation services should be prioritised to unserved
households and vulnerable people. The policy also focuses on the importance of
sanitation, as well as hygiene and end-user education in service provision;
effective management of sanitation facilities to avoid pollution, and the
significance of maintenance and operation of the sanitation services
infrastructure and related systems. Coordination with all tiers of government and
other involved parties, according to the policy, is necessary for development.
(DWS, 2016)
 The Free Basic Services Policy of 2001 was introduced following the 2000
local government elections and entitles all households to an agreed level of free

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basic services. The running costs of free basic services are intended to be met
by a municipality’s “equitable share” of national revenue, augmented by cross-
subsidies and other local taxes levied where necessary and possible. Free basic
services are defined as 6 kilolitres of water per household per month, free basic
sanitation (government subsidy for a Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) toilet), 50 kWh
electricity per household per month and refuse removal by collection at least
weekly in urban areas and by providing a communal refuse dump that is well-
managed by the community in rural areas (DWS, 2016).
 Strategic Framework for Water Services (2003) is a comprehensive policy for
water services that sets goals for access to services, education and health, free
basic services and institutional development and performance. It defines the
responsibilities of Water Services Authorities (WSAs) and Water Services
Providers (WSPs), and indicates that WSAs must provide infrastructure, promote
health and hygiene, and be responsible for the cost of operation and
maintenance of basic services (DWAF 2003). It also takes into account the
municipal policy and legislative framework as set out in the Municipal Structures
Act 117 of 1998 and the Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000.
 National Water Resources Strategy Second Edition (2013) explains how
water supports development and elimination of poverty and inequality; how water
contributes to the economy and job creation; and how water is protected, used,
developed, conserved, managed and controlled sustainably and equitably. The
core focus of the strategy is the equitable and sustainable access, and the use of
water by South Africans while sustaining the water resource for a better life and
environment for all. The NWRS2 provides a long-lasting way forward in achieving
water sustainability, security and the its national priorities.
6 Governance of water and sanitation infrastructures by municipalities
In the context of the legislation and cooperative governance, municipalities have
been expected to accelerate the provision of infrastructure and services to marginal
communities. A municipality has the right to govern, on its own initiative, the local
government affairs of its community, subject to national and provincial legislation
(Section 151 (3) of the Constitution). A range of legislation covering local

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government issues, with subsequent amendments, guides municipalities’ operations.
The following Acts of Parliament deal specifically with municipal structures:
 The Municipal Demarcation Act (1998) determines municipal boundaries. It
leaves no part of South Africa outside the jurisdiction of a municipality, thus there
is parity and equity in entitlement to services.
 The Municipal Structures Act No. 117 (1998) Section 155 of the Constitution,
provides for the establishment of three categories of municipality and for the
allocation of powers and functions to and between these categories. The powers
and functions of the three levels have become more variable and have created a
number of challenges to some municipalities.
 Local Government Municipal Systems Act (Act No 32) of 2000 provides for
systems of internal operations of municipalities to address the objectives of local
government, i.e. infrastructure for municipal services, community participation
and integrated development.
 The Municipal Infrastructure Investment Framework (MIIF) proposes
appropriate levels of service in order to achieve affordable infrastructure
investment plans within the financial resources of each municipality.
 The Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG) consolidates a number of separate
sectoral grants under one administration. Sectoral components to the MIG do
remain and they vary according to actual service deficiencies, but municipalities
can prioritise the use of MIG funding to fit their own roll-out plans.
 Other legislation includes the Municipal Finance Management Act (2003) and
Property Rates Act (2004), which provide guidance to improve the management
of finances and property revenues in municipalities.
7 Key role players in water and sanitation management
The following organisations are involved in water and sanitation services
management in South Africa:
 The Department of Water and Sanitation is primarily responsible for the
development and implementation of of policy which governs the water sector.
It focues on making a positive impact on the country and its people for
sustainable development. Other national government departments and

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provincial government also play an important role in supporting the water
sector.
 Municipalities operate some local water resource infrastructure (such as
dams and boreholes) and bulk water supply schemes, supply water and
sanitation to consumers (households, businesses and industries) and operate
wastewater collection and treatment systems. Most water services
infrastructure is located in, and under the management of, municipalities,
except for the bulk services provided by water boards. According to SALGA
(2014/15) and COGTA(2014/15), the increasing evidence of water supply and
sanitation backlogs in South Africa is ascribed to, amongst others, the
following:
 Weak governance.
 Disconnect between national budgets and requirements for water and
sanitation financing.
 Lack of finance to meet investment requirements as a result of fragile
municipalities.
 Inappropriate financing and pricing arrangements.
 Weak monitoring and evaluation
 Slow pace of decentralization, particularly in relation to empowering local
governments financially, in implementing water and sanitation
interventions.
 Lack of better accountability and responsiveness to communities
It is important to note that failure of a municipality to achieve Blue Drop status
does not mean that the municipality does not comply with drinking water
standards. However, those municipalities with higher Blue Drop status
achieved better overall sustained water quality. The assessment yielded
encouraging results - a nationwide average of 93% for complying with the
microbiological limits of the national standards for drinking water quality.
However, the process also indicated that there are areas in South Africa that
require urgent interventions.

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 Government-owned water boards currently operate some water resource
infrastructure, bulk potable water supply schemes (selling to municipalities
and industries), some retail water infrastructure and some wastewater
systems. In general, infrastructure managed by water boards is in better
condition than that of the municipalities. Most water boards are empowered to
raise the funds they require to operate and maintain their systems through
tariffs charged for water sold to municipal and industrial clients. Income can
also be used to service debt raised to build new infrastructure for future
demand. Water boards are performing well because they have highly-skilled
municipal officials, and therefore the capabilities and the skills to manage their
complex powers, functions and responsibilities. South Africa has 12 Water
Boards that supply a total bulk potable water volume of approximately 2.46
billion m3/annum, (some 57% of the total domestic supply), have a total fixed
asset value of R19.6 billion and a total operating cost of R5.6 billion per
annum. Water Boards supply potable water to 28 million people (just over half
the country’s population), however they have a supply footprint which could
reach 39 million people, (which represents approximately 11790 communities,
including several large industries). The design capacity of their collective
water treatment works is 3.1 billion m3/annum, which at the current level of
supply is an average utilization of 79%. Some water boards have already
reached their total design water supply capacity and major capital
programmes are needed to upgrade existing schemes and build new regional
bulk infrastructure. Not all municipalities depend on Water Boards for regional
bulk water supply infrastructure, but can do so as long as they operate within
the norms and standards of the Water Services Act, National Water Act and
related regulations and strategies. Water Boards distribute raw and potable
water across vast distances to multiple users (via regional water supply
schemes). This role is mandated and fully controlled by the Minister of DWA.
The Water Services Act added new responsibilities, in that Water Boards or
any other water service providers must be formally appointed by the recipient
municipalities to provide such services, where required. Water boards appoint
private companies to manage components/sections of its services. As a result
of this spread of ownership, little nationally-aggregated information is

