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Vol. 10(11), pp. 386-393, November 2016
DOI: 10.5897/AJEST2016.2181
Article Number: 8E0A0ED61099
ISSN 1996-0786
Copyright © 2016
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJEST
African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology
Review
Applicable international environmental impact
assessment laws for the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria
Hart Lawrence* and Orupabo Sika
Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Received 3 August, 2016; Accepted 7 September, 2016
The Niger Delta Area of Nigeria has undergone several alterations in her environment through various
projects development including oil and gas exploration, dredging and mining activities. These activities
have continued to impact the environment as relevant organs of the government deliberately down play
the relationship between environmental degradation/pollution and project developments. Though, there
are plethora of international laws and conventions, some domesticated in the country, the objectives of
these laws in relation to assessing the environmental impact (in this case the Niger Delta Environment)
as applicable to project developments will be brought to the fore. The specific objective hereto is to
appraise selected International Environmental laws and the Nigerian Environmental Impact Assessment
methodology in demonstrating how the Niger Delta Environment can be preserved for future
generation. This paper affirms that Environmental Impact Assessment laws are strictly predicated on
adherence of procedural requirements and not the requirement for proper utilization of resources, this
notwithstanding, provides a veritable tool for environmental sustainability if properly applied.
Key words: International law, Niger Delta, environment, impact assessment.
INTRODUCTION
The natural environmental process as the need arises,
needs to be altered from time to time to meet the comfort
of emerging cultures, societies, species, developers and
environmentalist. The point being made here is that such
activities should not adversely or irreversibly alter the
natural environmental process. This was corroborated by
the World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED, 1987), which highlighted basic requirements for
the sustainability of the Environment Development which
meets the needs of current generations without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. The concept supports strong economic
and social development, in particular for people with a
low standard of living. At the same time, it underlines the
importance of protecting the natural resource base and
the environment. Economic and social well-being cannot
be improved with measures that destroy the environment.
Intergenerational solidarity is also crucial: all
development has to take into account its impact on the
opportunities for future generations. It is estimated that in
*Corresponding author. E-mail: Lawrence.hart@ust.edu.ng.
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
one region alone in the Niger Delta, flaring is statistically
likely to cause 49 premature deaths, 5000 respiratory
illnesses among children, some 120,000 asthma attacks
and 8 additional cases of cancer each year
(Environmental Rights Action and the Climate Justice
Programme, 2009). This is more worrisome when it is
carried out in an uncontrolled approach, predicated by
the pursuit for profit by the foreign investors engaged in
developmental projects in the area, whereas these
developments must be sustainable by meeting the needs
and aspiration of the current generation without
compromising the ability to meet those of future
generations.
The adherence to standards, commencing from the
project conceptual stage to actual construction has being
an issue of concern. Though, there are applicable laws,
regulations and conventions promulgated and adopted in
Nigeria, the role these laws play in assessing the impact
(positive or negative) to the Niger Delta Environment
must be brought to the fore. This study will further x-ray
the import of applicable international environmental laws
midwifed by the United Nations and its relevant bodies
and in particular Nigeria environmental impact
assessment law of 1992 as it relates to the
developmental projects and other allied activities in the
Niger Delta.
The laws and regulations that are enacted and in
operation by relevant authorities in the Nigerian context
will be stated and reviewed as they are evoked for the
protection of the Nigerian natural environment. This is
anticipated to minimize and mitigate the deterioration of
health quality, destruction of flora and fauna, pollution of
water resources, destruction of traditional economic
infrastructures within communities accommodating these
super investments.
NIGER DELTA AREA
The Niger Delta, like most deltas in Africa, is a
storehouse of bio-diversity, food, energy and mineral
resources. As the world‟s third largest wetland, it is
characterized by significant biological diversity, to bulk of
proven oil reserves (culled from Niger Delta Development
Commission NDDC) Master Plan. This makes the region
a veritable economic and socio-cultural hub of human
activities in Nigeria. The region, situated in the southern
part of Nigeria and with the south by the Atlantic Ocean
and to the east by Cameroon occupies a surface area of
about 112,110 km2. It represents about 12% of Nigeria‟s
total surface area and its estimated population by 2005
was over 31 million persons (culled from NDDC Master
Plan). Abieyi (2005) posits that the region is also
endowed with potentials in fishery, forest products, large
clay deposits and a good climatic condition that supports
tourism and wild life. Further to this, is the thick
Hart and Orupabo 387
evergreen forest which houses diverse animals and plant
species and whose flora and fauna are dominated by
extensive mangrove belts and water hyacinth.
