The Use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in the Environment and Ecology

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Chapter 34
The Use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in the
Environment and Ecology
İskender DÖLEK*, Vedat AVCI**
INTRODUCTION
There are various definitions of the environment in different disciplines. The
variety in the definitions of the environment does not solely stem from different
scientific approaches. It also stems from the qualitative and quantitative differences of
the elements which constitute the environment (Gülay et al., 2011). The word
environment is generally used for events out of organism (Ünder, 1996). Everything
which an organism takes place in and excludes the organism constitutes the external
environment of the organism. In a general definition, the environment is the whole
physical, chemical, biologic and social effects during a certain period of time that can
have a direct or indirect impact on human activities and the living immediately or
within a long period ((Erol, 2005, Güllü, 2007, Özcan, 2008, Gülay et al., 2011).
Ecology, on the other hand, has a much narrower scope compared to environment.
Derived from Greek words oikos (home or a place to live in) and logos (information),
ecology can be defined as a science field which analyzes the living and their
relationships with the environment (Muslu 2000). Therefore, the science of ecology
investigates houses, living places and environments of the all living. The environment
concept in this definition includes other animals, plants, climate and soil as well.
In conceptual terms, the environment is the whole of non-living and living
organisms including humanbeing as a fundamental element; physical, chemical,
biologic and social factors that affect all species and the behaviors of the living; natural,
economic and cultural values.
The living and non-living organisms form a dynamic system called ecosystem
based on a mutual matter exchange. As a living organism, humanbeing takes place
among the elements of these systems. The survival of humanbeing depends on the
presence of suitable food, shelter and other environmental conditions. Population
growth and industrial development bring adverse pressure on limited environmental
means and lead to change in the environment and extinction of plant and animal
communities. The extinction of a community due to adverse effects generally makes it
impossible to renew. It is inevitable for some species to completely extinct in case of
decreases in population number and severe deteriorations. Since decreasing or lost
species are the products of millions years of an evolutionary-ecology process, they
should be reckoned as irrevocable values (Şişli 1996). For that reason, a sustainable
environment approach is important. Sustainability consists of ecologic, social and
economic factors. These systems constitute fundamental pillars of society. The
sustainability of these factors shapes the future of a society (Kumler, 2009). Sustainable
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Muş Alparslan University. Education Faculty. Social Studies Education
** Assist. Prof. Dr., Bingol University. Faculty of Science and Letters. Dept. of Geography

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development is defined as planning today's and future life without jeopardizing needs
and development by fulfilling the needs of today's and future generations without
consuming natural resources through a balance between human and nature. What is
essential in sustainable development is to ensure economic development through a
planning to protect human health and natural balance without harming or completely
consuming resources (Ekici et al., 2009).
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENT
As an element of the environment, human both affects the environment and is
affected by it. All elements except for human on the earth constitute the environment
while human also takes place in other people's definitions of environment.
Relationships between human and the environment are more complex and challenging
compared to the relationship between non-living and living organisms in the
environment. Human is the living organism which affects the environment most with
dams, agricultural lands, cities. Human and the environment are inseparable.
Today, the relationship between human and the environment has gained a very
unique dimension. Considering this relationship within historical process, it can be seen
that while natural environment was once effective on human; now human is effective on
natural environment through civilization. In terms of environmental problems, human is
the leading factor which harms ecologic balance (Yavuz et al., 1983). The fundamental
environmental problems mostly stem from residing, manufacturing and consuming
habits of human which disturb natural balance. While a positive agricultural attitude
was developed towards the environment in the first civilizations, negative attitudes
increased erosion and deforestation. The relationship between land and humanbeing that
adopted a sedentary life has gained new dimensions and continuity by changing in time.
The cultivation started to pose various threats, particularly destroying vegetation
and erosion, on the environment (Demirtaş, 2007). In parallel with manufacturing, low
level of consumption prevented increase in environmental problems. In other words,
human's harm on the environment was on a level that can be dealt by the nature. Two
great cultural transformations, Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions brought a
different dimension to human-environment relationships (Miller, 2000). Along with
development in agriculture, trees were cut in forests, habitats were destroyed,
productive soil decreased due to erosion and desertification started. Industrial revolution
and increasing mechanization led to increase in need of raw material and the use of coal
led to air pollution. As a result human had to face with rapid population growth in
addition to great dimensions of increasing and varying environmental problems.
Although human is the reason of environmental problems, he is also the most
significant and the only element for the solution. In addition to the structure of
environment which includes very different elements and interdependent yet complex
relationships, varying and increasing environmental problems affect living conditions
and quality of human. Since environmental problems started to vary and gain a global
dimension, the tools to be used for the solutions of these problems must accelerate
decision-making process, ensure anticipation and offer the opportunity of evaluating
many different factors together. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which is a
part of geographical information sciences is used efficiently for different purposes by
the environment and ecology sciences in addition to many other disciplines.