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available for the state of this infrastructure, its age, condition and spare
capacity.
 Community-based organisations run some small water schemes in rural
areas.
 Publicly or privately owned companies provide some water services. For
example, Johannesburg Water is a water utility wholly owned by the City of
Johannesburg. The direct involvement of privately owned companies in the
operation of water services in South Africa has been limited to date. Where
this has occurred, for example, the Dolphin Coast and Nelspruit concessions,
the ownership of the water services assets has remained in public hands.
 Other role-players include any organisation providing water services, all
consumers and households using water services, all employees in these
organisations and their related representative structures, education and
training institutions, professional bodies, contractors, non-government
organisations, the manufacturing industry and other organisations involved in
supporting activities such as research and development, and training and
education.
8 Water services delivery targets
8.1 Basic Water and Sanitation Targets
South Africa comes from a history of separate development which has resulted in
many rural areas not having access to basic water supply and sanitation services. A
dedicated Basic Services Development Programme initiated in 1994 is eradicating
the historic backlogs according to specific targets:
 All people in South Africa have access to a functioning basic water supply
facility by 2014.
 All people in South Africa have access to a functioning basic sanitation facility
by 2014. This was partially achieved and it was concurrently running with
MDGs which is the successor of the basic water and sanitation targets.

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8.2 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
South Africa has committed itself to international declarations on sustainable water
services development, including the “Earth Summit” in Rio (1992), the UN General
Assembly resolution on MDGs (2000) and the World Summit on Sustainable
Development in Johannesburg (2002). The water services related MDGs are:
 To halve the proportion of people not having sustainable access to safe
drinking water by 2015 using 1994 as a base year. This goal was achieved in
2005.
 To halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to a basic
sanitation service using 1994 as a base year. This goal was achieved in 2008
hence leading to the development of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
8.3 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The Rio+20 conferences (the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development) in Rio de Janeiro, June 2012, galvanized a process to develop a new
set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which will carry on the momentum
generated by the MDGs and fit into a global development framework beyond 2015.
In the interest of creating a new, people-centered, development agenda, a global
consultation was conducted online and offline at national and international levels.
Civil society organizations, citizens, scientists, academics, and the private sector
from around the world were all actively engaged in the process. Activities included
thematic and national consultations, and the My World survey led by the United
Nations Development Group. Specialized panels were also held and provided
ground to facilitate intergovernmental discussions. The UN Secretary General
presented a synthesis of the results of these consultation processes.
In July 2014, the UN General Assembly Open Working Group (OWG) proposed a
document containing 17 goals to be put forward for the General Assembly’s approval
in September 2015. This document set the ground for the new SDGs and the global
development agenda spanning from 2015 - 2030.

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Figure 1: Sustaible development goals

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Table 1: Sustainable development goals
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Goal 1
End poverty in all its forms everywhere
Goal 2
End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture
Goal 3
Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Goal 4
Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long learning
opportunities for all
Goal 5
Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Goal 6
Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
Goal 7
Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all
Goal 8
Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment, and decent work for all
Goal 9
Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and
foster innovation
Goal 10
Reduce inequality within and among countries
Goal 11
Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
Goal 12
Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Goal 13
Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Goal 14
Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for
sustainable development
Goal 15
Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt
biodiversity loss
Goal 16
Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at
all levels
Goal 17
Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development
Water and sanitation targets feature under Goal 6 of SDG that advocate for the
ensured availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all as
indicated by the enumerated targets which are mentioned below:

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Targets
6.1: By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking
water for all
6.2: By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for
all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and
girls and those in vulnerable situations
6.3: By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and
minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of
untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
6.4: By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and
ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity
and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity
6.5: By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels,
including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
6.6: By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains,
forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
6.a: By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to
developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes,
including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment,
recycling and reuse technologies
6.b: Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water
and sanitation management.
9 State of water and sanitation infrastructure
Water services refer to water supply and sanitation services and include regional
water schemes, local water schemes, on-site sanitation and the collection and
treatment of wastewater. In 2001, there were 44.8 million people living in South
Africa, all of whom use domestic water services of some kind, but about 11.2 million
people (25%) did not have access to adequate water services and 18.1 million
people (41%) did not have adequate sanitation services. Water and wastewater
services are also essential for businesses and industries and efficient provision of

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these services can help to promote economic development and the eradication of
poverty.
South Africa is generally well-endowed with water resources infrastructure and has
plans to maintain a good level of investment and improved management of the
scarce resource. Due to the dispersed and decentralised nature of municipal water
services, substantive data is scarce on the condition of infrastructure assets, but the
indications are that they are not in good shape outside the metropolitan and other
large urban areas.
Water and sanitation facilities are generally subject to misuse, non-use or
breakdown; therefore the sustainability of water and sanitation systems is of critical
importance. Service quality is highly variable and data is sketchy. Monitoring of
service quality by the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs has only
started recently with the development and implementation of the "blue drop green
drop" Water Quality Regulation Strategy (DWAF, 2009). This strategy is dependent
on data submitted by all the municipalities in the country and, so far, 63% of
municipalities could not say whether they met drinking water quality standards or not
(DBSA, 2006).
The number and percentage of households with access to piped water had
increased since 2002, and that 13,2 million households had access to piped water in
2014 compared to 9,3 million in 2005. The increase in the percentage of households
with access to water coincided with a decline in the percentage of households who
paid for the piped water they received. The proportion of households who reported
paying for water has been declining steadily over the past decade, dropping from
61,9% in 2005 to only 43,7% in 2014. Less than two-thirds (61,4%) of households
rated the water services as ‘good’ in 2014. Although this is slightly higher than the
60,1% recorded in 2012, it is much lower than the 76,4% approval rating reported
in 2005. The percentage of users who rated water services as average increased
from 15,8% in 2005 to 31,8% in 2009, before it eventually declined to 26,4% in 2014.
The percentage of households that rated water services as ‘poor’ increased from
7,8% in 2005 to 12,2% in 2014 (Stats SA, 2015).

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Although 90% of South African households had access to piped water in 2014, only
78,5% of Eastern Cape households enjoyed such access. This situation does,
however, represent a substantial improvement from that of 2002 when only 56,3% of
households in this province had access to piped water. Nationally, 61,4% of
households rated the quality of water-related services they received as ‘good’.
Satisfaction has, however, been eroding steadily since 2005 when 76,4% of users
rated the services as good. An estimated 46,3% of households had access to piped
water in their dwellings in 2014. A further27% accessed water on site while 14%
relied on communal taps and 2,7% relied on neighbours’ taps. Although generally
households’ access to water in improving, 4,2% of households still had to fetch water
from rivers, streams, stagnant water pools and dams, wells and springs in 2014. This
is a decrease of morethan five percentage points from 9,5% of households that had
to access water from these sources in 2002 (Stats SA, 2015).
Nationally, the percentage of households with access to ‘RDP─standard’ sanitation
increased from 62,3% in 2002 to 79,5% in 2014. The majority of households in
Western Cape (94,6%) and Gauteng (90,9%) had access to adequate sanitation,
while about half those in Limpopo (54,0%) and just below two-thirds of those in
Mpumalanga (64,3%) had adequate access. Despite the improved access to RDP-
standard sanitation facilities, many households continue to be without any proper
sanitation facilities. Nationally, the percentage of households that continued to live
without proper sanitation facilities had been declining consistently between 2002 and
2014, decreasing from 12,3% to 4,9% during this period About one-quarter of
households were concerned by poor lighting and inadequate hygiene, while 22% felt
that their physical safeties were threatened when using the toilet. One-fifth
complained that there was no water to wash their hands after they had used the
toilet, and another 21% pointed to long waiting times (Stats SA, 2015).