Regrettably, it has also become a source of intricate and
perhaps excruciating conflicts, contradictions,
environmental degradation and pollution from decades of
prolonged and persistent oil and gas exploration and
exploitation. The Niger Delta today is inundated with a
maze of pipelines, delivery lines, flow lines, canals and
slots, drilling sites, flare stations, geophysical prospecting
transects, etc., making it a frontline of adverse changes
and vulnerability (Opuaji, 2015). Peel (2009) corroborated
this fact that petroleum operations have caused massive
environmental pollution in the oil producing area of the
Niger Delta. Specifically, there have been pipeline
leakages, wells blow-outs and spillages which have had
severe effects on land, water resources, the micro-
climate and to residents. There have been unquantifiable
environmental degradation and hazards, loss of valuable
agricultural land and settlements to the burrow pits as
well as impoverishment of the people (Okoli, 2008). The
activities of these companies and their operations no
doubt impact on the environment with the attendant
alterations. In spite of the huge and damaging side effect
of the various project development in the area, relevant
organs of government have deliberately down play the
connection between environmental degradation and
pollution with project development (Powell, 1993). From
the foregoing, the region environmental challenges has
underscored the need for strong legal framework for
impact assessment.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA): AN
APPRAISAL
EIA attempts to determine the effects of modernization
processes with agriculture, industrialization, urbanization,
oil and other mineral exploration and exploitation,
transportation, housing pattern and cultural heritage on
the existing equilibrium relationship between the
surroundings and its inhabitants between project
conception and completion. The usual approach adopted
is to obtain ecological baseline data, field and laboratory
studies, interviews and consultations with
individuals/representatives of the communities of the
project area. Several techniques have become routine in
the EIA process (Usman, 2001). These techniques
include:
(1) Description of the natural environment with
biophysical, chemical, ecological,
hydrogeological/geological, socio-economic, health
status, etc.
(2) Description of the processes, projects, etc., being
proposed or already undertaken for a given environment.
388 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.
(3) The effects of “developmental” processes, projects
and related activities on the natural environment and
proximal areas of influence.
(4) The spatial temporal content of the study area (that is,
the environment) is a critical component in assessing
impacts including all the areas likely to be potentially
affected by the projects.
In order to bring in some order in the developmental
processes, an aspect of EIA has evolved laws,
regulations, treaties, ethics and standards that promotes
the philosophy that the environment is not an abstract
concept but represents a phenomena that must be
sustained for the quality of life of human beings, including
generations yet unborn. The existence of the general
obligation of states to ensure that “developmental” and
“modernization” activities within their jurisdiction and
control conform to these international environmental
regulations, laws, treaties, has resulted to the evolution
and promulgation of associated laws such as National
Environmental Standard and Regulations Enforcement
Agency (NESREA, 2007) relating to the EIA process.
NESREA is charged with the responsibility of enforcing
all the environmental laws, guidelines, policies, standards
and regulations in Nigeria. This is also in addition, to all
international agreements, protocols, conventions and
treaties on the environment to which Nigeria is a
signatory (Ojile 2009). However, the challenge has been
the lack of commitment by both relevant international
organizations and the government to ensure the true
applicability of these laws (Usman, 2001). There is no
doubt that several assessment reports are produced for
intended projects and associated exploitation activities
with promises of potential economic benefits to the host
community but not for the environment which guarantees
the sustainability for the future (Adigun and Oniemola,
2009). In summary, environmental impact assessment
attempts to determine the effects of developmental‟
projects on the existing equilibrium relationship between
the environment and its inhabitants.
INTERNATIONAL LAWS, POLICIES AND
REGULATIONS
Issues bordering on the protection of the environment
cuts across several areas and disciplines, including
political interests, economic interests, international
relationships as well as interests in human right laws,
international trade and international environment laws
(Abdulkadir and Imam, 2009). The pronouncement of the
Secretary General of the United Nations Organization,
Ban Ki Moon, that “the world is still waiting for a solution
that is long-term and economically viable”
(http/www.reuters.org), clearly indicates that the search
for a permanent solution remains on-going. In the light of
this development, the study of the impact of the activities
of man on the environment thus cuts across several
disciplines of contemporary academic exercise. This
underscores the major goal of international environmental
laws which seeks to develop universally negotiated
agreements that create effective international standards
for environmental protection (Michael, 1992).