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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
In parallel with rapid developments in technology within last 30 years, innovations
in computer technology have led to new study fields and changes in application area for
many science branches. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is a technology which
resulted from this development and started to be used by many science branches
(Kavzaoğlu et al., 2011). Geographical information systems (GIS) is an information
system developed to collect, input, store, interrogate spatial information (graphics and
feature) in computer environment, to conduct and scan spatial analyses and print them
in various formats (Aronoff, 1991).
GIS have a more common application opportunity thanks to advanced computer
and satellite technologies today. However, technical maps designed by John Snav in
1854 to reveal the source of cholera epidemics in London were the first examples of
GIS (Değerliyurt, 2015).
Basic functioning principle of GIS is
associating graphics (spatial) and feature
(graphic, non-spatial) data for a certain
geographical region and storing these data
in various layers, conducting analyses by
using these layers. It is possible to
conduct data processing, interrogations,
spatial analyses, scenario analyses and
various presentations about them through
GIS. It is possible to process, update and
transfer data in various environments and
add data to GIS from other environments.
Data production is also possible through
various analyses by using data in GIS.
Figure 1: Layer Logic in the Geographical
Information System (Dölek et.al., 2011).
Since all these processes are conducted in digital environment, data processes can
be carried out swiftly. A variety of spatial analyses can be conducted through GIS.
Multiple spatial analysis functions of GIS ensure to design and analyze various
scenarios by means of data structure. This feature of GIS makes it indispensable
element of spatial decision-support systems. Scenario analyses are among very efficient
methods in activities such as evaluation of especially natural disasters, environmental
effect or observation of time-related changes in systems.
GIS is a method having advantages for related subjects and a tool to fulfill a
purpose. In terms of this approach, GIS applications are not the target of studies, but
research methodology preferred to reach the real target.
Natural environment analyses can be conducted with GIS. GIS methodology can
be used to conduct projects on researching and analyzing features of natural
environment including atmosphere, earth and subterranean, using natural environment
and preventing risks derived from natural environment. Natural environment analyses
can be used for modeling
 concrete elements that are visible and can be monitored clearly;
 elements that cannot be monitored but have visible effects;
 elements that can be found through periodical controls and differ.

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Figure 2: Thematic maps designed through digital elevation model (DEM) Digital
Elavation Models (A), Slope (B), Topographic Wetness Index (C), Curvature (D) (Dölek,
2008).
The feature of GIS to describe events and phenomenon of the earth differs by each
discipline. In this respect, De By (2001) reports that an urban planner can analyze the

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development of a city, population growth and urban quality; a biologist can take better
precautions against long-term threats of population growth and monitor distribution of
species in various ecosystems; a natural disaster manager can reveal risk areas and take
necessary precautions; a geology engineer can detect earthquakes through rock
formation features and reveal the most suitable areas for new settlement.
GIS can acquire needed material by transferring data obtained through topographic
measurements, photographic methods, remote sensing, data collection via GPS, manual
digitalization of current maps, transfer of current databases and digitalization of data via
screening (Yomralıoğlu, 2005).
Digital elevation model (DEM) created through GIS is a 3-D raster data and
includes values of pixel latitude, longitude, and elevation from sea level. In this way,
some thematic maps of the land (slope, aspect, slope curvature, hill shading) can be
obtained and these maps can be used together (Figure 2).
GIS makes it possible to scan both humane and physical elements in 3D. The data
obtained in this way can be used as both vector-based and raster-based data.
The obtained visual material
shows a small model of earth with
geographical coordination and can
be used in various fields such as
ecologic activities, environmental
monitoring, constructional engine
ering and architectural activities,
mine search, 3-D urban mapping,
landscape planning, defense and
intelligence, command and control
(Abdul-Rahman Et.al., 2008). Maps
designed in GIS environment can be
stored in computer environment and
updated in time. In this way, data do
not outdate.
Figure 3: A more detailed 3D image including
contour line, rivers and buildings (Dölek et al.,
2011)
THE USE OF GIS IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY
Each discipline can interpret GIS in a unique way and use it in various ways in
related application areas. It is a fact that potential application areas of GIS are almost
infinite. Because, each element in the nature is about a position and has a geographical
coordination.
Kavzaoğlu (2011) reports that GIS can be efficiently used to create an
environmental information system, to manage and plan water resources, to analyze
coastal changes and risky zones, to design noise pollution maps, to manage and plan
solid waste and to design forest inventory maps and other activities related to the
environment.
In our day, geographical information systems are increasingly used in geographical
spatial and ecologic-based inventory, planning and management activities.
GIS has techniques and methods to detect, analyze, save, rearrange, model spatial
data digitally and to present them in alpha numerical or graphics. Apart from these
features, the important function of GIS is to help users detect complex and logical