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9.1 State of water supply infrastructure
9.1.1 Sources of water
An estimated 9.5 billion m3/annum is required to satisfy the total ecological reserve
requirement. Rivers, lakes, wetlands and estuaries are some of the key ecosystems
requiring protection. The human reserve is required to satisfy basic human needs by
securing a basic water supply, for people who are, or who will, in the reasonably
near future, be: (i) relying upon; (ii) taking water from; or (iii) being supplied from, the
relevant water resource. The current basic domestic water use component, (or 25
litres/person/day), translates to 490 million m3/annum or 11% of the total domestic
water use of 4.5 billion m3/annum. Many rural settlements still have insufficient water
resources to meet their basic water demands and further groundwater and surface
water resource developments are necessary. Without effective metering and billing,
consumption in urban and rural areas could rise to over 7 billion m3/annum resulting
in an increase in total water use of close on 20 billion m3/annum (DWA, 2015).
9.1.1.1 Dams and rivers
South Africa is highly dependent on storage reservoirs to maintain reliable water
supplies in times of water stress. Most (60%) of the large dams in Africa are situated
in South Africa and Zimbabwe. South Africa has more than 500 large dams, of which
50 have a storage capacity exceeding 100 million m3. The main purpose of dams in
South Africa is for irrigation and urban and industrial water supply. Total dam storage
is approximately two-thirds of mean annual runoff. A portion of this runoff – the
ecological Reserve – needs to remain in the rivers to ensure sufficient flow to
maintain the ecological health of the environment that is dependent on that
stream/river. The current provisional ecological Reserves average about 20% of total
river flow, but may vary between 12% and 30%, depending on the ecological needs
of each catchment and riverine environment (DWA, 2015).
Most of the country's major rivers have been dammed to provide water for the
increasing population; in most areas wetlands have been converted for other land-
use purposes, with more than 50% of the country's wetlands already lost; industrial
and domestic effluents are polluting the ground- and surface waters, and changes in

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habitat have affected the biotic diversity of freshwater ecosystems. Despite this
extensive degradation of the freshwater resources, an estimated overall increase in
demand of about 52% over the next 30 years is predicted (DWA, 2014).
The scarcity of water is compounded by pollution of the surface- and ground-water
resources. Typical pollutants include industrial effluents, domestic and commercial
sewage, acid mine drainage, agricultural runoff, and litter. Already in 1999, rivers in
the Western Cape, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and specifically the Vaal river had
major problems with total dissolved solids (TDS), and the main problem that has
affected water quality in the rivers of South Africa is eutrophication and faecal
pollution (DWS, 2011). This has not improved or been resolve (DWA, 2011).
The condition of dams and rivers is a concern as some rivers have unacceptably
high levels of pollution. This pollution comes from a number of sources; i.e. the
mining industry (in the form of “acid mine drainage”), poor municipal infrastructure
(not adequately treated waste water being discharged back into rivers), industrial
undertakings, informal settlements established in the flood zones alongside rivers
and agricultural activities (water, contaminated with fertilisers or pesticides, returns to
the rivers) (DWA, 2011).
Recent estimates also suggest that many of the large storage dams are
accumulating sediments at a pace that may make water provision at the current rate
of need unsustainable. Mainly due to neglect, many small farm dams have lost their
trapping capacity. Some have been breached and are releasing their sediment into
the downstream rivers flowing into the large storage dams. This will have a major
impact on the storage capacity of large dams in South Africa (DWA, 2011).
9.1.1.2 Boreholes
Groundwater is also extensively used in South Africa, particularly in the rural and
more arid areas. However, it is limited by the geology of the country, much of which
is hard rock, while large porous aquifers occur only in a few areas. Over 80% of
South Africa is underlain by relatively low-yielding, shallow, weathered and/or
fractured-rock aquifer systems. By contrast, appreciable quantities of groundwater

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can be abstracted at relatively high-rates from dolomitic and quartzitic aquifer
systems located in the northern and southern parts of the country, respectively, as
well as from a number of primary aquifers situated along the coastline (Woodford
et.al. 2006). The hard rock formations in South Africa, although rich in minerals, do
not have major groundwater aquifers which could be utilised on a national scale
(DWA, 2011).
South Africa’s groundwater resources currently supply about 13% of the total volume
of water consumed nationally. Although irrigation is the largest user of groundwater,
groundwater also provides water supply to more than 300 towns and smaller
settlements (Groundwater Division, 2015). South Africa uses between 2000 and
4000 million m3/a of the 10343,4 million m3/a of groundwater availability, which
decreases during drought conditions (DWA, 2011). Significant constraints on
increasing the abstraction of groundwater include inadequate water quality, which
may fail to meet user requirement due to excessive concentration of chloride, nitrate,
and other salts, all of which are costly to remove. Over-abstraction can also result in
adverse impacts on groundwater-dependent ecosystems, including estuaries,
wetlands, and springs (DEAT 2010).
The maximum quantity of groundwater that can be developed economically in South
Africa is estimated at about 6 billion/m³ a year. Some groundwater resources take a
long time to replenish. If too much groundwater is extracted too fast, it may become
depleted. In coastal areas, fresh water, being less dense, floats on salt water. Over
extraction of fresh water may allow salt water to replace it. Therefore, it is important
to decide how much water can be extracted from an aquifer before it is developed
(DWA, 2011).
Some coastal settlements use desalinated water to supplement their supplies during
short peak holiday periods. Desalination running costs are high, but it is cost-
effective for the short periods of high demand. Other coastal towns are stepping up
efforts to recycle waste water before discharging it into the sea, the largest initiative
being in Durban/eThekwini where a private sector company provides tertiary
treatment and supplies nearby industries.