In 1992, a United Nation conference on Environment
and Development (Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development, 31 ILM 874, 1992) which developed five
critical documents vi-za-vis Agenda 21, an action plan for
sustainable development in the 21st century, the Rio
declaration- principles on healthy environment and
equitable development, the convention on biodiversity,
the convention on climate change and a statement of
forest principles. These five documents provides the legal
and ethical framework for the preservation and impact
monitoring of the environment from a global perspective
(Ojile, 2006)
Much of contemporary international environmental law
deals with issues such as the sustainable use of fresh
waters, fisheries, forestry, and biological diversity
(endangered species) (UNEP, 2010). An isolated
developmental activity may have very little negative
environment impact within a more or less confined space,
e.g. regions, states, Local Government Areas (in the
Nigerian context), but the cumulative effects and
implications of such impacts may be much more adverse
as time goes on and the spatial influence of the impact
increases. For instance, sometime in the year 2012, the
flood events of relatively high return periods occurred in
the lower regions of the Niger-Delta river basin, (FEMA,
2012). Some experts (Orupabo and Hart, 2015) attributed
these events to the release of waters from dams located
at the upstream sections of the rivers Niger and Benue
systems. The environmental impacts of the released
waters from the dams were of little negative effect in
regions at the upstream sections of the river systems. As
shown in Figure 1, it was down-stream sections of these
river systems (the Niger Delta communities) that were
relatively negatively impacted upon and the spatial
influence greatly increased due to the topography of the
area.
In the same manner, phenomena such as oil spills as a
result of technical accidents or sabotage may have
increased influence away from the region of occurrence
of the incidence and residual negative impacts be more
severe in geospatial attributes and as time progresses.
That the Niger Delta region of Nigeria groans from
environmental degradation requires that certain
assumptions underlying the immense neglect of the
area‟s environment be confronted from a legal and ethical
grounds that are rooted in sustainable development
(Udoh, 2001).
It is on this basis that International Environmental Laws
have had too much in common with International Human
Hart and Orupabo 389
Figure 1. Effect of flood in parts of Nigeria (National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), 2012).
Rights Laws for the regulation of man‟s developmental
activities that may negatively impact the environment.
An outline of some international laws, regulations and
policies with their corresponding objectives and
applicability are reviewed in this work. They have been
severally applied to commonly identified developmental
projects for regulating and protection of environments in
other climes. These laws can promote the sustainability
of the Niger Delta environment and in particular has
implications from the immediate geo-spatial location of
the activity (community, Local Government Area (LGA),
state, region, etc.) to proximal communities at various
epochs (that is, in time and space).
There are also Nigerian national laws derived from
these international Laws. Between 1963 and 1990,
Nigeria became signatory to a number of international
laws, which led to the promulgation of these national laws
targeted at protecting the Nigerian environment and in
particular Niger Delta Region. They include but not
limited to the following, Mineral Oil (Safety) Regulations
Act 1963, Petroleum Regulations Act 1967, Oil in
Navigable Waters Act 1968, Oil Terminal Dues Act 1968,
Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulation Act 1969,
Petroleum Amendment Act 1973, Associate Gas
Reinjection Act 1979, and Harmful Wastes (Criminal
Provisions) Act No. 42 of 1988 (Eneh, 2010; Amukam,
1997).
Environmental impact assessment is carried out within
the framework of both local, national and international
environmental guidelines and regulations. Some of these
statutory international laws and regulations are
summarized as the following.
World Bank Guidelines on Environmental
Assessment (EA) 1991
The World Bank Operational Directive 4.00 of 1989
(Environmental Assessment) subsequently amended as
Operational Directive 4.01 in 1991 deals on
environmental impact assessment. EA is designed to be
a flexible process that makes environmental
considerations an integral part of project preparation and
allows environmental issues to be addressed in a timely
and cost effective way during project preparation and
implementation. The bank requires the execution of an
EA on a proposed industrial activity by a borrower as pre-
requisite before granting any financial assistance in form
of loans. These guidelines are published in the Bank‟s EA
source book Vols. 1-3 of 1991. The critical issues raised
are Biological Diversity, Coastal and Marine Resources
Management, Cultural Properties and Hazardous, and
Toxic Materials and international waterways.
International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) Guidelines 1996
The World Conservation Union statutes have undergone
several amendments from 1948 to the recent amendment
of 2015. It provides the list of threatened animals and
categorized them based on the relative risk of extinction;
in addition, list of species that cannot be assessed due to
insufficient data. This system is designed to determine
relative risk of extinction and the main purpose of the list
is to catalogue the species that are regarded as
threatened at the global level, that is, at risk of overall
extinction. It recognizes principally, that conservation of
nature and natural resources involves the preservation
and management of the living world, the natural
environment of humanity, and the earth‟s renewable
natural resources on which rest the foundation of human
civilization.