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rational relations of non-geometrical data (Richter et al.,1997). This feature is very
important to turn complex phenomenal and spatial relations in ecologic studies into an
objective and measurement level (Miller et al., 2007).
Figure 5: The amount of dissolved oxygen in different zones of Lake Küçükçekmece
(İstanbul) (A). Distribution of the amount of dissolved oxygen (B).
GIS offers technical and scientific basis to conduct nature protection and rural
landscape activities (Vogel et al., 1996). Richet et al. (1997) summarizes the applica
tion fields of GIS in this sense as follows;
 Processing and interpreting digital images
 Detecting living spaces of species and biodiversity
 Protecting landscape structures (biotopes, land use, ecologic regions etc.)
 Detecting and monitoring valuable ecologic zones.
Thanks to advancement of hardware and software fields, GIS offers a high
application capacity in line with digital image interpretation methods (Ehlers, 2002).
Remote sensing and GIS data protection mutually complete each other by analyzing,
interrogating and presenting data consecutively. A GIS integrated with remote sensing
can be considered as the most significant holistic tool for the analysis, planning and
management of landscape now (Lang et al., 2007).
Figure 6: Images of oil spill on the Gulf of Mexico in 2007 obtained via remote sensing and
GIS (Kavzaoğlu et al., 2011).
GIS improves usability of data obtained via remote sensing. In addition, data
obtained via remote sensing can be used to detect actual environmental-ecologic

475
conditions in GIS database and to update them based on monitoring (Millet Et al.,
2007). GIS improves usability of data obtained via remote sensing.
Figure 7: Monitoring temporal changes in settlement and water resources in Marmara
region via remote sensing and GIS (Orhon, 2007).
Miller and Rogan (2007) repot that data obtained via GIS and remote sensing in
ecologic maps are merged in 4 different ways.
 Use of multiple data type of GIS in management
 Use of GIS analysis and application methods to manipulate and analyze remote
sensing data (affinity or reclassification)
 To obtain GIS data from remote sensing data
 Use of GIS data as a channeler in image processing analyses to obtain more
supplementary and reliable information.
Figure 8: The Irony of the reedy plant ecosystems and nature conservation areas (East
Anatolia).
CONCLUSION
The environment consists of many different elements. Very complex relations
between these elements constitute the environment. Main challenges for analyses on the

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environment result from various elements in the environment and their relationships
with each other which are not completely understood by human; and temporal and
spatial changes in these relationships.
GIS offers opportunity to conduct analyses with the purpose of creating new
spatial information by using current information and analyzing multiple data layers
together or individually. "Spatial Analysis" module of GIS which particularly includes
measurement, classification and overlaying methods can be easily used.
The research and modeling of natural and humane systems and the analysis of
changes in time can be efficiently conducted by means of remote sensing and
geographical information technologies together.
Raster data on broad areas can be obtained in a more cost-efficient way through
remote sensing technologies compared to conventional methods. Raster data can be
defined as input data to GIS databases and transformation of related data into desired
data forms for advanced level of analysis and modeling applications.
Remote sensing systems can collect data in different periods of time and thus it is
possible to monitor temporal changes on earth. In addition, remote sensing technologies
also ensure to detect biophysical parameters which have a significant importance to
evaluate and model environmental features such as object temperature, biomass and
height. In this sense, remote sensing data are significant resources to develop, update
and maintain GIS databases.
While a position-based problem can be solved through the functions of GIS,
another problem can be solved more easily though image processing techniques. For
that reason, dynamic integrated information systems including the use of both remote
sensing technologies and geographical information system will be an indispensable tool
to manage, analyze and scan a variety of datasets such as sustainable land management
together in the near future.
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