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Most of the boreholes in South Africa are not maintained and the are not functional.
The desalination plants lack maintainance due to high running costs that is required.
The state of water supply infrastructure is still bad as it stands (DWA, 2011)
9.1.1.3 Springs
A spring is a visible outlet from a natural underground water system. Management
and protection of the whole system, including the unseen underground part, is
essential if the spring is to be used for water supply. The seepage area can be
identified by visual inspection of the topography, and the identification of plant
species associated with saturated ground conditions. The area can be fenced off,
surrounded by a hedge, or just left under natural bush and marsh vegetation.
Gardens and trees can be safely planted some distance downstream of the spring,
but not within the seepage area above the eye of the spring. The conservation of
wetlands or spring seepage areas is an extremely important and integral part of
spring water development and management. Generally, springs fall into three broad
categories. These are:
 Open springs:
Occurring as pools in open country. Some form of sump or central collection
point from which an outlet pipe can be led is all that is required. It may
sometimes be necessary to protect the eye of the spring.
 Closed springs:
The more common form of spring found in rolling or steep topography. In this
case a “spring chamber” is constructed around the eye of the spring,
completely enclosing it. Some form of manhole should be provided so that
desilting, routine maintenance, and inspection of the pipe intake can be
undertaken. It should not be the function of the spring chamber (cut-off wall,
spring box or V-box) to store water, since a rise in the chamber’s water level

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above the eye of the spring can result in the underground flow of water finding
additional outlets or eyes.
 Seepage field:
Where the spring has several eyes or seeps out over a large area. In this
case, infiltration trenches are dug and subsoil drains constructed. The drains
feed the spring water to a central collector pipe. Subsoil drains can be made
of stone, gravel, brushwood, tiles, river sand, slotted pipes, filter material or a
combination of the above. The outlet pipe from a protected spring is usually
fed to a storage tank, which keeps the water available for use. The storage
tank should have an overflow pipe that is below the level of the spring outlet in
the case of gravity feed.
9.1.1.4 Wells
Where the underground water does not emerge above the natural surface of the
ground, this water can be accessed by digging a well in the case of shallow depths,
or drilling a borehole when the water level is deep (i.e. greater than 15 m).
Hand-dug wells
A well is a shaft that is excavated vertically to a suitable depth below the free-
standing surface of the underground water. It is usually dug with hand tools, and
consists of a well head (the part visible above ground), a shaft section and the intake
(the area where water infiltrates). The well head’s construction will depend on local
conditions but must be built in a way that contributes to hygiene and cleanliness. The
well lining should extend above the ground surface, to prevent contaminated surface
water from running down into the well. For this reason, and to prevent subsidence,
the space between the lining and the side of the shaft should be backfilled and
compacted. A concrete apron, sloping away from the well, should preferably be cast
around the well.

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It is necessary to provide some form of lining to prevent the walls of the shaft
collapsing, both during and after construction. Types of linings used include:
 Reinforced concrete rings (caissons);
 Curved concrete blocks;
 Masonry (bricks, blocks or stone);
 Cast-in-situ ferrocement;
 Curved galvanised iron sections; and
 Wicker work (saplings, reeds, bamboo, etc).
The well must be sunk sufficiently deep below the free-standing surface of the
groundwater to form a sump in order to provide adequate water storage, to increase
the infiltration capacity into the well, and to accommodate seasonal fluctuations in
the depth of the water table. The larger the diameter of the hole, the faster it will
recharge, depending on the characteristics of the aquifer. Joints between the linings
can be sealed with mortar or bitumen above the water table, but left open below it.
Tube wells (also called bored wells)
In sandy soils, the hand-digging of wells is problematic and expensive since loose
sands tend to collapse. Therefore hand-digging in sandy soils is not recommended
as cheaper, more efficient methods are available. These methods include jetting,
hand-drilling and augering of small-diameter holes (50 to 500 mm). The holes are
lined using uPVC or mild steel casings to prevent collapse. The section below the
water table is fitted with some form of well screen to allow for filtration of the
groundwater while preventing the ingress of silt. As with hand-dug wells, the tube
well should be covered with a slab and equipped with a suitable pump and concrete
apron. Specially designed buckets that can fit into the tubes and be winched down to
the water level are still commonly used in tube wells. Certain designs of bucket
eliminate the need for handling and, hence, the possibility of polluting the well water
with germs, etc, from unwashed hands.

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9.1.1.5 Rainwater
Rainwater can be collected and stored. The harvesting of rainwater from roof runoff
can supplement domestic supplies, even in semi-arid areas. In particular, rainwater
can be harvested not only for domestic use, but also to provide water at remote
public institutions like schools and clinics, as well as resorts. Usually the limit is not
the amount of rainfall that can be collected, but the size of the storage tank that will
provide a sustained supply during periods of little or no rainfall. It should, however,
be considered a supplementary supply for non-potable use since it could pose a
health risk. Rainwater collection from roofs constructed from corrugated iron,
asbestos sheeting or tiles is simple. Guttering is available in asbestos cement,
galvanised iron, uPVC, plastic or aluminium. The guttering and downpipes can be
attached directly to the ends of rafters or trusses, and to fascia boards. Because the
first water to run off a roof can contain a significant amount of debris and dirt that has
accumulated on the roof or in the gutter, some mechanism (such as that in Figure
9.5) to discard the first flush is desirable. In addition, the inlet to the storage tank
should be protected with a gauze screen to keep out debris, as well as mosquitoes
and other insects or rodents. Materials commonly used for rainwater tanks include
corrugated iron, glass fibre, asbestos cement, highdensity polyethylene (all
prefabricated types) or ferrocement, concrete blocks, masonry, reinforced concrete,
and precast concrete rings (tank constructed in-situ). Subject to the availability of a
suitable mould, ferrocement construction is one of the most economical options at
present. Ferrocement construction without the use of a mould is also possible,
however. Larger quantities of rainwater may be collected from specially prepared
ground surfaces. Surface preparations to make the ground less permeable include
compaction and chemical treatment, or covering with impermeable materials such as
plastic, rubber, corrugated iron, bitumen or concrete. In the case of ground-level
rainwater harvesting, the storage tank will normally need to be located underground.
The catchment area should also be protected (fenced off) to minimise the risk of
possible faecal contamination.

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9.1.1.6 Fog harvesting
Fog harvesting is limited in application and confined to particular geographical areas.
A number of pilot projects are currently being undertaken at Cape Columbine,
Pampoenvlei, Lamberts Bay, Brand se Baai, Kalkbaken se Kop and Kleinsee. The
publication Fog harvesting along the west coast of South Africa: a feasibility study by
J. Olivier (Water SA, vol 28 no 4, October 2000) can be referred to in this regard.
The technique is fairly simple – nets spanned between poles. Fog condenses on the
nets and runs down into an open chute for collection in a storage facility.
9.1.2 Water treatment plants
9.1.2.1 Centralised purification systems
Many South Africans are regularly experiencing infrastructure failure such as
unreliable water supplies (National Budget Speech, 2015). A number of households
and communities have no access to water supply and adequate infrastructure (DWS
Annual Report, 2014/15). An estimated 46,3% of households had access to piped
water in their dwellings in 2014. A further 27% accessed water on site while 14%
relied on communal taps and 2,7% relied on neighbours’ taps. Although generally
households’ access to water improved, 4,1% of households still had to fetch water
from rivers, streams, stagnant water pools, dams, wells and springs in 2014. This is
a decrease of more than five percentage points from 9,5% of households that had to
access water from these sources in 2002 (based on the General Household Survey,
2014). Since 1994 access to water supply infrastructure in the sector has improved
from 53% to 91% of the population. This percentage includes all people that benefit
from access to infrastructure, including those that receive services below basic
supply levels (Stats SA, 2015, 2013). A demand-driven support needs to be provided
to water service authorities with an objective to achieve access to water for all. The
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry initiated the Blue Drop Certification
Programme (BDC) on 11 September 2008. Blue drop status is indicative of a
municipality and water services provider`s efficacy with regards to overall
management of drinking water quality.