Convention on the conversation of migrating species
of wild animals (Bonn Convention, 1979)
This convention was adopted in 1979 and entered into
force on November 1, 1983. It is also known as the Bonn
390 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.
Convention, it recognizes that states must be the
protectors of migratory species that live within or pass
through their national jurisdictions, and aims to conserve
terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species
throughout their ranges. It is concerned with the
promotion of measures for the Conservation and
management of migrating species. Migratory species are
vulnerable to a wide range of threats, including habitat
shrinkage in breeding areas, excessive hunting along
migration routes, and degradation of their feeding
grounds.
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United
Nations and the principles of international law, the
sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to
their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to
ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do
not cause damage to the environment of other States or
of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. To this
end, the objectives of this convention, are to be pursued
in accordance with its relevant provisions. They include
the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of
its components and fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
Further to this, is an appropriate access to genetic
resources through proper transfer of relevant
technologies, using an appropriate funding approach.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites (or World Heritage
Convention, 1978)
This convention set aside areas of cultural and natural
heritage for protection. These are areas with outstanding
universal value from the aesthetic, scientific and
conservation point of view.
Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-Boundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
(1987)
It came into force in Nigeria in 1989. This convention
defines wastes that must be regulated and controlled in
its trans-boundary movement, to protect human and
environmental health against their harmful effects. It was
to protect by strict legal control, human health and
environment against adverse effect, which may result
from generation and management of hazardous waste.
One of the interesting attributes of this convention is that
if wastes are smuggled into the territory of one state
without the competent authority‟s consent, such waste
can be returned back to the country.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (1992)
This convention aims to protect climate system for
present and future generation. In 1992, the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) was adopted as the basis for a global
response to tackle the challenge posed by climate
change. With 195 parties, the convention enjoys near-
universal membership. The ultimate objective of the
convention is to stabilize greenhouse emission.
Geneva Conventions on the Continental Shelf and the
High Seas (1958)
This treaty was assented by Nigeria on May 28, 1971. It
contains rules designed to prevent or minimize oil
pollution arising from exploitation of the continental shelf
or its natural resources. It was used to mark the territory
of the seas and its internal waters.
The International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution of the Sea by oil, 1954 (amended severally
from 1958 through 1982 to 1992)
The international convention for the prevention of
pollution of the sea by oil is a product of the deliberations
of the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative
Organization (IMCO). This treaty was assented by
Nigeria on April 22, 1968. This regulation covers the
obligation of state as it relates to the pollution of the
marine environment from all polluting sources such as oil,
nuclear related activities, etc. This convention applies to
all ships, except tankers of under 150 tons gross tonnage
and other ships of under 500 tons gross tonnage. All
ships covered by this convention are to carry an oil
record book in a form specified in the annex, to be
completed whenever certain operations take place.
Convention for Cooperation in the Petroleum and
Development of the Marine and Coast Environments
of West and Central Africa, 1984
This treaty was ratified by Nigeria on August 5, 1984. It
has the objective of protecting the marine environment of
coastal zones and related internal waters falling within
the jurisdiction of the states of the West and Central
African region.
The United Nation Organization as an international
organization meant to maintain the efficacy and efficiency
Hart and Orupabo 391
Table 1. Applicable International Environmental Laws and Regulations.
S/N
Laws/Regulations
Effective
date
Summary of purpose
Responsible
organization
1.
The Endangered Species (Control of International
Trade and Traffic Act, No 11)
1985
Prohibits the hunting and Trading of
animal Species
UNO
2.
World Bank Guidelines on Environmental
Assessment (EA)
1991
Guidelines required to attract
support from World Bank
World Bank
3
International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) Guidelines
1996
Provision of list of threatened
animals and categorize them based
on the risk of extinction
UNO
4
Convention on the Conversation of Migrating
Species of Wild Animals (Bonn convention)
1979
Promoting measures for the
conservation and management of
migrating species
UNO
5
Convention on Biological Diversity
1992
It aims at conserving biological
diversity
UNEP
6
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites
1978
It sets aside areas of cultural and
natural heritage for protection
UNESCO
7
Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-
Boundary Movements of Hazardous wastes and
their Disposal
1987
It regulates and controls the trans-
boundary movement of wastes
UNEP
8
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change
1992
It aims at protecting the climate
system for present and future
generations
UNO
9
Geneva Conventions on the Continental Shelf and
the High Seas
1958
It is designed to minimize oil
pollution
UNO
10
Convention for Cooperation in the Petroleum and
Development of the Marine and Coast
Environments of West and Central Africa
1984
To Protect the marine environment
of coastal zones and related internal
waters
AU
of International law recognizes the sovereignty and
individuality of each state among the committee of
nations (Ajayi and Ikporokpor, 2002). The states have
exclusive jurisdictional control over its territory (that is, its
environment). It is to this extent that many conferences,
conventions, treaties and protocols were initiated to
protect the world environment.