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9.1.2.1 Point of Use treatment systems
Water softners (water conditioner)
Contain Resin beads that absorb (remove) calcium and magnesium. These two
elements are the main elements that constitute hard water, depending on the quantiy
of these elements in water determines how hard the water is. Once they have been
removed, you now have soft water. Hardness is basicaly the measurment of water to
thick fluid transistion. The size of the water softner depends on the amount of these
two elements and the flow rate you require. The resin in water softners last
aproximitaley 5 to 7 years. Once the resin has been fully saturated. The resin has to
be regenerated (washed) this done with corse salt (brine) regeneration is about 1
hour long. This will regenrate the resin for normal use again. The salt container or
brine tank needs to be topped up from time to time. At least 2 bars of pressure is
required for this unit to operate eficiently. Automatic and manual vessels are
available.
Carbon filters
Used mainly for chlorine removal and other organic gases and to clear up the taste
of water. CAUTION: bacteria breeds very well in carbon. If you are using carbon in a
chlorine free system eg using carbon to clear up the taste of a borehole you will have
more of a chance of bacteria build up. Solution use uv light. once carbon has been
saturated the media must be replace. Carbon media has quite a large life span
espcially if mixed with kdf. Change of media is dependant on flow and chlorine
concentration. Large carbon filters still need to be backwash to clear sediment.
Sand filters
Is used mainly for the removal of sediment from water. Depending on the size of
your sand filter, flow rate and how much sediment is in the water. Will give you the
intervals to backwash your sand filter. Normally the water flow comes to a stand still
once unit is block. Automatic and manual sand filters are available. Manual sand
filter are normally pool sandfilters

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UV Lights
Kills 99.9 percent of all known harmfull bacteria is very efficient. The water for
treatment needs to be clean water not murky. The uv light cannot penetrate dirty
water and will not work efficently. Your flow rate needs to be worked out so as to
calculate maximum light contact time with water. If the water passes over the light to
quickly it will not be effective. Different uv lights sizes are available for large flows.
Lamp has a life span of aprroximatly 2 years. The unit needs to be installed correctly
so water dose not drain out of unit when there is no flow. Heat damage may occur if
installed incorectly. Uv lamp needs 2 mins warm up time before it is fully effictive is
best if unit remains turned on at all times. Uv light needs to be installed as close to
water outlet as possible so there is lees chance of bacteria getting through the
system. Uv light kills on contact only.
Ozone
Kills 99.9 percent of known harmful bacteria. Extremily effective. Can be costly.
Ozone is a toxic gas and should be removed at your last water outlet by a carbon
filter. Ozone machines create ozone bubbles in water that kill off the bacteria. Can
be used in dirty water muddy water. Bubbles must be distributed correctly for
maximum effectivness. Bubbles can travel along your pipes to kill bacteria futher
along the system. If not fitted correctly bacteria will get through. Ozone production
dependant on size of machine and flow rate
9.1.2.1 Packaged plants treatment systems
Package water treatment plants (see glossary) for smaller communities in rural areas
have potential and could fulfil the need for potable water. Attention should, however,
be given to operation and maintenance requirements as well as to backup from
suppliers.
9.1.3 Water distribution networks
A basic water supply service refers to the infrastructure necessary to supply 25 litres
of potable water per person per day from a source within 200m of a household and
with a minimum flow of 10 litres per minute (in the case of communal water points) or

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6 000 litres of potable water supplied per formal connection per month (in the case of
house connections). A source which separates the delivery of drinking water from
potential contamination, such as a piped supply or a protected well or spring, is
deemed to be “safe”. “Access” generally refers to a household supply of 20 litres
that can be fetched within a 30 minute round trip, a distance of about 1 km. In South
Africa “access” means a household supply of 25 litres of potable water per person
per day within 200m of any given household.
As indicated by the Strategic Framework for Water Services, it is the responsibility of
a Water Services Authority to ensure that adequate and appropriate investments are
made to ensure the progressive realisation of the right of all people in its area of
jurisdiction to receive at least a basic level of water and sanitation services. This is
called the universal service obligation (DWS, 2015). The meeting of universal service
obligations requires that all South Africans have access to at least a basic water
supply. Each South African must therefore, have access to at least:
 a basic water supply facility;
 the sustainable operation of the facility (available for at least 350 days per year
and not interrupted for more than 48 consecutive hours per incident; and
 the communication of good water-use, hygiene and related practices (StatsSA,
2015).
In 1994, only about 59 per cent of South Africa’s population had access to water
supply infrastructure. This meant that about 15.9 million people had no access to
basic water supply. Based on the Census 2001 and the Community Survey 2007
results, The province with the lowest percentage of access is Eastern Cape (70.4 per
cent), followed by KwaZulu-Natal (79.4 per cent) and Limpopo (83.6 per cent).
However, these three provinces made the most progress in percentage terms from
2001 to 2007, where access percentage in the Eastern Cape increased by 7.2 per
cent, KwaZulu-Natal by 6.9 per cent and Limpopo by 5.5 per cent, compared to
Western Cape, which increased by 0.6 per cent and Gauteng, which increased by
0.8 per cent. The Department of Water Sanitation reports in its 2009/10 annual
report that overall access to water supply infrastructure has since increased to 97
per cent. Currently, about 1.65 million people have no access to water infrastructure,
while 1.98 million people have access to infrastructure that is below minimum

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standards. The current backlog is therefore estimated at 3.63 million people as at
March 2010. Based on the availability of funding, backlog eradication targets for
2010/11 have been set at 1.5 million people per year or 390 000 households, which
suggests that South Africa have achieved its Millennium Development Goals in
relation to access to water (SALGA, 2015).
9.2 State of Sanitation Infrastructure
According to the 2016 National sanitation Policy, basic sanitation is defined, in
accordance with the minimum acceptable basic level of sanitation, as appropriate
health and hygiene awareness and behaviour; the lowest cost, appropriate system
for disposing of human excreta, household waste water, grey water, which considers
resource constraints, is acceptable and affordable to the users, safe including for
children, hygienic and easily accessible and which does not have an unacceptable
impact on the environment; and a toilet and hand washing facility for each
household. It ensures clean living environment at a household and neighbourhood
levels, including supervision of defecation practices of small children (Draft National
Sanitation Policy, 2016).
9.2.1 Toilets
According to the DWS Annual Report (2014/15), approximately 2,2 million
househols, out of the 14,5 million households in South Africa, are experiencing a low
basic level of sanitation or inadequate level thereof. Most of the citizens of South
Africa, especially those living in informal settlements, use bucket sanitation systems,
estimated number being 32000 systems (DWS, 2014/15). Nationally, the percentage
of households that continued to live without proper sanitation facilities had been
declining consistently between 2002 and 2014, decreasing from 12,3% to 4,9%
during this period. The most rapid decline over this period was observed in Eastern
Cape (-28,3%), Limpopo (-15,1%), Free State (-9,3%) and Northern Cape (-8,2%).
Scores of households in Northern Cape (9,1%), Eastern Cape (8,5%), Free State
(7,9%) and Mpumalanga (7,1%) remained without any sanitation facilities in 2014
(StatsSA, 2015).

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In recognition of its critical importance, the right to basic services is enshrined in
South Africa’s Constitution. In 2001, government went further by instituting the Free
Basic Services Policy, committing to providing free services to indigent households.
Basic services include water (6 kilolitres of water per household per month within
200m of the household), sanitation (a Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) sanitation
facility), solid waste management and electricity (50 kWh per month). Since 2006,
the public profile of deteriorating or dysfunctional infrastructure has increased
significantly, leaving some owners highly sensitive to criticism and making data
collection for this report more problematic (StatsSA, 2015).
9.2.2 Sewer systems
There is also a positive relationship between buildings, infrastructure and human
well-being. Well-designed and maintained public buildings and infrastructure
contribute very significantly to good social relationships and human well-being.
Decrepitude and shabbiness have the opposite effect since they are affecting the
performance of sanitation infrastructure. In the case of critical social infrastructure,
such as public schools, hospitals and clinics, infrastructural quality has been shown
to have a proven positive effect on the impact of the service upon its users. In short,
good infrastructure improves the quality and length of human life: a fact
acknowledged by the medical fraternity (General Household Survey, 2014).
9.2.3 Wastewater treatment plant
On the other hand, in the past year the water services sector has received close
attention in political circles, the media, and the public domain. The sterling efforts of
the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) in undertaking the Blue Drop and
Green Drop analysis processes, and releasing the reports to the public, have set a
good example to the leaders of other infrastructure sectors and rightly, have been
highly praised. The critical importance of the local government sphere, with its
considerable service delivery and infrastructural responsibilities has been recognised
by national government, as has the need to overhaul many municipalities. Large
portion of money has also being pumped to infrastructure and wastewater treatment

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10 Factor the influence the provision of water services
A range of external and internal factors impact on the ability of municipalities to
provide the water services function. These include:
10.1 Non-revenue water
Non-revenue water represents the level of losses or unauthorised use from a water
supply scheme. It is defined as the volume of water for which no income is received
by the water services provider. In South Africa, non-revenue water is estimated to be
around 35 per cent of the water supplied. This estimate is informed mainly by
information supplied by metros and other large municipalities. Nonrevenue water
may even be higher in rural municipalities, due to the maintenance backlogs that
exist in these municipalities. Free basic water is regarded as revenue water charged
at a zero rate and is therefore not included in the calculation of non-revenue water.
The calculation also excludes non-payment of accounts as these constitute water
that is billed for. Although South Africa’s nonrevenue water is lower than that of other
developing countries, much scope still exists for improving operating efficiency. The
primary concern is with water losses due to poor maintenance, inaccurate or
incomplete billing and water theft. Municipalities are expected to develop a
comprehensive water conservation and water demand management strategy which
provides strategic direction to reduce non-revenue water. Included in the strategy,
could be programmes for leak detection and repairs, passive leakage control,
consumer meter audit and management, water use efficiency education and
awareness, water and sewer network information management, water audits and
determination of water balance for each of the water network in the supply area. The
strategy should also aim at implementing internationally accepted water balance
model developed by International Water Association (IWA) (DWA, 2011).
10.2 Maintenance of existing infrastructure
There has been under-investment in the maintenance and refurbishment of
infrastructure, which is evident in the number of service delivery failures across the
country today. In the water sector, water quality is an important indicator of the
performance of a water treatment plant. If the quality of water entering a reticulation

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system is poor, it usually indicates that there are operational problems with the
treatment plants, either in the forms of plant breakdowns, poor maintenance or
delayed maintenance, and plants operating at above their build capacities. The Blue
Drop system implemented by the Department of Water Affairs in 2008 demonstrates
clearly the extent of the maintenance challenges in South Africa. The high volume of
technical water losses, due to pipe bursts, leakages, and so on, also results in
substantial revenue losses for municipalities – revenue which could have been used
for further maintenance. This infrastructure problem is further compounded by the
fact that many municipalities, especially the smaller and more rural municipalities, do
not manage their assets strategically. They are often unaware of what assets they
have, where those assets are located, how old those assets may be and what
investments are required to extend the useful life of these assets. Without this
information, it is almost impossible to determine the investment needs required. The
development of an asset register is also a costly exercise, as many municipalities
outsource this function as they do not having the requisite in house capacity. As a
result of funding constraints, this exercise is often deferred or completed through a
phased approach. Municipalities generally allocate approximately 5 to 12 per cent of
their annual operating budgets for repairs and maintenance. However, these are
budgeted figures. Information on the actual repairs andmaintenance spend by
municipalities per asset class is currently not available (DWA, 2011).
10.3 Possible reforms to South Africa’s water services sector
The problems that the water services sector faces are similar to the problems
experienced in the electricity sector. Many smaller municipalities do not have the
necessary economies of scale, skills and specialisation to provide a water services
function efficiently and effectively. The Department of Water Affairs is currently
supporting a number of institutional reform investigations that are aimed at advising
water services authorities (municipalities) on the most appropriate institutional
options applicable for that service provision area. Three areas in which reform
investigations are currently taking place, are Central Eastern Cape, Western
Highveld (Mpumalanga) and Southern Free State. The department is also exploring
the establishment of an independent regulator for water to improve overall efficiency

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and effectiveness of water provision, and to ensure appropriate price setting at each
stage of the water cycle (DWA, 2011).
10.4 Impacts of climate change
While it is difficult to quantify and cost the likely impact of climate change on the
country’s water system, it is acknowledged that these possible climate change
impacts complicate the planning for future water supplies and investment needs. The
most likely scenario is that climate change will reduce water availability, though
these effects will be unevenly distributed across the country. In general, climate
change is likely to lead to weather events that are more intense and variable
compared to past patterns, for example, sudden high volumes of rainfall leading to
flooding, in addition to severe droughts in other areas. Increased variability in rainfall
patterns will result in less reliable stream flows, which will consequently lead to an
increase in the unit cost of water from dams. This cost will need to be passed
through the water value chain, which will ultimately result in increases in consumer
tariffs. Climate change also presents challenges to water infrastructure. More
extreme wetting and drying cycles causes greater soil movement resulting in water
and sewerage pipes being more prone to cracking, resulting in a greater need for
rehabilitation and replacement of this infrastructure (DWA, 2011).
10.5 Acid mine drainage
Acid mine drainage refers to the outflow of acidic water from disused mines. In 2010,
several warnings issued by environmentalists stated that South Africa could face a
potential water pollution crisis leading to health problems as a result of spillage from
acid mine drainage. These warnings focused on the Gauteng gold fields, but acid
mine drainage has also been reported in the Mpumulanga and KwaZulu- Natal coal
fields, and even the O’Kiep copper district in Northern Cape. In response to these
concerns, an inter-ministerial task team was appointed in 2010 to determine the risk
that acid mine drainage poses to the environment and water quality. The task-team’s
report found that the flooding of mines and the subsequent spillage of acid mine
drainage can result in the contamination of shallow groundwater resources required
for agricultural and human consumption, cause geotechnical impacts such as the