From the foregoing, Table 1 shows the applicable
international laws and regulations as enunciated above. It
showed the effective date of the promulgation of these
laws, its purpose and responsible organizations.
However, majority of these laws were established
between 1985 and 1992. This period marked an increase
on the awareness and advocacy of the danger and
implication of certain activities on the environment
including the Niger Delta area of Nigeria. The Niger Delta
region of Nigeria is one area that epitomizes the
dereliction in its true sense owing to the uncaring attitude
of man to the environment. In the Niger Delta of Nigeria,
the exploitation of rich oil and gas deposits in the vast
swamps and the triangular-shaped coastal region,
through which the River Niger and its tributaries
discharge their waters into the Atlantic, has fast become
a tragic experience for the vast majority of the population
(Peel, 2005). The world body (United Nations) and its
agencies rose to the occasion through the adoption of
these relevant environmental laws. The Geneva
Convention of continental shelf and high seas of 1958
was the oldest. It was observed that the Organization of
African Unity (now African Union) has not done much in
392 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.
this regard as very few conventions and protocols geared
towards the preservation of the environment have been
adopted (Abdulkadir and Imam, 2009). This is despite the
enormous impact on the environment especially as
developing countries. International Environmental Laws
relating to impact assessment are strictly predicated on
the adherence of procedural requirements rather than
guidelines on the utilization and exploitation of
environmental resources. Douglas and Okonta summed
up this issue quoting a report submitted to the World
Conference of Indigenous Peoples on Environment and
Development during the Rio Earth Summit in June 1992,
by the kings, chiefs and community leaders of the Niger
Delta which states “Apart from air pollution from the oil
industries „emissions and flares day and night, producing
poisonous gases that are silently and systematically
wiping out vulnerable airborne biota and otherwise
endangering the life of plants, game and man himself, we
have widespread water pollution and soil and land
pollution that respectively result in the death of most
aquatic eggs and juvenile stages of life of fin-fish and
shell-fish and sensible animals (like oysters) on the land,
whilst on the other hand agricultural land contaminated
with oil spills become dangerous for farming, even where
they continue to produce any significant yields” (quoted in
Okonta and Douglas, 2001). Having reviewed the content
of some international environmental laws and agreeing
with Akintayo (2006); these laws are broad and extensive
as applicable to the Niger Delta area in Nigeria. The
African Charter on Human and People‟s Right
(Ratification and Enforcement) Act Cap 10, Article 24
succinctly states that “all peoples shall have the right to a
general satisfactory environment favourable to their
development. In view of the importance of these
international environmental laws and conventions as may
be applied to the Niger Delta of Nigeria, most of these
laws has not been ratified and domesticated by the
country (Charles, 1984). This has raised serious moral
and ethical questions about the Niger Delta Environment.
Further to this, the corpus of international laws and
conventions relating to the environment without the
capacity provisions detailing out necessary ingredients of
the subject matters makes it difficult to seek for justice
and remedies when the environment is abused.
CONCLUSION
Finally, environmental issues in the Niger Delta has
provoked considerable interest both nationally and
internationally particularly in the mid-1990s despite the
availability of relevant international laws on the
environment that are not strictly enforceable. The
environment of the Niger Delta should no longer be seen
as a mere object, but a co-subject with man‟s activities.
The region‟s environment has majorly been plagued by
extensive land degradation, water and air pollution mainly
through oil and gas related activities such as seismic
blasts, oil pipelines leakages, dredging, gas flaring and
effluent discharges driven by the various multinational
companies. In view of the net effect of these activities,
Awajiusuk (2010) asserts that the Niger Delta can be
seen as an environment cum ecosystem so mangled,
raped and denuded that the area has been labelled by
the most endangered delta in the world. However, the
much talked about UNEP report on the Ogoni (in Niger
Delta Region) environment clean up readily
demonstrated the implication of international
organizations intervening and bringing to the fore issues
of the human activities on the environment and its impact
assessment from the world view based on the relevant
international laws, regulations, policies, and guidelines.
Conflict of Interests
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
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