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flooding of underground infrastructure in areas where water rises close to urban
areas, and lead to increased seismic activity that could have a localised effect on
property and infrastructure. It was also found that acid mine drainage does pose a
serious risk to the environment, with localised ecological impacts and regional
impacts on major river streams. The task-team’s recommendations have been
approved by Cabinet, and the 2011 Budget allocates R3.6 billion for water
infrastructure and services, part of which is for projects to deal with acid mine
drainage (DWA, 2011).
10.6 Skills shortage
The water sector is currently experiencing a severe shortage of critical skills -
qualified engineers, water scientists, technicians and artisans. This poses a risk to
the sector’s continued capacity to provide water services effectively. Research2
indicates that the civil engineering capacity (expressed as civil engineering
professionals per 100 000 people) in local government is too low to deliver, operate
and maintain local government infrastructure in a sustainable manner. Whereas in
1994, there were 20 engineers per 100 000 people, this has now dropped to 3 per
100 000 people, a ratio that is clearly indicative of a crisis (DWA, 2011).
10.7 Water availability
Issues relating to water availability and the shortage of water have already been
noted above. However, it is important to emphasise water is a public good and
therefore it is not just the responsibility of national or local government, but the
responsibility of the public to ensure that water is appropriately managed and
conserved (DWA, 2011).
10.8 Water quality
People and firms need access to water, but it is essential that the water being made
available for different uses meets the quality standards relevant to that use, either
human consumption, industrial purposes or for the maintenance of ecosystems.
Recognising the importance of adequate and clean water supplies throughout the

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world, participating countries at the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD) held in Johannesburg in 2002, agreed to:
 Intensify water pollution prevention to reduce health hazards and protect
ecosystems by introducing technologies for affordable sanitation and
industrial and domestic wastewater treatment, by mitigating the effects of
groundwater contamination and by establishing, at the national level,
monitoring systems and effective legal frameworks
 Adopt prevention and protection measures to promote sustainable water use
and to address water shortages.
Historically, South Africa’s tap water has been of a very high standard, but due to
problems in some areas, quality outside the metros is not always assured. The
Department of Water Affairs’ Blue Drop Report for 2009/10 shows that only 38 water
supply systems in 26 municipalities were awarded the highest blue drop status
certificate. Similarly, a green drop certification programme was launched to evaluate
the management of waste water systems. This assessment revealed that about 75
per cent of South Africa’s sewerage treatment works are not up to standard. Of the
852 waste water treatment plants, just over 400 could not be assessed. Of the
remainder, only 203 plants scored more than 50 per cent. In addition to the above
systems, the Department of Water Affairs has also developed a wastewater
discharge charge system that works on a ‘polluter pays’ principle. The aim is to
recover the costs associated with different wastewater treatment and water quality
management programmes and to provide incentives for large water users to treat
their waste in-house rather than discharging it untreated into a water resource. The
major sources of direct pollution include industrial effluent, domestic and commercial
sewerage, acid mine drainage, agricultural runoff and litter. These wastewater
charges will be payable by polluters who exceed certain pollution load standards
(DWA, 2011).
11 2010 SAICE report card
The water quality in the metropolitan areas is of good quality compared to that in the
rural areas. Sustainability problems are created by the pace at which construction of

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the new infrastructure is carried out. The 2010 SAICE report card emphasises on the
maintenance of the newly constructed infrastructure, as well as the already existing
infrastructure which is undergoing deterioration. In the 2010 SAICE report card, it
was highlighted that there is a great shortage of skilled personnel and officials (from
professionals to technicians and artisans at national and local levels), and still almost
no funding for the necessary maintenance of the infrastructure as cost recovery
remains a major obstacle. Below are the scores of water and sanitation as reflected
in the 2010 SAICE Report Card (SAICE, 2010).
Water
D+
for DWA
infrastructure
 Ageing bulk infrastructure, most already
reached end of useful life, requires
refurbishment or replacement.
 Large dams are developing capacity
problems and require urgent refurbishing.
 Serious concerns about funding for
maintenance.
 Farm dams are deteriorating fast because of
lack of maintenance.
 Pollution problems increased.
C+
for major urban
areas
 Major and ongoing strides in provision of
water since 1994, but focus on quantity, not
quality, made water services not sustainable.
 Water quality became serious problem
nationally. Blue Drop certification is
assisting in improving water quality
management in municipalities.
 Water wastage (leakage) is still too high.
Shortage of skilled personnel and officials.
 Increase in strikes in urban and rural areas –
an effort to force improvement in services.
 Financial mismanagement and fraud
increased.
D-
For all other areas
Sanitation
(including
waste
water)
C-
for major urban
areas
 Serious problems with management of many
waste water (sewage) treatment works.
Waste water leakage and spillage, especially
into major rivers, are still too high. Many
anecdotal accounts support low grading for
sanitation.
 Frequent problems with on-site sanitation,
VIPs fill up, no capacity for emptying.
 Lack of buy-in from users.
 Inadequate operation and maintenance
capacity, shortage of skilled personnel.
 Lack of knowledge and inappropriate
solutions implemented.
 Sanitation backlog is increasing due to
unsustainable infrastructure.
E-
for all other areas

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12 Proposed SAICE Report Card for 2016
The South African large rural population is in great demand of sanitation, or rather
improved sanitation and quality water. The provision of improved sanitation to the
rural areas is still at very low percentage. As per the 2015 Revised MDG, “about 50
per cent of people living in rural areas lack improved sanitation facilities, compared
to only 18 per cent of people in urban areas”. The provision of improved sanitation is
most practised towards the urban population.
The continuous use of low quality materials in the development of water
infrastructure and sanitation facilities is a major problem, as the infrastructure will not
even reach its design life’s end point, following no maintenance. In accordance with
the 2010 SAICE report card, the issue of maintenance of infrastructure was also
discussed, as well as the scarcity of well-trained people. Inappropriate measures are
also applied on the fixation of the damaged infrastructure and this leads to almost
total malfunction or breakdown of the infrastructure. It is now more than five years
since 2006 and the national government has still not achieved most of the goals set
in the water sector (i.e. water and sanitation). The issue of funding and adequate
planning at the national and provincial government in order to limit the above-
mentioned problems, amongst many, remain the core components. Below is the
proposed scoring for water and sanitation of South Africa in 2016 These scores are
based on a desktop literature review of existing data, reports and documentation, as
well as anecdotal evidence in the field.

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Water
D
for DWAF infrastructure
 Inferior infrastructure used
 Ageing bulk infrastructure, most already
reached end of useful life, requires
refurbishment or replacement.
 Large dams are developing capacity
problems and require urgent refurbishing.
 Serious concerns about funding for
maintenance.
 Farm dams are deteriorating fast because of
lack of maintenance.
 Pollution problems increased
C -
for major urban areas
 Water quality became serious problem
nationally. Blue Drop certification is assisting
in improving water quality management in
municipalities.
 Water wastage (leakage) is still too high,
example being at the Ekurhuleni area.
Shortage of skilled personnel and officials.
 Increase in strikes in urban and rural areas –
an effort to force improvement in services.
 Unreliable water availability in rural areas.
 The human need of access to safe drinking
water not taken into consideration.
 Financial mismanagement and fraud
increased
D -
For all other areas
Sanitation
(including
waste water)
D -
For DWS infrastructure
 There still is a great lack of refurbishment on
the existing sanitation infrastructure that has
undergone deterioration beyond regular
maintenance
 Usage of non-quality materials in building the
sanitation facilities, hence the facilities end
up not being able to sustain any possible
catastrophe
 Application of inadequate measures to
improve the functionality of the infrastructure
C
For major urban areas
 Employment of well-trained personnel who
can work in the construction and
development of sanitation facilities not highly
practiced
 Waste water (sewage) outbursts still
occurring on the streets of urban areas
 Filled-up toilet pits leading to serious
problems like contamination of groundwater
with pathogens and nitrate, as well as human
contraction of diseases.
 Inhabitants in some rural areas still do not
have access to safe or no sanitation at all,
and are highly exposed to waste water,
examples being the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu
Natal and Free State provinces
F
for all other areas

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13 Conclusions
Key features that distinguish the South African water and sanitation sector from other
countries are the following:
 The existence of an important institutional tier between the national and local
government in the form of water boards.
 A government commitment to high service standards and to high levels of
investment subsidies to achieve those standards.
 A policy of free basic water (6 kilolitres (cubic meters) of free water per month (40
litre/capita/day for a family of five or 25 litre/capita/day for a family of eight) and
free basic sanitation (government subsidy for at least a Ventilated Improved Pit
(VIP) toilet).
The key weaknesses in South Africa in the water sector are the following:
 Lack of attention to maintenance and sustainability.
 Relative neglect of sanitation issues.
 Government’s inability to sustain funding levels in the water sector.
 Lack of capacity and skills on all levels.
 Improper or lack of ahead planning
Most people located in the non-metropolitan areas do not have access to basic
sanitation services and as a result they struggle to live a dignified. The national
budget is revised every year and revenues are allocated under each programme, but
this has still made no positive outcome since there are many areas having no access
to sufficient water and sanitation services. Water storage and monitoring
infrastructure, as well as the water distribution and waste water treatment systems
are deteriorating and therefore need to be refurbished or replaced. The increase in
provision of water and sanitation services has also placed a greater burden on water
supply and sanitation infrastructure. The lack of preventative maintenance and
inadequate investment in water services infrastructure particularly by municipalities
is leading to periodic and systematic failures which have resulted in serious pollution
incidents and problems with the quality of water in rivers and dams.
A number of common constraints became evident throughout documentation of
water supply and sanitation:
 Infrastructure delivery suffers as a result of institutional and capacity
constraints.
 Infrastructure assets need to be maintained, but there is insufficient capacity.

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 Inefficiency of operations and of regulatory mechanisms continues to hamper
rather than support infrastructure development.
 Environmental consequences remain paramount, especially in the energy,
transport and water sectors.
A number of municipalities are failing to achieve the key strategic goals which are
planning and economic development at the local level, and the delivery of
accessible, equitable and sustainable municipal services by the local government.
These goals are highly important as they represent municipal infrastructure services,
community development, governance and intergovernmental relations, and
corporate governance and finance and corporate services. Such issues result from
inadequate capacity of service providers who do not take responsibility of their
duties, and the lack of coordination between the local, provincial and national
government (SALGA, 2014/15)
The technical activities of municipalities are also dependent on good governance,
which is also suffering from a lack of appropriate experience. According to the
COGTA Annual Report (2014/15) a number of stubborn service delivery and
governance problems have been identified in municipalities. These priority areas
include:
 Huge service delivery and backlog challenges, e.g. housing, water and
sanitation.
 Poor communication and responses to communities
 Lack of evaluation and monitoring on projects in progress
 Fraud and corruption
 Poor financial management, e.g. negative audit opinions.
 Number of (violent) service delivery protests.
 Poor representation by ward councillors
 Intra - and inter-political party issues negatively affecting governance and
delivery.
 Inappropriate placements and skills for specific job positions
The national government of South Africa should make prioritization of improvement
of access to water and basic sanitation in those areas where there is greatest need.
Maintenance of the facilities should be paramount as, without maintenance, the
infrastructures will require replacement long before they have even reached the end
of their design life. This means that the provincial and national government should
commit in funding the local municipalities. The DWS’s current policies are not

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sufficient and need to be optimised in order to meet the requirements for sanitation,
nationwide, as the supply needs and demand reductions are not in balance. The
actual underlying problem is planning, rather not the actual state of water and
sanitation in South Africa. This should call for the local, provincial and national
government, together with the nation, to plan ahead of time, in order to avoid
predicaments. The affected South African nation should still take remedy measures
to reduce the high rate of water pollution- the very same water that is in demand, in
surface water bodies. In that way, planning to develop regional scheme projects
would be sufficient for water supply, thereby introducing proper sanitation
nationwide.
References
Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (COGTA), (2015).
Report on the Right to Access Sufficient Water and Decent Sanitation in South
Africa: 2014.
Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (COGTA), (2009).
Basic Services Publication: Comparative information on basic services. COGTA,
Pretoria.
Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). 2010. Grundwater
potential. Accessed online: http://soer.deat.gov.za/Themes.aspx?m=291
Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS), (2016). Draft national sanitation policy,
http://www.gpwonline.co.za/
Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) Ltd. (2006). The DBSA Infrastructure
Barometer. DBSA Ltd. Midrand, South Africa.
DWA, 2011, Local government budgets and expenditure review
DWA, 2015, Strategic overview of the water services sector in south africa 2015
version 4: 20 january 2015
DWAF (1997). White Paper on a National Water Policy of South Africa. Government
Printer: Pretoria, South Africa
South African Local Government Association (SALGA), (2015). SALGA Annual
Report 2014/15, www.salga.org.za, RP: 165/2015 ISBN: 978-0-621-43672-3.
Statistics South Africa (2014), General household survey